Download are used

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USEFUL BUT OFTEN
FORGOTTEN
from punctuation and nouns to
numbers, word problems and
discourse markers
PUNCTUATION
Commas are used:
- after long adverbial expressions (when, where) before the basic sentence:
During the late 1920s and early 1930s, the standard of living of
the workers was slowly improving.
BUT: At that time the standard of living of the workers was slowly improving.
- when adverbial expressions come between or inside parts of the basic sentence:
The standard of livingof the workers, during the late 1920s and early 1930s,
was steadily improving.
- to separate non-indentifying relative clause (=clauses giving more information):
President Andrew Johnson, who followed Lincoln, was extremely unpopular.
- after consequently, however, therefore at the beginning of the sentence:
It was cold. However, it was pleasant. OR It was cold; however, it was pleasant.
- to separate adjectives that say the same kind of thing:
a tall, impressive figure
a long, boring speech
His speech was long, detailed, boring and irrelevant.
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- to separate different things in a list:
The developing crisis affected manufacturers, distributors,
marketing organizations and banks.
- before and if the last item is long:
The developing crisis affected manufacturers, distributors, banks,
and major credit agencies.
- to introduce direct speech:
The Prime Minister said, “It is essential that we work together.” OR
The PM said: “The Government is doing everything possible…”
- after thousands and millions:
losses of £5,500,000
in decimal fractions full stops are used:
losses of £5.5m (= five and a half million pounds)
Commas are often used:
- in sentences with conjunctions, especially in longer sentences:
The situation changed noticeably for the worse after 1932,
when the export markets began to contract.
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BUT: The situation changed when the export markets began to contract.
Commas are not usually used:
- when adverbial expression come after the basic sentence:
The standard of living was slowly improving during the late 1930s.
- to separate a noun from the adjectives or other expressions that go with
it:
the mainly foreign labourers in the north-eastern regions
Commas are usually used:
- if we start with the conjunction:
When the export markets began to contract, the situation changed.
Commas are not used:
- after verbs of saying, thinking etc in indirect speech:
Many commentators declared that the economy was in deep trouble.
No one knew how serious the situation would become.
- before that:
They did not understand that the economic conditions that had existed earlier
had disappeared for good.
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Colons (:) are used
- to introduce details and explanations:
Manufacturing industry was in crisis: in particular, textiles
and shipbuilding.
British firms were no longer competitive: labour costs had priced them out
of the market.
Dashes are common:
- in informal writing, they can be used in the same way as colons, semi-colons
or brackets:
I really don’t know what we’re going to do - Joe’s out of work, and
there’s no money coming in.
Apostrophes are used:
- for contractions, possessives:
isn’t, doesn’t, won’t
John’s brother, my parents’ house, my children’s school,
my boss’s car, Dickens’ novels, Joe and Ann’s children
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NOUNS
-is
analysis
axis
basis
crisis
diagnosis
ellipsis
emphasis
hypothesis
parenthesis
synthesis
synopsis
thesis
FOREIGN PLURALS STILL USED & OTHERS
-es
analyses
axes
bases
crises
diagnoses
ellipses
emphases
hypotheses
parentheses
syntheses
synopses
theses
others
antenna
antennae
appendix
appendices
criterion
criteria
curriculum curricula
formula
formulae (or formulas)
nucleus
nuclei
phenomenon phenomena
schema
schemata
syllabus
syllabi (more often syllabuses)
radius
radii
stimulus
stimuli
remember:
The plural data and media are now often used with singular verbs.
The data are/is difficult to
interpret.
The media are/is too powerful.
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NUMBERS
A/one hundred...
A hundred, a thousand is less formal than one hundred...
One hundred is used if we wish to sound more precise:
It costs exactly one hundred.
One hundred is used before another number or inside a larger number:
1,300: one thousand, three hundred
$1.75: one dollar seventy-five
4,120: four thousand, one hundred and twenty
Dozen, hundred, thousand... have no –s after a number, few or several three
dozen eggs, twenty billion euros, a few hundred times, several thousand years
In other cases we use dozens (of), hundreds (of)...:
He’s done it hundreds of times.
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Fractions
5/8 five eighths 3/10 mile three tenths of a mile
Decimal fractions are written with full stops (“point”), not commas.
6.625 six point six two five
0.5 nought point five
Fractions between one and two are treated as plural
Dates
add 1 1/2 pounds of sugar
a mile is about 1.6 kilometres
We write and say dates as follows:
writing dates 3 June 2010 or June 3 2010
saying dates the third of June/June the third, two thousand and ten
Telephone and credit card numbers and similar numbers are usually said
one number at a time
5164933 five one six four nine three three (or ... double three)
40695 four oh (or... zero) six nine five
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VERB + ....?
Verb + object infinitive
Verb + infinitive
advise
encourage
invite
remind
warn
agree
decide
offer
promise
refuse
threaten
Examples: Jack encouraged me to Examples: She offered to give him a
look for a new job.
lift to work.
They invited all their friends to
attend the presentation.
My brother refused to take no for
an answer.
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Verb + (that)
admit
agree
decide
deny
explain
insist
promise
recommend
suggest
Verb + gerund
deny
recommend
suggest
Examples: Tom admitted (that) Examples: He denied having
he had tried to leave early.
anything to do with her.
She agreed (that) we needed to Ken suggested studying early in
reconsider our plans.
the morning.
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Verb + object + preposition + gerund
Verb + preposition + gerund
accuse
blame
congratulate
apologize
insist
Examples: They accused the boys of
cheating on the exam.
Examples: He apologized for being
late.
She blamed her husband for missing
the train.
She insisted on doing the washing up.
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WORD PROBLEMS
Some words can cause problems even at advanced level. This section
gives brief information about them.
After all does not mean “finally”. It can mean “contrary to expectations”; at the
beginning of a clause it introduces a fact which strengthens the argument.
I expected to fail, but I passed after all.
Why take the bus? After all, It’s only half a mile.
Although & though introduce afterthoughts or restrictions to what has been
said. Though at the end of a clause is used as an adverb.
He’s a nice guy – (al)though I wouldn’t want to work with him.
He’s a nice guy – I wouldn’t want to work with him, though.
Anyone & any one
Anyone can sing. (=Anybody..)
This lift will take four people at any one time. (=any single time)
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Anyway & any way
I don’t feel like going out. Anyway, it’s getting late.
How should I play this? – Any way you like.
As well as (=in addition to) introduces background information that is
not the main focus
As well as birds, some mammals can fly.
She sings as well as she dances. (=Her singing is as good as her dancing.)
Available is used before and after a noun
Send all the available tickets/tickets available.
Clean (=completely) in an informal style.
Sorry, I clean forgot your birthday.
Dead (=extremely, completely)
The captain was dead drunk at the time of the shipwreck.
You’re dead right.
Different is modified by very, not by much
You’re very different from your brother.
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Half (of) but half a/an
He spends half (of) the night on his computer.
Would you like half an orange?
However – modification to what was said before/on the other hand – contrast
The climb was tough. However, I made it.
It’s a very expensive project. On the other hand, it could be very profitable.
Indeed – normally used with very
It was very cold indeed.
It’s no use, it’s worth + -ing
It’s no use trying to explain.
It’s worth visiting the Lake District.
Likely, unlikely + infinitive
We’re likely to go to the mountains.
It’s unlikely to rain before weekend.
Possible – used before and after a noun
It’s the only possible solution/solution possible.
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Present – different meaning before and after a noun
It is difficult to find capital in the present situation.
Most of the people present voted against.
Proper – different meaning before and after a noun
She wants a proper wedding, in a church. (=organized as it should be)
After trekking through the foothills we finally reached the mountain proper.
(=the real mountain itself)
Quite less strong than / rather – before a/an
I’ve got quite an unusual request.
It’s quite a good film.
It’s rather a good film.
Real – sometimes used instead of really, especially in American English
I was real sorry to hear about your accident.
She’s real nice.
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DISCOURSE MARKERS
 words and expressions which help to structure spoken exchanges
and written text
 communicate several things
 introduce or clarify a topic
 show divisions and changes of topic
 show the type of communication that is going on
 show one’s attitude to spoken, read or written texts
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Complete the sentences with expressions from the box.
A as far as
1
B as for
C first of all
D for one thing
E speaking of
, I was genuinely upset by what had happened; for another,
D
I knew it was pointless expecting him to change his mind.
2
C
, he knew how to listen – which is very rare.
3 And
B
you, Fiona, words fail me.
4 But
A
efficiency is concerned the work could be done without
nearly so many.
5
E
the wind, it was getting stronger and I was getting colder.
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Put in the discourse markers from the box.
A apparently B at least
F I suppose G let me see
C frankly
H no doubt
D honestly
I or rather
E I’m afraid
J so to speak
D
1 This student has worked hard, but I _________
do not feel able to
recommend her for a scholarship.
H
2 _________
you will be paying your rent by the end of the week, Mr Jenkins?
B
3 She doesn’t keep promises. _________,
not always.
4 “How did the team do?”
E
“ _________
they lost.”
I
5 There’s meeting on Tuesday - __________
Thursday.
6 “When are you going to be ready?”
G
“ _________
I’ve got to make
a couple of phone calls.”
A
7 _________
we can travel half-price at the weekend.
8 “Do you like my poetry?”
C
“ _________,
no.”
J
9 That child is a one person crime wave, _________
.
10 I don’t have much time to help you with the decoration.
F
__________
I could come in on Saturday for an hour.
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Discourse markers in formal text. Choose the best expression
from the boxes to complete the sentences.
A as far as
B as regards C in conclusion D in general
E to a great extent F turning now
1 _________
, though there is no denying the seriousness of the problem, many
C
questions still remained unanswered.
A
2 __________
age is concerned, a person who has reached 18 has the legal
capacity to contract as an individual.
E
3 It is an old maxim but it is true: __________
, you are what you eat.
F
4 __________
to consider the other main group of younger household carers,
there is an increasing number, currently about 11 per cent, of elderly people
living with younger people, usually daughters and sons-in-law.
B
5 __________
export credit, two types are available from most banks.
D
6 __________
, women are healthier and live longer than ever
before; indeed on average they can expect to live 5 years
longer than men.
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A briefly/broadly speaking B it is true that C on the contrary
D or rather E what is more F broadly speaking/briefly
7 Do not be afraid that people will look down on you because of your regional
C
accent - _________
, your accent may in all probability be your most
interesting and valuable possession.
A
8 _________
, if the referee points his fingers this indicates that someone has
done something wrong.
D
9 For the Third World, _________
the underdeveloped world, these questions
have existed for the greater part of this century.
F
10 _________
, the higher an individual is in the social starta the less likely he
or she is to be arrested, prosecuted and (if prosecuted) found guilty.
B
11 _________
three senators have been accused of fraud, bribery and tax
evasion in the past three years, but they have been cleared of these charges by
other senators.
12 The difference is that I have been fortunate to find a
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E
career that I loved and, _________
get paid reasonably for it.
Informal discourse markers. Choose the best expressions from
the boxes to complete the texts.
A all the same B frankly C incidentally
E to tell the truth
F you know
D sort of
C
1 __________
, have you been to the local library yet?
E
2 __________
, I wasn’t really listening to what everyone was saying.
F
3 __________
, Dorothy, you and I will just have to go out together more
often.
4 I feel so ashamed because I didn’t recognise her and she was
D
__________
talking to me as if she knew me, and I thought oh very
friendly person, you know?
B
5 __________,
what you’re saying is absolute rubbish.
6 You can’t expect a reference book to be quite as gripping as an adventure
A
novel, but __________
I read it cover to cover.
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A anyway
B as for C as I was saying
E mind you
F you see
D by the way
7 He never called her. Because unattractive men don’t want unattractive
F
girls, __________.
E
8 We’re getting closer. Not much closer, _________
, but certainly
closer.
C
9 Maggie paused, then went on , “_________
, my own mother used to
make steak-and-kidney pudding.”
D
10 _________
, while I think of it, Anne was just about to leave the
country when you rang, but she says when she gets back in September
you’re to give her a call.
B
11 _________
you, you’re not only poor, you’re stupid.
12 I don’t know who was in charge, maybe the fat man.
A
_________
, he was the one who did the talking.
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