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Water, pH and Biological Molecules What’s so special about water? It is a great solvent. It holds heat very well. It is the most important inorganic molecule. It is a polar compound Water as a Solvent Dissolving table salt (sodium chloride) Water Is Lighter as Solid than as a Liquid This means that ice forms an insulating blanket over water. Water Has High Surface Tension The attraction of one water molecule for another also accounts for its ability to hold huge amounts of heat. Water is a Polar Compound • Hydrogen ends holds slightly positive charges • Oxygen end holds a slightly negative charge (+) 1H p+ p+ (--) 1H (+) pH is a Big Deal pH is a measure of proton (hydrogen ion or H+) concentration. Low pH (acid) = lots of H+ ions High pH (base) = few H+ ions ; more OH- ions Acids and Bases Acid = H+ Donors Base = H+ Acceptors ORGANIC COMPOUNDS Organic compounds are carbon compounds, made by living things Making Molecules Because carbon contains 4 electrons in its outer shell, it can share electrons with many different atoms in an “attempt” to fill its outer shell. Carbon is the Central Atom of Life. glucose amino acids fat Some Useful Nomenclature In Biology, Shape Matters Its not just chemical formula, it’s the shape of the molecule that lets it do its “job”. Never forget the axiom – structure dictates function. Some biological molecules. Ah, That Smell! Once again, shape matters. It’s the good fit between odorant and receptor molecule that lets us detect aromas. Molecules of Life How do you build a cell? Start with water, add lots of small carboncontaining molecules and ……. Four Major Classes of Biological Molecules Rules of the Game Macromolecules are built by linking a set of building blocks (monomers) together into long chains (a polymer). Monomers – basic units that repeats over and over in organic compounds Each hexagon is this figure is a monomer, building blocks linked together to form a polymer. Macromolecules Are Built By Linking a Set Of Building Blocks (Monomers) Together Into Long Chains (A Polymer). FOUR TYPES OF ORGANIC COMPOUNDS • CARBOHYDRATES – SUGARS AND STARCHES • LIPIDS – FATS • PROTEINS – HAIR, FINGERNAILS, MUSCLES • NUCLEIC ACIDS – DNA AND RNA (GENETIC MATERIAL) CARBOHYDRATES • • • • ELEMENTS – C, H AND O RATIO H:O = 2:1 MONOMER = MONOSACCHARIDE EXAMPLES – SUGARS & STARCH • MAIN FUNCTION – QUICK ENERGY Glucose: A Simple Carbohydrate Used For Energy Production and as a Building Block For Complex Carbohydrates Linking Simple Sugars – the First Step to a Polymer and the Last Step to Some Familiar Compounds MONOSACCHARIDES DISACCHARIDES Some Familiar and Important Complex Carbohydrates 3 OR MORE REPEATING UNITS = POLYSACCHARIDE Carbohydrates are Central Players in Energy Production and Storage LIPIDS • • • • ELEMENTS: C, H and O RATIO OF H:O = More H than O MONOMER = Glycerol and 3 Fatty Acids EXAMPLES – Fats, Oils and Waxes • MAIN FUNCTION – Storage – Energy reserves – Cell membranes FA G l y c e r o l FA FA Lipids are Hydrophobic Molecules That Exist In Three Primary Forms Sterol Phospholipid Fat Fats Are Made By Linking Fatty Acid Chains to Glycerol, a Three Carbon Molecule Space-filling model of a fat A fatty acid Fats are Used in Energy Storage and Production The Degree Of Saturation In A Fat Affects Its Physical And Nutritional Properties Where are the double bonds? The Degree Of Saturation In A Fat Affects Its Physical And Nutritional Properties saturated monounsaturated Where are the double bonds? polyunsaturated Sterols Are Part of Cellular Membranes and Act as Hormones Note the four ring structure common to all sterols. Sterols As Hormones Estrogen, testosterone, progesterone, and corticosteriods (cortisol) are all steroid hormones. Sterols As Hormones “Designer steroids” are major sporting news where they have been used illegally in track and field, baseball, football and countless other sports. A heavily muscled Linford Christie who was disqualified from international competition after testing positive for a banned steroid. Phospholipids are Building Blocks of Cellular Membranes The hydrophilic head group and hydrophobic tails are the keys to phospholipid function. Hydrophilic Head Group And Hydrophobic Tails Are The Keys To Phospholipid Function Phospholipids have a Jekyll and Hyde personality. Phospholipids Form Biological Membranes THE CELL MEMBRANE PROTEINS • Basic building blocks of living material • ELEMENTS: C, H, O and N • MONOMER: Amino Acids – 20 different amino acids • USES – Hair, Muscles, Fingernails – Enzymes – carry out chemical reactions – Transport in cells • FORMS PEPTIDE BONDS BETWEEN A.A. Protein Proteins are THE key elements of life. Forget DNA, proteins rule. Remember the principle - Structure determines Function. Since proteins are the key players of the cell, it follows that protein structure determines cell function. Some of the Diverse Functions of Proteins Strands of the Protein Keratin Create Hair Proteins are Linear Chains of Linked Amino Acids A Common Thread and a Unique Identity R – Residual Group *side chain changes Amino Group – NH2 Single Hydrogen - H Acid or Carboxyl Group – C=O, OH (Side chain) PEPTIDE BONDS • 1 amino acid • 2 amino acids linked together – dipeptide • 3 or more amino acids linked together - polypeptide Peptide bonds Amino Acids, Peptide Bonds, Polypeptides, Protein Proteins are linear chains of 20 different building blocks called amino acids. Peptide bonds Amino acids are linked by peptide bonds – a form of covalent bond. Proteins are Folded Structures Whose Shape (and therefore function) Depends on Amino Acid Sequence Nucleic Acids There are two kinds of nucleic acids, DNA and RNA. Both are involved in the storage and flow of information from gene to gene product. DNA NUCLEIC ACIDS • ELEMENTS: C, H, O, N P and S • MONOMER: Nucleotides • USES: DNA and RNA – Genetic material – Controls the cells activities NUCLEOTIDES •SUGAR GROUP •DEOXYRIBOSE •RIBOSE (RNA) •PHOSPHATE GROUP •NITROGENOUS BASE •ADENINE •GUANINE •CYTOSINE •THYMINE •URACIL (RNA) Nucleotides are Important in Their Own Right Nucleotides fuel the cell and coordinate its metabolism. ATP, the cell’s primary energy currency. REACTIONS OF BIOLOGICAL COMPOUNDS • HYDROLYSIS REACTIONS –Water is added to break apart molecules • C12H22O11 + H2O MALTOSE WATER C6H12O6 + C6H12O6 GLUCOSE GLUCOSE CONDENSATION / DEHYDRATION REACTIONS • CONDENSATION REACTIONS (DEHYDRATION SYNTHESIS REACTIONS) – Joining molecules together by removing water (-H and –OH are removed to make a water molecule) • C6H12O6 + C6H12O6 GLUCOSE + GLUCOSE C12H22O11 + H2O MALTOSE + WATER CATALYST • SPEEDS UP THE NATURAL RATE OF REACTIONS • CAN BE ORGANIC OR INORGANIC ENZYMES • A PROTEIN CATALYST THAT CONTROLS THE RATE OF A REACTION ENZYMES • LOWER THE ACTIVATION ENERGY NEEDED TO CARRY OUT A REACTION • INCREASES THE RATE OF REACTIONS • ENZYME NAMES END IN –ase • NAME IDENTIFIES A REACTING SUBSTANCE – LIPASE – REACTS WITH LIPIDS – SUCRASE – REACTS WITH SUCROSE • NAME CAN IDENTIFY FUNCTION – OXIDASE – CATALYZES OXIDATION – HYDROLASE – CATALYZES HYDROLYSIS SUBSTRATES • Substance acted upon by an enzyme ENZYME ACTION: LOCK & KEY MODEL • AN ENZYME BINDS A SUBSTRATE IN A REGION CALLED THE ACTIVE SITE • ONLY CERTAIN SUBSTANCES CAN FIT IN THE ACTIVE SITE • ENZYME-SUBSTRATE COMPLEX FORMS • SUBSTRATE REACTS TO FORM PRODUCT • PRODUCT IS RELEASED LOCK & KEY METHOD ACTIVE SITE ENZYME-SUBSTRATE COMPLEX ENZYME FUNCTION FACTORS AFFECTING ENZYME ACTION • TEMPERATURE – LITTLE ACTIVITY AT LOW TEMPS – RATE INCREASES WITH TEMPERATURE – MOST ACTIVE TEMP IN HUMANS (37ºC) – ACTIVITY LOST WITH DENATURATION AT HIGH TEMPERATURE TEMPERATURE AFFECTING ENZYME ACTION OPTIMUM TEMPERATURE RATE OF REACTION LOW HIGH TEMPERATURE SUBSTRATE CONCENTRATION AFFECTING ENZYME ACTION MAXIMUM ACTIVITY RATE OF REACTION LOW HIGH SUBSTRATE CONCENTRATION pH AFFECTING ENZYME ACTION OPTIMUM Ph * Most enzymes lose activity in low or high pH RATE OF REACTION LOW HIGH pH