Download Gurudharma Mūlasarvāstivāda Tradition Journal of Buddhist Ethics

Journal of Buddhist Ethics
ISSN 1076-9005
http://blogs.dickinson.edu/buddhistethics/
Volume 20, 2013
The Gurudharma on Bhikṣuṇī Ordination in the
Mūlasarvāstivāda Tradition
Bhikṣuṇī Jampa Tsedroen and Bhikkhu Anālayo
Academy of World Religions & Center for Buddhist Studies,
University of Hamburg
Copyright Notice: Digital copies of this work may be made and distributed
provided no change is made and no alteration is made to the content.
Reproduction in any other format, with the exception of a single copy
for private study, requires the written permission of the author. All enquiries to: [email protected].
The Gurudharma on Bhikṣuṇī Ordination in
the Mūlasarvāstivāda Tradition
Bhikṣuṇī Jampa Tsedroen and Bhikkhu Anālayo 1
Abstract
This article surveys the stipulation on bhikṣuṇī ordination
made in the different Vinayas as part of a set of eight principles to be respected (gurudharma), and explores the possibility, indicated by the formulation of the relevant gurudharma, that a legally valid Mūlasarvāstivāda bhikṣuṇī ordination could be conducted by bhikṣus only. 2
Academy of World Religions & Center for Buddhist Studies, University of Hamburg.
Email: [email protected].
1
The present paper takes its inspiration from discussions held between the two authors
during the 1st Founding Members Conclave of the International Buddhist Confederation
at Delhi, 9th to 12th September 2013. In part I of this paper, Anālayo surveys the gurudharma regulation on bhikṣuṇī ordination found in different Vinayas, while in part II
Jampa Tsedroen examines the option of ordination by bhikṣus only, based on the formulation of the first gurudharma in the Tibetan Mūlasarvāstivāda Vinaya in comparison
with the Sanskrit version. Her findings in this respect are one of the outcomes of a
research project on “The ordination of nuns in the Tibetan Buddhist canon and its
presentation in the Tibetan commentaries” undertaken with the support of the
Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft, whose help is gratefully acknowledged. The authors
2
Tsedroen and Anālayo, The Gurudharma on Bhikṣuṇī Ordination
744
I. The Gurudharma On Bhikṣuṇī Ordination in Different
Vinayas
According to tradition, the gurudharmas, “principles to be respected,”
were stipulated by the Buddha as a pre-condition for granting his foster
mother Mahāprajāpatī Gautamī the higher ordination. The different Vinaya texts report that by accepting these principles to be respected
Mahāprajāpatī Gautamī became the first bhikṣuṇī (nun), marking the
starting point for the coming into being of an order of bhikṣunīs.
While the different Vinayas agree in mentioning a set of eight
such gurudharmas, the sequence in which these principles are listed varies considerably, as does their actual formulation.3 The themes broached
by these eight principles to be respected concern matters of monastic
etiquette, such as stipulating that a bhikṣuṇī should behave respectfully
even towards a junior bhikṣu (monk), and the carrying out of legal acts.
One legal act mentioned in all Vinaya lists of the eight gurudharmas is the
procedure for conducting bhikṣuṇī ordination.
As a starting point for subsequent discussion, in what follows the
different versions of this gurudharma that appear in the canonical Vina-
are indebted to Sāmaṇerī Dhammadinnā, Ann Heirman, and Petra Kieffer-Pülz for
commenting on a draft version of the present paper.
For surveys of these eight rules see, e.g., Anālayo (“Women’s” 82–6), Cheng (Buddhist
83–100), Chung (“Gurudhamma”), Chung (“Ursprung” 13), Heirman (“Gurudharma”),
Heirman (“Some Remarks” 34–43), Hirakawa (notes to 49–95), Horner (Women 118–61),
Hüsken (“Eight”), Hüsken (“Legend” 46–58), Hüsken (Vorschriften 346–60), Kusumā (Dasasil 29–32), Nagata (283f), Nolot (397–405), Salgado, Sujato (Bhikkuni 51–81) and Waldschmidt (118–21).
3
745
Journal of Buddhist Ethics
yas are translated from the Chinese, Sanskrit and Pāli originals;4 the Tibetan version is taken up in more detail in the second part of the present
paper. The translations below are given in alphabetical order according
to the school affiliation of the respective Vinaya. The numbering given in
brackets reflects the position of this particular gurudharma within the
whole set of eight.
I.1 Translation
Dharmaguptaka Vinaya (no. 4): “A śikṣamāṇā (probationer) who has
trained in the precepts should request the higher ordination from the
community of bhikṣus.”5
Lokottaravāda-Mahāsāṃghika Vinaya (no. 2): “A girl of eighteen
years, having been instructed in the training and having completed this
training for two years, should seek the higher ordination from both
communities.”6
Since the emphasis in our paper is on the canonical Vinaya versions and their implication for legal acts in the respective Buddhist traditions, the gurudharma stipulations
found in T. 196 at T. IV 158c19 and T. 1478 at T. XXIV 946b25 are not taken into account.
The relevant part of the Vinayamātṛkā (毘尼母經), perhaps a text representing the
Haimavata tradition, only reports the establishing of the eight gurudharmas by the
Buddha, but does not list the actual gurudharmas individually; see T. 1463 at T. XXIV
803b13. The same is the case for T. 156 at T. III 154a1.
4
T. 1428 at T. XXII 923b8: 式叉摩那學戒已, 從比丘僧乞受大戒; see also T. 1810 at T. XL
540c4; this and the following gurudharmas have already been translated by the Committee of Western Bhikṣuṇīs (3) and Heirman (“Where” 111).
5
Roth (17,5) (§13): aṣṭādaśavarṣāye kumārībhūtāye dve varṣāṇī deśitaśikṣāye paripūrṇaśikṣāye
ubhayato saṃghe upasampadā pratyāśaṃsitavyā; this has already been translated by Nolot
(9) and Strong (55).
6
Tsedroen and Anālayo, The Gurudharma on Bhikṣuṇī Ordination
746
Mahāsāṃghika Vinaya (no. 2): “Having trained for two years in
the precepts, she receives higher ordination in both communities.”7
Mahīśāsaka Vinaya (no. 4): “A śikṣamāṇā who has trained in the
precepts for two years should receive the higher ordination in both
communities.”8
Mūlasarvāstivāda Vinaya (no. 1): “The bhikṣuṇīs should seek from
the bhikṣus the going forth and the higher ordination, the becoming of a
bhikṣuṇī.”9
T. 1425 at T. XXII 474c1: 二歲學戒, 二部眾中受具足; see also T. 1425 at T. XXII 471b12,
which specifies that a woman who wishes to receive the higher ordination in the
Tathāgata’s Dharma and Vinaya should also be fully eighteen years old; this has already
been translated by Hirakawa (50f) and Heirman (“Where” 112).
7
T. 1421 at T. XXII 185c23: 式叉摩那學二 戒已, 應在二部僧中受具足戒; this has
already been translated by Heirman (“Where” 112) and Sujato (White 20). As noted by
Chung (“Gurudhamma” 228), here and in the case of the Mūlasarvāstivāda Vinaya the
eight gurudharmas are mentioned again as part of the instruction to be given after
completed ordination. In this context, T. 1421 at T. XXII 189a2 gives gurudharma 1 in the
same formulation: 式叉摩那學二 戒已, 應在二部僧中受具足戒.
8
T. 1451 at T. XXIV 351a1: 諸苾芻尼當從苾芻求出家, 受近圓, 成苾芻尼性 (repeated
again at T. XXIV 351b21). The corresponding Sanskrit fragments have been edited by
Ridding and La Vallée Poussin (125,30) and again by Schmidt (“Bhikṣuṇī-Karmavācanā”
244,21) (§4b5): bhikṣubhyaḥ śakāsād ānanda mātṛgrāmena pravrajyopasaṃpad
bhikṣuṇībhāvaḥ pratikāṃkṣitavya; this has already been translated by Wilson in Paul (85).
On the school affiliation of these fragments, see Chung (“Bhikṣuṇī-Karmavācanā” 420),
Finnegan (For the Sake 310 note 591), Oberlies (62), Roth (5 note 3b), Schmidt (“Zur
Schulzugehörigkeit”), and Yuyama (6). The same gurudharma is also quoted in the Abhidharmakośavyākhyā, Wogihara (374,18): bhikṣor antikād bhikṣuṇīnām upasaṃpat
bhikṣuṇībhāvaḥ. As in the case of the Mahīśāsaka Vinaya, here, too, the eight gurudharmas are mentioned again as part of the instruction to be given after completed ordination, at which point gurudharma 1 is given as follows, T. 1453 at T. XXIV 464c3: “The
bhikṣuṇīs should request from the bhikṣus the higher ordination, the becoming of a
bhikṣuṇī,” 諸苾芻尼應從苾芻求受近圓, 成苾芻尼性. Notably, in this formulation the
giving of the going forth by bhikṣus only is no longer mentioned; on the formal going
9
747
Journal of Buddhist Ethics
Sarvāstivāda Vinaya (no. 2): “A bhikṣuṇī should request the higher
ordination from the community of bhikṣus.”10
Saṃmitīya Vinaya (1): “A bhikṣuṇī should certainly seek the gaining of the higher ordination from the community of bhikṣus.”11
Theravāda Vinaya (no. 6): “A śikṣamāṇā who has trained for two
years in six principles should seek for higher ordination from both
communities.”12
forth not being an indispensable requirement for the validity of higher ordination in
the Mūlasarvāstivāda tradition see Clarke (228–230). The instruction to be given after
completing ordination has also been preserved in the Sanskrit fragment Schmidt
(“Bhikṣuṇī-Karmavācanā” 269,8) (§29b5), which does mention the going forth (see below note 58). A more detailed discussion of the Tibetan translation of this gurudharma
in the Mūlasarvāstivāda Vinaya can be found in the second part of this article.
10
T. 1435 at T. XXIII 345c10: 比丘尼應從比丘僧乞受具戒. This is not part of the ac-
count of the foundation of the order of bhikṣunīs, which in the Sarvāstivāda Vinaya is
given in abbreviated form in T. 1435 at T. XXIII 291a1. The full account has been preserved in a Madhyama-āgama discourse, however, where a similar formulation can be
found: MĀ 116 at T. I 606a5: “a bhikṣuṇī should seek the higher ordination from the
bhikṣus,” 比丘尼當從比丘求受具足; translated in Anālayo (“Mahāpajāpatī’s” 279). The
same formulation is also found in T. 60 at T. I 857b1. These two discourse versions differ
from the Sarvāstivāda Vinaya insofar as, according to them, this is the first of the eight
gurudharmas, not the second.
11
T. 1461 at T. XXIV 670c6: 比丘尼必定從比丘僧求得受具足戒.
Vin II 255,19: dve vassāni chasu dhammesu sikkhitasikkhāya sikkhamānāya ubhatosaṅghe
upasampadā pariyesitabbā; this has already been translated by Horner (Book V 355); also
see AN 8.51 at AN IV 277,9, which has been translated by Bodhi (1190), Hare (184), and
Nyanatiloka and Nyanaponika (151). Here and elsewhere, Sanskrit terms are used even
when translating from the Pāli, in order to facilitate comparison.
12
Tsedroen and Anālayo, The Gurudharma on Bhikṣuṇī Ordination
748
I.2 Comparative study
Comparing the canonical Vinaya versions of the gurudharma stipulation
concerning how bhikṣuṇī ordination should be carried out brings to light
two significant differences. One of these two differences concerns the
period to be observed as a probationer, or śikṣamāṇā. While the Dharmaguptaka Vinaya version simply speaks of a śikṣamāṇā who has trained
in the precepts, the Mahāsāṃghika, Mahīśāsaka, and Theravāda Vinaya
versions note that her probationary period lasts for two years. The Lokottaravāda-Mahāsāṃghika Vinaya also indicates that she should be
eighteen years old. The Theravāda Vinaya provides still further detail, as
it mentions that during these two years the śikṣamāṇā has to observe six
rules.
Alongside these variations in the degree to which the details of
the probationary training are introduced, perhaps the most prominent
difference among these versions is that the formulations of this gurudharma in the Mūlasarvāstivāda, Sarvāstivāda, and Saṃmitīya Vinayas do
not mention the need to observe a probationary period at all. In order to
evaluate the significance of this difference, it is necessary to turn to another rule in those Vinayas that do mention the probationary period (the
Dharmaguptaka, Mahīśāsaka, and Theravāda Vinayas), namely the regulation against ordaining a woman who is pregnant.13 In these three Vinayas, this rule reads as follows:
According to the comparative survey of the bhikṣuṇī prātimokṣas in Kabilsingh (Comparative 116), the Mahāsāṃghika Vinaya does not have such a rule.
13
749
Journal of Buddhist Ethics
Dharmaguptaka Vinaya (no. 119): “If a bhikṣuṇī admits a
pregnant woman and confers on her the higher ordination, this is a pātayantika.”14
Mahīśāsaka Vinaya (no. 116): “If a bhikṣuṇī gives the higher
ordination to a pregnant woman, this is a pātayantika.”15
Theravāda Vinaya (no. 61): “Whatever bhikṣuṇī should ordain a pregnant woman, this is a pātayantika.” 16
The above versions are in fairly close agreement on this rule. The
narration that precedes this rule reports that the bhikṣuṇīs had indeed
ordained a pregnant woman. The repercussions that her condition
caused among the laity occasioned the laying down of a regulation to
prevent this from happening again in the future. Now the problem
caused by ordaining a pregnant woman would not have arisen in the
first place if it had been established procedure that any female candidate
for higher ordination needs to have completed a two year training period as a śikṣamāṇā.17 The same three Vinayas explicitly indicate that such
training comprises the observing of celibacy,18 hence it would have been
T. 1428 at T. XXII 754b26: 若比丘尼度他妊娠女人, 授具足戒者, 波逸提; this has been
translated by Heirman (Discipline 763) and Kabilsingh (Bhikkhunī 194), and discussed by
Heirman (“Where” 117).
14
T. 1421 at T. XXII 92b3: 若比丘尼與懷妊 (with 任 as a variant reading) 女受具足戒,
波逸提; this has been translated in Kabilsingh (Bhikkhunī 109).
15
Vin IV 317,20: yā pana bhikkhunī gabbhiniṃ vuṭṭhāpeyya, pācittiyan ti; this has been
translated by Horner (Book III 361), Hüsken (Vorschriften 245), and Kabilsingh (Bhikkhunī
24).
16
This has been pointed out by, e.g., Anālayo (“Women’s” 83f), Heirman (Discipline 796
note 122), Heirman (“Some” 69f), Hüsken (Vorschriften 353), Kieffer-Pülz (“Ehe-” 202
note 9), Shi (420), and Sujato (Bhikkhuni 192f).
17
Dharmaguptaka Vinaya, T. 1428 at T. XXII 924b7; Mahīśāsaka Vinaya, T. 1421 at T.
XXII 186b17; and Theravāda Vinaya, Vin IV 319,26. As noted by Hüsken (Vorschriften 251
18
Tsedroen and Anālayo, The Gurudharma on Bhikṣuṇī Ordination
750
impossible to complete the period successfully and be pregnant, if such
training had indeed be in existence right from the time the order of
bhikṣuṇīs came into existence.
Thus the formulation of the gurudharma concerning bhikṣuṇī ordination in the Dharmaguptaka, Mahīśāsaka, and Theravāda Vinayas results in an internal inconsistency, as it implies that the probationary
training was promulgated by the Buddha at the time when the order of
bhikṣuṇīs began. This makes it safe to conclude that the formulation used
in these Vinayas is the result of a later development. By contrast, the
Mūlasarvāstivāda, Sarvāstivāda, and Saṃmitīya Vinayas, which do not
mention the need to observe a probationary period at all, appear to present an earlier formulation of this gurudharma.
Another difference between the Vinaya versions of the gurudharma on bhikṣuṇī ordination concerns the question of who should confer
the higher ordination: Should the female candidate request higher ordination from both communities, or just from the community of bhikṣus?
While the formulation of the gurudharma in the LokottaravādaMahāsāṃghika, Mahāsāṃghika, Mahīśāsaka, and the Theravāda Vinayas
stipulates ordination by both communities, the gurudharma in the Dharmaguptaka, Mūlasarvāstivāda, Sarvāstivāda, and Saṃmitīya Vinayas
mentions only ordination given by bhikṣus.
Taking into account the narrative context in which the promulgation of the gurudharmas is embedded, it was only after Mahāprajāpatī
Gautamī had become a bhikṣuṇī by accepting these eight gurudharmas
note 647), the Sarvāstivāda Vinaya explicitly links the training as a probationer to the
need to find out whether a candidate is pregnant, T. 1435 at T. XXIII 326b17: “From now
on I prescribe that a śrāmaṇerikā trains for two years in the six principles, [so] it can be
understood if she is pregnant or not”, 從今聽沙彌尼二 學六法, 可知有娠無娠.
751
Journal of Buddhist Ethics
that an order of bhikṣuṇīs came into being.19 Hence it would be more natural for the Buddha to ask, as a precondition for granting her higher ordination, that the higher ordination of women be conducted in a way
that was possible at that time, namely, through a community of bhikṣus,
instead of requiring the cooperation of a community of bhikṣuṇīs, which
at the time was yet to come into being.20
Thus the reference to ordination by bhikṣus in the Dharmaguptaka, Mūlasarvāstivāda, Sarvāstivāda, and Saṃmitīya Vinayas appears to reflect an earlier formulation of this particular gurudharma.21 In
contrast, the reference to ordination by both communities – a community of bhikṣus and a community of bhikṣuṇīs – in the gurudharma in the
Lokottaravāda-Mahāsāṃghika, Mahāsāṃghika, Mahīśāsaka, and Theravāda Vinayas, seems to be the result of a later change in the formulation,
probably influenced by the way the higher ordination of bhikṣuṇīs was
carried out at the time of the compilation of these Vinayas.22
A more detailed study of the evolution of bhikṣuṇī ordination, especially of the ordination of the followers of Mahāprajāpatī Gautamī, is presently in preparation.
19
As pointed out by Tsedroen (“Relevance” 11), “it makes sense that the dual ordination
is not yet mentioned, because there was no order of nuns at the time when these rules
were set up.”
20
This position has already been argued by Jampa Tsedroen (“Foundation”) for the
Mūlasarvāstivāda gurudharma.
21
Nevertheless, the account given in the Theravāda Vinaya can be read coherently as a
legal document. On such a reading, which is the viewpoint that would be adopted by
adherents of the tradition, the gurudharma stipulation could be seen as setting the general trend for the future, which was then supplemented by a permission for bhikṣus to
ordain bhikṣuṇīs as an exception applicable to a situation when no community of
bhikṣuṇīs is in existence; as discussed in Anālayo (“Legality”).
22
Tsedroen and Anālayo, The Gurudharma on Bhikṣuṇī Ordination
752
The historicity of the gurudharmas is a rather doubtful matter.23
Nevertheless, the point in time when the gurudharmas came into being
must still be fairly early, since they are found in all Vinayas. When evaluated from the viewpoint of their narrative context, it seems clear that
the formulations of the gurudharma concerning bhikṣuṇī ordination
found in the Mūlasarvāstivāda, Sarvāstivāda, and Saṃmitīya Vinayas reflect an earlier version. This earlier version did not yet stipulate the necessity of training as a sikṣamāna and it prescribed ordination given by
bhikṣus only, not by both communities.
From a traditional viewpoint, the gurudharmas are of course considered as legally binding as any other canonical Vinaya rule. Thus the
indication that ordination given by bhikṣus only would be a valid form of
higher ordination is of considerable legal significance, since it points to
the possibility that an order of bhikṣuṇīs could be initiated in the Tibetan
Mūlasarvāstivāda tradition in this way.24 A closer study of this option is
the topic of the second part of this paper.
See, e.g., Anālayo (“Women’s renunciation” 82–86), Chung (“Buddhist” 87), Chung
(“Ursprung” 13), Gnanarama (70), Hüsken (“Eight”), Hüsken (Vorschriften 346–60),
Kieffer-Pülz (“buddhistische” 378 note 378), Kusumā (“Inaccuracies” 8), Shih (420f),
Sujato (Bhikkhuni 51–81), and Verma (73).
23
Regarding the alternative options of dual ordination done with the assistance of
Dharmaguptaka bhikṣuṇīs, Kieffer-Pülz (“Presuppositions” 223 and 225) comments: “If
considered only in terms of traditional law, then it is seemingly not possible for the
Mūlasarvāstivādin to accept Dharmaguptaka ordination in a way that allows them to
carry out formal procedures together.” It would be “far less controversial . . . [if] the
Mūlasarvāstivāda bhikṣuṇī lineage would be re-established by first ordaining the female candidates through the Mūlasarvāstivāda bhikṣu saṅgha.” The same holds true for
the Theravāda tradition, where ordination by bhikṣus only appears to be legally valid in
a situation where no bhikṣuṇī order is in existence, an option that in traditional eyes is
certainly far less controversial than an ordination carried out with the assistance of
Dharmaguptaka bhikṣuṇīs; see Anālayo (“Revival”).
24
753
Journal of Buddhist Ethics
II. Mūlasarvāstivāda Bhikṣuṇī Ordination by Bhikṣus
This section of the paper examines the legal significance of the gurudharma concerning bhikṣuṇī ordination in relation to the question of
whether such ordination can, in accordance with the Tibetan
Mūlasarvāstivāda Vinaya tradition, be conferred by bhikṣus only without
infringing the rules.25
II.1 The original promulgation of gurudharma 1
In what follows, the study of the first gurudharma is based on collating 13
different Kangyur editions of the *Bhikṣuṇīkarmavācanā section in the
Vinayakṣudrakavastu (ʼDul ba phran tshegs kyi gzhi) and comparing them
with what has been preserved in the respective Sanskrit fragments, ms.
c.25(R) of the Bodleian Library at the University of Oxford.26 While the
text as a whole is only preserved in Tibetan translation, the gurudharma
we are concerned with here is fully preserved in three different places in
the Sanskrit manuscript.
For the Theravāda Vinaya, ordination by bhikṣus alone has recently already been discussed in detail in Anālayo (“Legality” 316, 325–332). From this it is clear that, in case
an ordination in cooperation with an existing bhikṣuṇī community is not possible, from
a Theravāda perspective higher ordination of nuns by bhikṣus on their own is valid.
25
Edited by Ridding and de La Vallée Poussin and re-edited by Schmidt (“BhikṣuṇīKarmavācanā”). The manuscript appears to have consisted of 32 folios, of which 25
folios are preserved, while seven folios are missing: 1–2, 8, 12–14, and 32.
26
Tsedroen and Anālayo, The Gurudharma on Bhikṣuṇī Ordination
754
The 13 Kangyur editions of the Tibetan *Bhikṣuṇīkarmavācanā
(*Mahāprajāpatīgautamīvastu and *Bhikṣuṇyupasaṃpadājñāpti) in the Vinayakṣudrakavastu27 in which gurudharma 1 is attested are as follows: 28
L: London Shelkar
(ʼdul ba), bam po 37-38, na, 21a8-50b7
R: Gyantse Tempangma (ʼdul ba), bam po 37-38, na, 19a6-45b1
T: Tōyō bunko
(ʼdul ba), bam po 37-38, na, 20a4-48a5
N: Narthang
(ʼdul ba), bam po 37-38, da, 326b5-360b2
H: Lhasa
(ʼdul ba), bam po 36-37, da, 150b5-182a6
S: Stog
(ʼdul ba), bam po 37-38, tha, 146a4-178a5
Z: Shey
(ʼdul ba), bam po 37-38, tha, 154b1-188b4
F: Phudrag
(ʼdul ba), bam po 31-32, tha, 124a6-149a6
Q: Peking 1737
(ʼdul ba), bam po 36-37, ne, 97a6-116a2
K: Kʼang hsi
(ʼdul ba), bam po 36-37, phe-be, 378a7-15a8
J: Jang Satham (Lithang) (ʼdul ba), bam po 36- 37, da, 99a1-118b1
B: Berlin29
(ʼdul ba), bam po 36-37, na-pa, 360b8-12a6
Unlike the case of the Vinayavastu, the translation of the Kṣudrakavastu was not revised. See Skorupski (Catalogue 4, 23).
27
In this article we are only able to provide such a detailed collation for passages from
the Mūlasarvāstivāda Vinaya, not for others passages. The siglas are according to the
Kanjur Resources: http://www.istb.univie.ac.at/kanjur/xml3/sub/sigla.php (accessed
October 13, 2013). In addition to the 13 editions listed above, readings from the Dpe
bsdur ma edition have also been noted as Dpe.
28
Peking 1680. See http://www.istb.univie.ac.at/kanjur/xml3/editions/berlin.php
(accessed October 13, 2013).
29
755
Journal of Buddhist Ethics
D: Derge
(ʼdul ba), bam po 36-37, da, 100a3-120b1
The first occurrence is the original promulgation of the gurudharma by
the Buddha:
kun dgaʼ bo dge slong rnams las30 bud med rnams31 kyis32 rab tu
ʼbyung33 ba dang bsnyen34 par rdzogs nas dge slong maʼi dngos
por ʼgyur35 ba36 rab tu rtogs par byaʼo.37
Ānanda, after women have received the going forth and
the higher ordination from bhikṣus,38 they should well understand that they [attained] the status of a bhikṣuṇī.39
The Tibetan version differs from the corresponding Sanskrit fragment,40
which reads:
30
las LRTNHSZFQJD : lus KB.
31
rnams LRTNHSZQKBJD : om. F.
32
kyis LRTNHSQKBJD : kyi ZF.
33
byung F : ʼbyung LRTNHSZQKBJD.
34
bsnyen LRTNHSZQKBJD : snyen F.
35
ʼgyur LRTNHSZFQKJD : om. B.
36
ba LRTNHSZQKJD : om. B: bar F.
L 24b4; R 22a3; T 23b2; N 330b1; H 154a5; S 149b2; Z 157b3; F 127a5; Q 99b1; K 381b4; B
363b8; J 101a5; D 102a7; see Dpe 245.20.
37
On the translation “higher ordinationˮ or “full ordinationˮ for upasaṃpadā see
Deleanu (“Transmissionˮ 3) and Tsedroen (“Erleuchtungspotenzialˮ 159).
38
The Tibetan dge slong maʼi dngos por ʼgyur ba would correspond to bhikṣuṇībhāvaḥ, “the
having become a bhikṣuṇīˮ or “bhikṣuṇīhoodˮ.
39
Schmidt (“Bhikṣuṇī-Karmavācanā” 244,21 §4b4): bhikṣubhyaḥ sakāśād ānanda
mātṛgrāmeṇa pravrajyopasaṃpad bhikṣuṇībhāvaḥ pratikāṃkṣitavya; this has already been
40
Tsedroen and Anālayo, The Gurudharma on Bhikṣuṇī Ordination
756
Ānanda, the going forth, higher ordination and the status
of being a bhikṣuṇī should be expected by a woman from
the bhikṣus.41
The second occurrence is when the gurudharma is reported by Ānanda to
Mahāprajāpatī Gautamī:
kun dgaʼ bo dge slong las42 bud med rnams kyis rab tu ʼbyung43
ba dang bsnyen44 par rdzogs te dge slong maʼi dngos por45 rab tu
rtogs par byaʼo.46
Ānanda, receiving the going forth and the higher ordination from the bhikṣus, women should well understand that
they [attain] the status of a bhikṣuṇī.
The Sanskrit fragment reads:
Ānanda, the going forth, higher ordination, and the status
of a bhikṣuṇī should be expected by a woman from the
bhikṣus.47
translated by Wilson in Paul (85); for the parallel in the Chinese translation of the
Mūlasarvāstivāda Vinaya, see above note 9.
41
Skt. singular mātṛgrāma; Tib. plural: bud med nams.
42
las LRTNHSZFQKBJD : lus B : la F.
43
ʼbyung QKBJD : byung LRTNHSZF.
44
bsnyen LRTNHSZQKBJD : snyen F.
45 por
QKBJD : po LRTNHSZF.
L 26a5; R 23b2; T 25a3; N 332a5; H 156a1; S 151a4; Z 159a7; F 128b5; Q 100b2; K 383a5; B
365a8; J 102a7; D 103b1; see Dpe 248.13.
46
Schmidt (“Bhikṣuṇī-Karmavācanā” 246,26 §6b2): bhikṣubhyaḥ sakāśād ānanda
mātṛgrāmeṇa pravrajyā upasaṃpad bhikṣuṇībhāvaḥ pratikāṃkṣitavyam; for the Chinese
parallel see above note 9.
47
757
Journal of Buddhist Ethics
II.2 Gurudharma 1 in the ordination manual
Instructions for the procedure to be adopted in the higher ordination of
bhikṣuṇī are given in the Mūlasarvāstivāda Vinaya just after the narrative
of Mahāprajāpatīʼs going forth. Although the wording is almost the same
as before, the legal implications are different due to the placement of the
gurudharma at the end of the manual for the bhikṣuṇī ordination rite (dge
slong ma bsnyen par rdzogs par nye bar sgrub paʼi cho ga).
The bhikṣuṇī ordination manual starts with the provision for admission, the taking of refuge, and the receiving of the precepts for lay
followers (Tib. dge bsnyen ma, Skt. upāsikā), followed by the going forth
(Tib. rab tu byung ba, Skt. pravrajyā), the taking of the precepts for novices
(Tib. dge tshul ma, Skt. śrāmaṇerikā),48 and of the precepts for probationers
(Tib. dge slob ma, Skt. śikṣamāṇā) from bhikṣuṇīs, and then culminates in
the higher ordination. On the day of the higher ordination, the
śikṣamāṇā, who should have observed her precepts for two years, first
receives a formal agreement to become ordained, known as the brahmacaryopasthānasaṃvṛti (tshangs par spyod pa la rim gror bya baʼi sdom pa),49
from a community of twelve bhikṣuṇīs.50 Later on the same day, the highNotably, in the Mūlasarvāstivāda tradition pravrajyā and śrāmaṇerikā ordination are
considered two different steps. In the living tradition, there are women, especially in
the Karma Kagyü tradition, who have received the five upāsikā precepts and the going
forth, but not the śrāmaṇerikā precepts. Legally they are considered to be lay women,
although they usually live in a “nunnery.” In society they are referred to as “nuns”
(ani), the same expression as used for śrāmaṇerikās. The main difference is that their
lower robe (Tib. sham thabs; Skt. nivāsana) has no patches and they have no yellow/orange upper robe (Tib. stod g.yogs, Skt. uttarāsaṅga, Mvy 8934 bla gos), which
śrāmaṇerikās wear during ceremonies.
48
Regarding this term, see Kieffer-Pülz (“Presuppositionsˮ 218 n. 4) and Sujato
(“Vuṭṭhāna” 13f).
49
According to the traditional understanding, this is a vow given before the actual
bhikṣuṇī vow is taken; it is regarded as an intermediate discipline that is substantially
50
Tsedroen and Anālayo, The Gurudharma on Bhikṣuṇī Ordination
758
er ordination is given in the presence of a two-fold community of ten
bhikṣus and twelve bhikṣuṇīs.51
After ascertaining the time when the higher ordination has been
received, the principles or guidelines to be observed are announced by
the karmakāraka-bhikṣu (las byed paʼi dge slong pha). These principles are:
1. The three supports of life (Tib. gnas gsum, Skt. trayo
niśrayāḥ),
2. The eight defeats (Tib. phas pham pa brgyad, Skt. *aṣṭau
pārājikā dharmāḥ, see Mvy 8358),
3. The eight principles to be respected (Tib. bla maʼi chos
brgyad, Skt. aṣṭau gurudharmāḥ) and
4. The four dharmas for a recluse (Tib. dge sbyong gi chos
bzhi, Skt. catvāraḥ śramaṇīkāraka dharmāḥ).
The formulation for the first gurudharma in this context is as follows:
ming ʼdi zhes bya ba bud med52 kyis53 dge slong rnams las rab tu
byung zhing bsnyen54 par rdzogs nas dge slong maʼi dngos por
ʼgyur bar55 rab tu rtogs par byaʼo.56
the same as the śikṣamāṇā vow; see the Bod rgya tshig mdzod chen mo (2: 2254): tshangs
spyod nyer gnas kyi sdom pa: dge slong maʼi sdom pa dngos ma blangs sngon la ʼbog paʼi sdom pa
zhig ste, dge slob maʼi sdom pa dang rdzas rigs gcig pa bar maʼi tshul khrims so.
The details will be discussed in another article presently in preparation. Here we
focus on the gurudharma only.
51
Here the Tibetan has, different from above, not the plural bud med rnams, but the
singular bud med.
52
53
kyis TFQKBJD : kyi LRNHSZ.
54
bsnyen LRTNHSZQKBJD : snyen F.
55
ʼgyur bar LRTNHSZFQKBJD : gyur pa F.
759
Journal of Buddhist Ethics
[You], named so-and-so, after a woman has received the
going forth and the higher ordination from the bhikṣus,
she should fully understand that she has become a
bhikṣuṇī.57
The Sanskrit fragment repeats the formulation used earlier, except that
it adds the specification “named so-and-so.ˮ Thus it reads:
[You], named so-and-so, the going forth, the higher ordination and the state of being a bhikṣuṇī should be expected by a woman from the bhikṣus.58
What is rather significant here is not the slight variation in the
formulation of this gurudharma, but the fact that it is part of the manual
for bhikṣuṇī ordination (Skt. *bhikṣuṇyupasaṃpadājñāpti) and thus integral
part of the bhikṣuṇī ordination rite (Tib. dge slong ma sgrub pa'i cho ga, in
short ma chog, Skt. *bhikṣuṇī karmavidhi), which can be expected to have
L 48b1; R 43b2; T 46a2; N 358a2; H 180a1; S 175b7; Z 185b8; F 147a4; Q 114b2; K 12b7; B
10a7; J 116b8; D 118b7; Dpe 286.16.
56
Other occurrences of this gurudharma can be found in the “Section on Rites and Acts
in connection with the bhikṣuṇī pravrajyāvastuˮ (dge slong maʼi rab tu byung baʼi gzhiʼi
skabs kyi cho ga dang las rnams) in the Ekottarakarmaśataka, D 4118, (ʼdul ba), wu, 139a1:
ming ʼdi zhes bya ba dge slong mas dge slong rnams las rab tu ʼbyung ba dang bsnyen par rdzogs
pa dge slong maʼi dngos po yongs su btsal bar bya ba; as well as in the Abhidharmakośopayikāṭīkā, D 4094 (mngon pa), ju, 213a2: kun dgaʼ bo bud med kyi tshogs dag gis rab tu
byung zhing bsnyen par rdzogs pa dge slong maʼi dngos po dge slong dag las blang bar bya ste.
57
Schmidt (“Bhikṣuṇī-Karmavācanā” 269,5 §29b5): bhikṣubhyaḥ śakāsād evaṃnāmike
mātṛgrāmeṇa pravrajyā upasaṃpat bhikṣuṇībhāvaḥ pratikāṃkṣitavya. The whole four-part
announcement is also found in the Vinayasūtra, which similarly at this point refers in an
abbreviated manner to gurudharma 1; see Bapat and Gokhale (53,14): upasaṃpad
bhikṣubhyaḥ; see also T. 1453 at T. XXIV 464c3.
58
Tsedroen and Anālayo, The Gurudharma on Bhikṣuṇī Ordination
760
been used in India for centuries, that is, until the time when the
Mūlasarvāstivāda bhikṣuṇī order ceased to exist.59
From a legal perspective, an ordination received by accepting the
eight gurudharmas is considered an ancient rite (sngon chog),60 whereas
the ordination received before both communities became the current
rite (da chog),61 and it is this current rite that should be followed. Yet, the
advice to receive the going forth and the higher ordination from bhikṣus
remained part of the latter rite, i.e., the current rite, and is therefore still
valid. A prohibition (dgag pa) that an ordination cannot be performed by
bhikṣus alone is in fact not recorded in the Mūlasarvāstivāda Vinaya.62
To summarize, the indication that bhikṣuṇīs should receive ordination from bhikṣus is, depending on circumstances, still valid. In legal
terms as understood in the living tradition, the first gurudharma would
have to be considered either as a permission (gnang ba) or as a prescription (sgrub pa).
Of course, this does not mean that bhikṣus can give higher ordination solely by means of asking Buddhist women to accept the eight gurudharmas, that is, just by stating that accepting the eight gurudharmas is
their going forth and higher ordination in the same way that, according
to the texts, the Buddha did in the case of Mahāprajāpatī Gautamī.63 InA more detailed discussion of the transmission of the Mūlasarvāstivāda bhikṣuṇī ordination is presently in process.
59
60
Tib. sngon gyi cho ga, Skt. purākalpa; see Mvy 9281.
61
Tib. da ltar byung ba'i cho ga, Skt. vartamānakalpa.
62
See Geshe Rinchen Ngödrup’s statement in Mohr and Tsedroen (Dignity 261, note 4).
As pointed out by Tsering (“Lampˮ 164f): “Today women cannot be fully ordained
through simply accepting the gurudharmas. They should be ordained gradually by
means of the present ceremonial rite (da ltar gyi cho ga)ˮ; see Tsering (Nyams zhib 31);
also see the statement by Samdhong Rinpoche in Mohr and Tsedroen (Dignity 255).
63
761
Journal of Buddhist Ethics
stead, it means that, depending on circumstances, bhikṣus today can give
the going forth as well as the higher ordination to bhikṣuṇīs. The permission to do so has never been withdrawn and thus is still valid. In such a
case, even a minor fault (Tib. nyes byas, Skt. duṣkṛta) of the monastic rules
is not incurred.64
The situation would be different if a qualified community of
bhikṣuṇīs were present. In such a case, if a community of bhikṣus were to
give ordination without involving the community of bhikṣuṇīs, those who
gave the ordination would commit an offense (Tib. ltung ba, Skt. āpatti).65
But in the absence of bhikṣuṇīs, bhikṣus are authorized or even have the
duty to ordain women, if requested to do so, provided the necessary
conditions on the side of the candidate are met.66
64
See Clarke (232–238).
65
Ibid. (234–236).
The prātimokṣa vow is considered by tradition to be one of the three kinds of
avijñāptirūpa (non-revelatory form, i.e., a very subtle form of rūpa; see Dhammajoti
66
(14f)). It is believed to cease with the body at death, provided it has neither been returned nor broken by committing a major defeat (Tib. pham pa, Skt. pārājika). This
avijñāptirūpa is generated out of certain causes and conditions. In the Mūlasarvāstivāda
Vinaya context, it is important to note that the Abhidharmakośabhāṣya (Chos mngon pa'i
mdzod kyi bshad pa), D 4090, ku, 176b1, in relation to verse II.14b-c, explains that in substance or in essence the vow of a bhikṣuṇī does not differ from that of a bhikṣu. It is only
the name that changes according to gender: rdzas su rnam pa bzhi yin no | | dge slong gi
sdom pa dang | dge tshul gyi sdom pa dang | dge bsnyen gyi sdom pa dang | bsnyen gnas kyi
sdom pa'o | | de ltar nas sor thar pa'i sdom pa ni mtshan nyid so sor nges pa'i phyir rdzas nyid du
rnam pa de bzhin yin te | dge slong gi sdom pa las ni dge slong ma'i sdom pa gzhan ma yin no | |
dge tshul gyi sdom pa las kyang dge slob [em. slob : slong D] ma dang | dge tshul ma'i sdom pa
gzhan ma yin no | | dge bsnyen gyi sdom pa las kyang dge bsnyen ma'i sdom pa gzhan ma yin no
| | ji ltar shes she na | mtshan las ming ni 'pho ba'i phyir. See also Bapat and Gokale (VinayaSūtra xli and xliii).
Tsedroen and Anālayo, The Gurudharma on Bhikṣuṇī Ordination
762
II.3 The interim steps for higher ordination
Besides the going forth and the higher ordination, several interim steps
are required for completing the gradual ordination procedure for women in the Mūlasarvāstivāda tradition. Thus the question arises as to
whether, in the absence of a bhikṣuṇī saṃgha, the additional intermediate
stages prescribed for women are required and, if so, whether they can
also be given by bhikṣus.
For many centuries now, it has been common in the Tibetan tradition for bhikṣus, including H.H. the Fourteenth Dalai Lama, to give the
upāsikā precepts, the going forth, and the śrāmaṇerikā precepts to women
by employing the male manual for ordination (pha chog). This means that
the same manual is used for giving upāsaka (dge bsnyen) precepts, the
going forth, and the śrāmaṇera (dge tshul) precepts to women as is used in
giving these precepts to men.
For the specific intermediate steps, however, the manual for females (ma chog) has to be applied, since the manual for males does not
provide formulas for conferring the śikṣamāṇā precepts and the brahmacāryopasthānasaṃvṛti.
These intermediate steps are necessary in order to arrive at what
tradition reckons to be “flawless and perfect bhikṣuṇī vowsˮ (dge slong
maʼi sdom pa nyes med phun sum tshogs pa).67 These steps include the requirement that a female candidate receive the śiksāmāṇā precepts (to be
observed for two years), and the brahmacāryopasthānasaṃvṛti, which is to
be given on the day of higher ordination. Both are supposed to be conferred by a bhikṣuṇī saṃgha alone.
67
Tsering (“Lamp” 173) and Finnegan (“Flawless” 197).
763
Journal of Buddhist Ethics
As already pointed out by Samdhong Rinpoche during the Hamburg congress in 2007,
Bhikṣus may if necessary leave their summer retreat to
confer śikṣamāṇā ordination, which is normally given by
bhikṣuṇīs alone. This allowance implies that bhikṣuṇīs are
not available to give such ordination themselves. Inferring from this . . . where no bhikṣuṇīs are available, the
brahmacarya and bhikṣuṇī ordination ceremonies may also
be performed by the bhikṣu saṅgha alone.68
The relevant Vinaya passage can be found in the Varṣavastu, in the
section concerning the rainy season retreat. This passage indicates that a
bhikṣu can leave his rainy season retreat for up to seven days in the following cases:
1. A śrāmaṇerikā asks him to come in order to confer on
her the training of a śikṣamāṇā;69
2. A śikṣamāṇā who has completed the two years training
period asks him to come in order to confer on her the
higher ordination.70
68
Mohr and Tsedroen (Dignity 256).
The formulation employed indicates explicitly that the bhikṣu may leave in order to
confer the training in the six principles and the six minor principles, D (ʼdul ba), ka,
244b5, H (ʼdul ba), ka, 342a4: chos drug dang | rjes su mthun paʼi chos drug gi bslab pa stsal du
gsol, see also Dutt (143,5): ṣaṭsu dharmeṣu ṣaṭsv anudharmeṣu śikṣāṃ dāsyanti, and T. 1445
at T. XXIII 1043b15: 願為我授六法, 六隨法. This makes it clear that the point at issue is
the formal initiation into the probationary training, pace Heirman (“Becoming” 190).
69
70
D (ʼdul ba), ka, 244b1, H (ʼdul ba), ka, 341b4; see Dutt (142,13).
Tsedroen and Anālayo, The Gurudharma on Bhikṣuṇī Ordination
764
The allowance that a bhikṣu may leave the rainy season retreat in
order to give higher ordination to a sikṣamāṇā can be understood in two
ways:
1. He might go to participate in an higher ordination
performed together with a bhikṣuṇī community, or
2. He might go to participate in a higher ordination performed by a bhikṣu community alone.
That the higher ordination can be given by bhikṣus alone is only
clear from the first gurudharma.
In at least two major Indian Mūlasarvāstivāda Vinaya commentaries, we find an allowance that not only permits a bhikṣu community to
give the vow (sdom pa) of full ordination and the vow of a śikṣamāṇā, but
also to give the brahmacāryopasthānasaṃvṛti. The latter is usually given by
a bhikṣuṇī community alone on the day of higher ordination. According
to Ācārya Dharmamitra’s Extended Commentary on the Vinayasūtra:71
The meaning of “It is also [similar] for the śikṣamāṇās regarding the brahmacarya upasthāna vow and full ordination” is: If a śikṣamāṇā wishes to receive the brahmacarya
upasthāna vow and also full ordination and the śikṣamāṇā
is outside the boundary (sīmā) [of the bhikṣus], then to accomplish these two purposes for the benefit of the DharʼDul baʼi mdoʼi rgya cher ʼgrel pa (Vinayasūtraṭīkā), D 4120 (ʼdul ba), yu, 138b5: dge slob maʼi
tshangs par spyod pa la nye bar gnas paʼi sdom pa dang bsnyen par rdzogs par bya ba la yang
ngo zhes bya ba ni | dge slob ma mtshams kyi phyi rol na gnas pa rnams kyis tshangs par spyod
pa la nye bar gnas paʼi sdom pa mnod pa dang | bsnyen par rdzogs par bya ba chos dang ldan
paʼi don de gnyis byung na de dag bsgrub paʼi don du yang dge slong dbyar gnas par khas blangs
pa mtshams kyi nang na ʼdug pas zhag bdun man chad mtshams kyi phyi rol du ʼgro zhing de
tshun chad kyis phyir ʼkhor bar byin gyis brlab bo zhes bya bar sbyar ro.
71
765
Journal of Buddhist Ethics
ma—to bestow the brahmacarya upasthāna vow and to give
full ordination—bhikṣus, even if they have accepted the
rainy season [restrictions] and are inside the boundary,
may leave the boundary for up to seven days after having
done the requisite blessing, stating that they will return
within this time.72
This is a commentary on the following sentence in Guṇaprabha’s
Vinayasūtra:73
It is also [similar] for the śikṣamāṇās regarding the brahmacaryopasthānasaṃvṛti and the higher ordination.
While these indications are not from the Vinaya itself, but from
the commentaries, they carry comparable importance for members of
the tradition, who consider the Vinaya commentaries as authoritative.74
Conclusion
From what has been discussed above there is clear canonical evidence
that, based on the first gurudharma, bhikṣus can give all stages of a womanʼs ordination, starting with the going forth and reaching all the way up
to the higher ordination, if circumstances so require. If these steps are
72
This is the translation already given in Tsering (“Lamp” 177).
Tengyur D 4117 (ʼdul ba), wu, 63a5: dge slob maʼi tshangs par spyod pa la nye bar gnas paʼi
sdom pa dang bsnyen par rdzogs par bya ba la yang ngo.
73
As Samdhong Rinpoche in Mohr and Tsedroen (Dignity 255) emphasizes, “Tibetans
strictly follow the Indian commentaries on it by Guṇaprabha and Dharmamitra.” Finnegan (“Flawless” 199) explains that “the root Vinaya text . . . is no longer read by most
Tibetan monks or scholars. Instead, Vinaya education and the regulation of monastic
life are centered on Guṇaprabhaʼs highly condensed interpretive digest and the vast
commentarial tradition based on his work.ˮ
74
Tsedroen and Anālayo, The Gurudharma on Bhikṣuṇī Ordination
766
performed by Tibetan Mūlsarvāstivāda bhikṣus, the bhikṣuṇīs would of
course automatically become part of the Mūlasarvāstivāda lineage.
Abbreviations
AN
Aṅguttara-nikāya
B
Berlin edition
D
Derge edition
Dpe
Bkaʼ ʼgyur dpe bsdur ma edition
F
Phudrag edition
H
Lhasa edition
J
Jang Satham edition
K
Kʼang hsi edition
L
London Shelkar edition
MĀ
Madhyama-āgama (T 26)
Mvy
Mahāvyutpatti
N
Narthang edition
Q
Peking edition
R
Gyantse Tempangma edition
S
Stog
Skt.
Sanskrit
T.
Taishō edition (CBETA)
767
Journal of Buddhist Ethics
T
Tōyō bunko edition
Tib.
Tibetan
Vin
Vinaya
Z
Shey edition
Bibliography
Anālayo. “The Legality of Bhikkhunī Ordination.” Journal of Buddhist Ethics, 20 (2013), 310–333.
. “Mahāpajāpatī’s Going Forth in the Madhyama-āgama.” Journal of
Buddhist Ethics, 18 (2011), 268–317 (reprinted in Madhyama-āgama Studies,
Taipei: Dharma Drum Publishing Corporation, (2012), 449–488).
. “The Revival of the Bhikkhunī Order and the Decline of the Sāsana.” Journal of Buddhist Ethics, 20 (2013), 110–193.
. “Women’s Renunciation in Early Buddhism—The Four Assemblies
and the Foundation of the Order of Nuns.” In Dignity & Discipline, Reviving
Full Ordination for Buddhist Nuns, edited by T. Mohr and J. Tsedroen, 65–97.
Boston: Wisdom, 2010.
Bapat, P.V., and V.V. Gokhale. Vinaya-sūtra and Auto-commentary on the
same. Patna: Kashi Prasad Jayaswal Research Institute, 1982.
Bkaʼ ʼgyur dpe bsdur ma, Peking: Krung goʼi bod rig paʼi dpe skrun khang,
2006–2009.
Bod rgya tshig mdzod chen mo (Great Tibetan-Chinese Dictionary), edited
by Zhang Yisum. Beijing: Mi rigs dpe shun khang (Nationalities Publishing House), 1984.
Tsedroen and Anālayo, The Gurudharma on Bhikṣuṇī Ordination
768
Bodhi, Bhikkhu. The Numerical Discourses of the Buddha, A Translation of the
Aṅguttara Nikāya. Boston: Wisdom, 2012.
Cheng, Wei-Yi. Buddhist Nuns in Taiwan and Sri Lanka, A Critique of the Feminist Perspective. London: Routledge, 2007.
Chung, In Young. “A Buddhist View of Women: A Comparative Study of
the Rules for Bhikṣuṇīs and Bhikṣus based on the Chinese Prātimokṣa.”
Journal of Buddhist Ethics, 6 (1999), 29–105.
Chung, Jin-il. “‘Bhikṣuṇī-Karmavācanā’ of the Mūlasarvāstivādins.” In
Facets of Indian Culture, Gustav Roth Felicitation Volume, Published on the Occasion of his 82nd Birthday, edited by C.P. Sinha, 420–423. Patna: Bihar Puravid Parishad, 1998.
. “Gurudhamma und Aṣṭau Gurudharmāḥ,” Indo-Iranian Journal 42
(1999), 227–234.
.“Ursprung und Wandel der Aufnahme von Frauen in den buddhistischen Orden nach der kanonischen Überlieferung—eine Randbemerkung,” Sanko Bunka Kenkyusho Nenpo [Annual of the Sanko Research Institute
for the Studies of Buddhism] 37 (2006), 1–16.
Clarke, Shayne. “Creating Nuns Out of Thin Air: Problems and Possible
Solutions Concerning the Ordination of Nuns According to the Tibetan
Monastic Code.” In Dignity & Discipline, Reviving Full Ordination for Buddhist
Nuns, edited by T. Mohr and J. Tsedroen, 227–238. Boston: Wisdom, 2010.
Committee of Western Bhikṣuṇīs. “Research Regarding the Lineage of
Bhikṣuṇī Ordination, A Response to Necessary Research Regarding the
Lineage of Bhikṣuṇī Vinaya.” Paper presented at the 3rd Seminar of Vinaya
Scholars about Gelongma Lineage, Dharamsala 22 to 24 May, 2006, organized by
the Department of Religion and Culture, Central Tibetan Administration. Available at http://www.congress-on-buddhist-women.org/29.0.html (accessed September 19, 2013).
769
Journal of Buddhist Ethics
Deleanu, Florin. “Transmission and Creation: Ordinations for Nuns in
Ancient and Early Mediaeval Japan.” Journal of the International College for
Postgraduate Buddhist Studies 14 (2010), 1–19.
Dhammajoti, Bhikkhu K.L. “Abhidhamma, Northern.” In Encyclopedia of
Sciences and Religions, edited by A.L.C. Runehov and L. Oviedo, 12–19. Dordrecht: Springer, 2013.
Dutt, Nalinaksha Gilgit Manuscripts, Mūlasarvāstivāda Vinayavastu, vol. III
part 4. Delhi: Sri Satguru, 1984.
Finnegan, Damchö Diana. ‘For the Sake of Women too’: Ethics and Gender in
the Narratives of the Mūlasarvāstivāda Vinaya. PhD, University of Wisconsin-Madison, 2009.
. “A ‘Flawless’ Ordination: Some Narratives of Nuns’ Ordinations in
the Mūlasarvāstivāda Vinaya.” In Dignity & Discipline, Reviving Full Ordination for Buddhist Nuns, edited by T. Mohr and J. Tsedroen, 195–206. Boston:
Wisdom, 2010.
Gnanarama, Pategama. The Mission Accomplished, A Historical Analysis of the
Mahaparinibbana Sutta of the Digha Nikaya of the Pali Canon. Singapore: TiSarana Buddhist Association, 1997.
Hare, E.M. The Book of the Gradual Sayings (Aṅguttara-nikāya), The Book of the
Sevens, Eights, and Nines, Part IV. London: Pali Text Society, 1955.
Heirman, Ann. “Becoming a Nun in the Dharmaguptaka Tradition,” Buddhist Studies Review, 25.2 (2008), 174–193.
. ʻThe Discipline in Four Parts,ʼ Rules for Nuns according to the Dharmaguptakavinaya. Delhi: Motilal Barnasidass, 2002.
. “Gurudharma: an Important Vinaya Rule,” Indian Journal of Buddhist
Studies (1998) 10.1/2, 18–26.
Tsedroen and Anālayo, The Gurudharma on Bhikṣuṇī Ordination
770
. “Some Remarks on the Rise of the bhikṣuṇīsaṃgha and on the
Ordination Ceremony for bhikṣuṇīs according to the Dharmaguptaka
Vinaya,” Journal of the International Association of Buddhist Studies 20.2
(1997), 33–85.
. “Where is the Probationer in the Chinese Buddhist Nunneries? ”
Zeitschrift der Deutschen Morgenländischen Gesellschaft 158.1 (2008), 105–
137.
Hirakawa, Akira. Monastic Discipline for the Buddhist Nuns: An English Translation of the Chinese Text of the Mahāsāṃghika-Bhikṣuṇī-Vinaya. Patna:
Jayaswal Research Institute, 1982.
Horner, I.B. The Book of the Discipline (Vinaya-Piṭaka), Volume III (Suttavibhaṅga). London: Pali Text Society, 1983 (first published 1942).
. The Book of the Discipline (Vinaya-Piṭaka), Volume V (Cullavagga). London: Pali Text Society, 1982 (first published 1940).
. Women under Primitive Buddhism, Laywomen and Almswomen. Delhi:
Motilal Banarsidass, 1990 (first published 1930).
Hüsken, Ute. “The Eight Garudhammas.” In Dignity & Discipline, Reviving
Full Ordination for Buddhist Nuns, edited by T. Mohr and J. Tsedroen, 143–8.
Boston: Wisdom, (2010).
. “The Legend of the Establishment of the Buddhist Order of Nuns
in the Theravāda Vinaya-Piṭaka,” Journal of the Pali Text Society 26 (2000),
43–69.
. Die Vorschriften für die Buddhistische Nonnengemeinde im VinayaPiṭaka der Theravādin. Berlin: Dietrich Reimer, 1997.
Kabilsingh, Chatsumarn. The Bhikkhunī Pātimokkha of the Six Schools. Delhi:
Sri Satguru, 1998.
771
Journal of Buddhist Ethics
. A Comparative Study of Bhikkhunī Pāṭimokkha. Delhi: Chaukhambha
Orientalia, 1984.
Kieffer-Pülz, Petra. “Die buddhistische Gemeinde.” In Der Buddhismus I,
Der indische Buddhismus und seine Verzweigungen, edited by H. Bechert et
al., 281–402. Stuttgart: W. Kohlhammer, 2000.
.“Ehe- oder Lebensjahre? Die Altersangabe für eine ʻverheirateteʼ
Frau (gihigatā) in den Rechtstexten der Theravādin.” Zeitschrift der Deutschen Morgenländischen Gesellschaft, 155 (2005), 199–238.
.“Presuppositions for a Valid Ordination with Respect to the Restoration of the Bhikṣuṇī Ordination in the Mūlasarvāstivada Tradition.” In
Dignity & Discipline, Reviving Full Ordination for Buddhist Nuns, edited by T.
Mohr and J. Tsedroen, 217–225. Boston: Wisdom, 2010.
Kusumā, Bhikkhunī. The Dasasil Nun. A Study of Women’s Buddhist Religious
Movement in Sri Lanka, With an Outline of its Historical Antecedents. Nedimala,
Dehiwala: Buddhist Cultural Centre, 2010 (first published 1987).
. “Inaccuracies in Buddhist Women’s History.” In Innovative Buddhist
Women: Swimming Against the Stream, edited by K.L. Tsomo, 5–12. Richmond, Surrey, UK: Curzon, 2000.
Mohr, T. and J. Tsedroen. Dignity & Discipline, Reviving Full Ordination for
Buddhist Nuns. Boston: Wisdom, 2010.
Nagata, Mizu. “Transitions in Attitudes Toward Women in the Buddhist
Canon: The Three Obligations, the Five Obstructions, and the Eight Rules
of Reverence,” translated by P.B. Watt. In Engendering Faith: Women and
Buddhism in Premodern Japan, edited by B. Ruch, 279–95. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 2002.
Nolot, Édith. Règles de discipline des nonnes Bouddhistes, Le Bhikṣuṇīvinaya de
l’école Mahāsāṃghika-Lokottaravādin. Paris: Éditions de Boccard, 1991.
Tsedroen and Anālayo, The Gurudharma on Bhikṣuṇī Ordination
772
Nyanatiloka and Nyanaponika. Die Lehrreden des Buddha aus der Angereihten Sammlung, Anguttara-Nikāya, Aus dem Pali übersetzt von Nyanatiloka,
Überarbeitet und herausgegeben von Nyanaponika, IV. Band, Siebener- bis Neuner-Buch. Freiburg: Aurum Verlag, 2013 (first published 1969).
Paul, Diana Y. Women in Buddhism, Images of the Feminine in Mahāyāna Tradition, Berkeley: University of California Press, 1985 (first published
1979).
Oberlies, Thomas. “Ein bibliographischer Überblick über die kanonischen
Texte der Śrāvakayāna-Schulen des Buddhismus (ausgenommen der des
Mahāvihāra-Theravāda),” Wiener Zeitschrift für die Kunde Südasiens 47
(2003), 37–84.
Ridding, C.M. and de La Vallée Poussin, L. “A Fragment of the Sanskrit
Vinaya: Bhikṣuṇīkarmavācanā,” Bulletin of the School of Oriental Studies 1.3
(1919), 123–43.
Roth, Gustav. Bhikṣuṇī-Vinaya, Including Bhikṣuṇī-Prakīrṇaka and a Summary
of the Bhikṣu-Prakīrṇaka of the Ārya-Mahāsāṃghika-Lokottaravādin. Patna: K.
P. Jayaswal Research Institute, 1970.
Salgado, Nirmala S. “Eight Revered Conditions: Ideological Complicity,
Contemporary Reflections and Practical Realities,” Journal of Buddhist
Ethics 15 (2008), 177–213.
Schmidt, Michael. “Bhikṣuṇī-Karmavācanā, Die Handschrift Sansk.
c.25(R) der Bodleian Library Oxford.” In Studien zur Indologie und Buddhismuskunde, Festgabe des Seminars für Indologie und Buddhismuskunde für Professor Dr. Heinz Bechert zum 60. Geburtstag am 26. Juni 1992, edited by M.
Hahn, 239–88. Bonn: Indica et Tibetica, 1993.
.“Zur Schulzugehörigkeit einer nepalesischen Handschrift der
Bhikṣuṇī-Karmavācanā.” In Untersuchungen zur Buddhistischen Literatur,
773
Journal of Buddhist Ethics
edited by H. Bechert et al., 155–64. Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht,
1994.
Shih, Juo-Hsüeh. Controversies over Buddhist Nuns. Oxford: Pali Text Society, 2000.
Skorupski, Tadeusz. A Catalogue of the Stog Palace Kanjur. Tokyo: The International Institute for Buddhist Studies, 1985.
Strong, John. The Experience of Buddhism, Sources and Interpretations, Belmont. California: Wadsworth Publishing Company, 1995.
Sujato, Bhikkhu. “Vuṭṭhāna & Upasampadā”, online pdf publication,
2007.
https://sites.google.com/site/santipada/vutthapanaandupasam
pada
. Bhikkhuni Vinaya Studies, Research and Reflections on Monastic Discipline for Buddhist Nuns. Australia: Santipada Publications, (dated 1st September 2009).
. White Bones, Red Rot, Black Snakes, A Buddhist Mythology of the Feminine. Australia: Santipada Publications, 2011.
Tsedroen, Jampa (Roloff, Carola). “Das Erleuchtungspotenzial von Frauen
und Ordinationslinien im Buddhismus.” In Unbeschreiblich weiblich? Neue
Fragestellungen zur Geschlechterdifferenz in den Religionen, edited by Christine Gerber, Silke Petersen, and Wolfram Weiße, 159–178. Berlin, Münster,
Wien, Zürich, London: LIT, 2011.
Tsedroen, Jampa (Roloff, Carola). “Relevance of Vinaya in Modern Circumstances.” Paper presented during the 2nd Sakyadhita Conference at the
Thammasat University Bangkok. 1991. Available at: http://www.thubten
chodron.org/BuddhistNunsMonasticLife/relevance_of_vinaya_in_modern
_circumstances.pdf (accessed September 19, 2013).
Tsedroen and Anālayo, The Gurudharma on Bhikṣuṇī Ordination
774
. “The Foundation of the Order of Buddhist Nuns According to the
Tibetan Translation of the Kṣudrakavastu of the MūlasarvāstivādaVinaya.” Unpublished paper read at the Numata Vinaya Conference,
McMaster University, Toronto, 15th to 17th April 2011.
Tsering, Tashi. “A Lamp of Vinaya Statements: A Concise Summary of
Bhikṣuṇī Ordination.” In Dignity & Discipline, Reviving Full Ordination for
Buddhist Nuns, edited by T. Mohr and J. Tsedroen, 161–181. Boston: Wisdom, 2010.
. Nyams zhib kyi grub don snying bsdus dge slong maʼi ʼjug ngogs.
Dharamsala: Bod gzhung chos rig las khungs (Department of Religion
and Culture), 2008.
Verma, Chapla. “ʻThe Wildering Gloom:ʼ Womenʼs Place in Buddhist History.” In Faces of the Feminine in Ancient, Medieval, and Modern India, edited
by M. Bose, 69–86. New York: Oxford University Press, 2000.
Waldschmidt, Ernst. Bruchstücke des Bhikṣuṇī-Prātimokṣa der Sarvāstivādins,
Mit einer Darstellung der Überlieferung des Bhikṣuṇī-Prātimokṣa in den verschiedenen Schulen. Leipzig: F.A. Brockhaus, 1926
Wogihara, Unrai. Sphuṭārthā Abhidharmakośavyākhyā by Yaśomitra, Part II.
Tokyo: The Publishing Association of Abhidharmakośavyākhyā, 1936.
Yuyama, Akira. Systematische Übersicht über die Buddhistische Sanskrit Literatur - Vinaya Texte. Wiesbaden: Franz Steiner, 1979.