* Your assessment is very important for improving the workof artificial intelligence, which forms the content of this project
Download Market fundamentals
Survey
Document related concepts
Transcript
Market Fundamentals Frederick University 2012 Main Economic Problems Questions Problems What and how much How For Whom Efficiency in allocation Efficiency in motivation Efficiency in distribution Types of Economic Systems Traditional economy Market Economy Command Economy Market Functions Allocation of scarce resources Motivation for efficiency Distribution of goods and services The Demand for chocolates “Milka” The Demand schedule A B C D E F G H I P (€) 2,5 2 1,6 1,5 1,4 1,3 1,2 1,1 1 Q 5 8 12 15 22 28 36 50 100 The Demand for chocolates “Milka” P The demand schedule A B C D E F G H P (€) 2,5 2 1,6 1,5 1,4 1,3 1,2 1,1 Q 5 8 12 15 22 28 36 50 A B C D E The demand curve Q Demand Demand – buyers’ behavior The Demand for a good – the quantities buyers are willing and able to buy at every different price The law of Demand – the decrease in the price of the good raises the quantity of the good demanded, other factors held equal FACTORS DETERMINING DEMAND Buyers’ income Prices of the other goods Buyers’ expectations Buyers’ taste and preferences Market size Institutions P D Q Demand rises = the demand curve shifts rightwards Demand falls = the demand curve shifts leftwards Supply of Chocolate “Milka” The Supply Schedule A B C D E F G H I P (€) 2,5 2 1,6 1,5 1,4 1,3 1,2 1,1 1 Q 120 100 70 60 50 42 36 15 2 S P S Q 100 50 0 1st Qt r Supply Supply – sellers’ behavior The Supply of a good – quantities of the good that sellers are willing to sell at different price levels The Law of Supply – as the price of the good rises, sellers are willing to sell greater quantities of the good, ceteris paribus. FACTORS DETERMINING SUPPLY Sellers’ expectations Cost of production Technological changes Market size Institutions P S Supply rises – the supply curve Q shifts rightwards Supply falls – the supply curve shifts leftwards Market Equilibrium The demand schedule A B C D E F G H I P (€) 2,5 2 1,6 1,5 1,4 1,3 1,2 1,1 1 D Q 5 8 12 15 22 28 36 50 100 S P E Pe The Supply Schedule A B C D E F G H I P (€) 2,5 2 1,6 1,5 1,4 1,3 1,2 1,1 1 Q 120 100 70 60 50 42 36 15 2 Qe The market is in equilibrium when the quantity supplied equals the quantity demanded at the same price Q Market Equilibrium P S D E Pe Q Qe Market equilibrium quantity supplied equals quantity demanded Pe – equilibrium price Qe – equilibrium quantity The Dynamics of Market Equilibrium D’ P Qd > Q s Qd – Qs = shortage D E’ P’ P rises and Qs increases E Pe P rises and Qd falls S Qe Q’ Qd The Equilibrium is restored at E’ Q The Dynamics of Market Equilibrium P S D S’ E Qd < Qs Qs – Qd = surplus P falls and Qd increases Pe P falls and Qs decreases E’ Qe The Equilibrium is restored at E’ Qs Q The equilibrium price clears all shortages and surpluses Pe = market clearing price Price Ceiling P Shortage = (Qd-Qs) x Pc D Pb.m. Profits of the blackmarketeers = (Pb.m. – Pc) x Qs Pe Pc S shortage Qs Qe Qd Q Arbitrage and speculation P POz Oz widget market P Zo widget market S PZo D S QOz Q Demand shifts to Zo market imports Q QZo Supply shifts to Oz market exports Shifts in Supply and Demand until price differences are eliminated Arbitrage and speculation Arbitrage – the process by which individuals seek to make a profit by taking advantage of discrepancies among prices prevailing simultaneously in different markets Speculation – a way to make a profit by taking a deliberately risky position Quantifying Market Responses Elasticity TR = P x Q Price Elasticity of Demand – buyers’ responsiveness to the price changes Ep = % change in Quantity Demanded : % change in Price Classifying Price Elasticity of Demand |Е| |E| |E| |E| |E| < 1 inelastic demand > 1 elastic demand = 1 unit elastic demand = 0 perfectly inelastic demand =∞ perfectly elastic demand Calculating Price Elasticity of Demand Ep = % change in Quantity Demanded : % change in Price % change in Quantity Demanded = = (Q2 – Q1) : (Q2 + Q1)/2 % change in Price = = (P2 – P1) : (P2 + P1)/2 Price Elasticity of Demand and Total Revenue TR = P x Q The Law of Demand - If P rises, Q falls If the percentage change in price is greater than the percentage change in quantity, the demand is inelastic If the price falls, the change in quantity demanded does not compensate for the price reduction and TR falls If the price rises, TR will increase Price Elasticity of Demand and Total Revenue P Q |E| < 1 |E| > 1 If |E| = 1, TR does not change TR If the price rises, TR increases If the price rises, TR falls E = % change in Q : % change in P % change in Quantity Demanded = = (Q2 – Q1) : (Q2 + Q1)/2 P 10 9 8 Q 1 2 3 A B C 7 4 D 6 5 F 5 6 G 4 7 H 2 3 8 I 1 2 9 J 1 10 K % change in Price = = (P2 – P1) : (P2 + P1)/2 % change in Q = =(10-9) : (9+10)/2 = 0.10 % change in P = = (1-2) : (2+1)/2 = - 0.67 E =- 0.14 |- 0.14| < 1 |E| < 1 J K 9 10 % change in Q = (6-5) : (6+5)/2 = = 1.18 P 10 9 8 Q 1 2 3 A B C 7 4 D 6 5 F 5 6 G 4 7 H 3 8 I 2 9 J 1 10 K % change in P = (5-6) : (5+6)/2 = - 1.18 |E|>1 F |E|= 1 6 5 G |E| < 1 5 6 E = 1.18 : - 1.18 = -1 |- 1| = 1 P A |E|>1 10 9 P 10 9 8 Q 1 2 3 B % change in Q = = (2-1) : (2+1)/2 = 0.67 A B C % change in P = =(9-10) : (9+10)/2 = - 0.10 E = 0.67 : - 0.10 = - 670 |-670| > 1 E = % change in Q : % change in P % change in Quantity Demanded = = (Q2 – Q1) : (Q2 + Q1)/2 % change in Price = = (P2 – P1) : (P2 + P1)/2 1 2 Q FACTORS AFFECTING PRICE ELASTICITY OF DEMAND Availability of substitutes/Definition of market Time horizon Income Traditions Price Elasticity of Supply Price elasticity of supply – sellers’ responsiveness to the price changes Ep = % change in Quantity Supplied : % change in Price Price Elasticity of Supply P E<1 E=1 E>1 Q Price Elasticity of Supply P E=0 E=∞ Q FACTORS AFFECTING PRICE ELASTICITY OF SUPPLY Time horizon Availability of production factors Mobility of production factors Inventory levels Competitiveness of the market structure Institutions Applications of Price Elasticity Economics of Agriculture P S2 S1 P1 % change in P > % change in Q E<1 P falls and TR falls Farmers have lower income P2 D Q1 Q2 Q Applications of Price Elasticity Economics of Agriculture P Solution 1: government pays the difference P1 – P0 to the farmers S P1 Government will lose (P1 – P0) x Q P0 D Q Q Applications of Price Elasticity Economics of Agriculture P Solution 2: government buys all Q from farmers at P1 and sells it. However, buyers will buy less at P1 S P1 Government cannot sell Q – Q1 and will lose (Q – Q1) x P1 The loss under solution 1 is (P1 – P0) x Q The loss under solution 2 is (Q – Q1) x P1 P0 D Q1 Q Since demand is inelastic, (P1 – P0) x Q > (Q – Q1) x P1 Q Solution 2 is preferable because the loss is smaller. The Tax Incidence Case 1: perfectly inelastic demand P D S2 Government imposes an excise tax = t S1 P2 = P1 + t t P1 Sellers will be willing to sell the same Q if only someone else would pay the tax Supply shifts to S2 Since demand is perfectly inelastic, buyers will not change the quantity demanded Buyers pay the tax Q Q The Tax Incidence P Case 2: inelastic demand and elastic supply D Government imposes an excise tax = t S2 P3 S1 P2 t Sellers will be willing to sell the same Q if only someone else would pay the tax Supply shifts to S2 Demand is not perfectly inelastic And buyers will not want to buy Q1 at the higher price P2 P1 Buyers are willing to buy Q2 < Q1 Q2 Q1 Q The shortage Q2 – Q1 will push the Price down to a new equilibrium Q3 Tax = P2 – P1. Buyers pay (P3 – P1) - this is the greater part of the tax. The Tax Incidence S2 P Case 2: elastic demand and inelastic supply D Government imposes an excise tax = t P2 S1 t P3 Sellers will be willing to sell the same Q if only someone else would pay the tax Supply shifts to S2 Demand is elastic And buyers will not want to buy Q1 at the higher price P2 P1 Q2 Buyers are willing to buy Q2 < Q1 The shortage Q2 – Q1 will push the Price down to a new equilibrium Q3 Q Q 1 Tax = P2 – P1. Buyers pay (P3 – P1) - this is the smaller part of the tax. The rest (P2 – P3) is paid by sellers