Download Environmental Science

ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE:
A Global Concern, 5th edition
William P. Cunningham
University of Minnesota
Barbara Woodworth Saigo
Saiwood Biology Resources
CHAPTER 1
ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE
AND ECOLOGICAL
PRINCIPLES
What is Environmental Science?
• Environment
• Environmental Science
• History of Environmental Science
– utilitarian conservation
– altruistic preservation
CURRENT CONDITIONS
• Planet Earth
• Environmental Dilemmas
–
–
–
–
population
food shortages
energy
pollution
A DIVIDED WORLD
• Rich vs. Poor
• North vs. South
• Developed countries vs. undeveloped
countries
– First, Second, Third and Fourth World
Countries
HUMAN DEVELOPMENT
• Human Development Index
• Developmental Discrepancies
– basic social services
• education
• health care
–
–
–
–
agrarian reform
employment
civil rights
sustainable resource use
• Sustainable Development
ENVIRONMENTAL
PERSPECTIVES
• Neo-Malthusian
• Technological optimists/Promethean
environmentalism
• “Cornucopian Fallacy”
• Lessons from the Past
CHAPTER 2
TOOLS FOR BUILDING A
BETTER WORLD
Environmental Ethics and Philosophy
• Universal Ethical Principles
– Relativists
– Nihilists
– Utilitarians
• Modernism & Postmodernism
Values, Rights & Obligations
•
•
•
•
Morals
Animal Rights
Inherent Value
Instrumental Value
Worldviews and Ethical
Perspectives
•
•
•
•
Domination
Stewardship
Biocentrism
Ecofeminism
Environmental Justice
• Environmental racism
• Toxic colonialism
• Is Nature fragile or resilient?
Science as a Way of Knowing
•
•
•
•
•
Scientific Method
Hypotheses Testing
Indirect Scientific Evidence
Technology and Progress
Appropriate Technology
CHAPTER 3
MATTER, ENERGY, AND LIFE
From Atoms to Cells
• Atoms
– ions
– atomic number
• Molecules
– compound
• Organic Compounds
– carbon
• Cells
Energy Types and Qualities
• Kinetic Energy
– heat
– temperature
•
•
•
•
Potential Energy
Chemical Energy
Conservation of Matter
Thermodynamics
– 1st law
– 2nd law
Energy for Life
• Solar Energy
• Photosynthesis
– Chlorophyll
– cellular respiration
From Species to Ecosystems
• Population
• Communities
– biological community
• Ecosystems
Food Chains
• Productivity/biomass
• Food chain/food web
• Trophic level
– producers
– consumers
• Organisms
– herbivores
– carnivores
– omnivores
Material Cycles and Life Processes
•
•
•
•
Carbon Cycle
Nitrogen Cycle
Phosphorus Cycle
Sulfur Cycle
CHAPTER 4
BIOLOGICAL COMMUNITIES
AND SPECIES INTERACTION
Critical Factors, Who Lives Where?
•
•
•
•
•
Temperature
Moisture levels
Nutrient supply
Soil chemistry
Water chemistry
• Natural Selection
• Adaptation
• Evolution
• HABITAT
SPECIES
INTERACTIONS AND
COMMUNITY
DYNAMICS
Predation
• Predators
– parasites
– Pathogens
• Prey
Competition
• Intraspecific competition
• Interspecific competition
• Territoriality
Symbiosis
• Commensalism
• Mutualism
Community Properties
•
•
•
•
•
•
Productivity
Abundance and Diversity
Complexity and Connectedness
Resilience and Stability
Structure
Edges and Boundaries
Ecological Succession
•
•
•
•
•
Primary Succession
Secondary Succession
Pioneer Species
Ecological Development
Climax Community
• Introduced Species and Community Change
CHAPTER 5
BIOMES, LANDSCAPES,
RESOTRATION AND
MANAGEMENT
Terrestrial Biomes
• Deserts
• Grasslands
– Prairies
– Savannas
•
•
•
•
•
Tundra
Conifer Forests
Evergreen Forests
Tropical Forests
Tropical Seasonal Forests
Aquatic Ecosystems
• Freshwater and Saline Ecosystems
• Estuaries and Wetlands
• Shorelines and Barrier Islands
– Coral reefs
Landscape Ecology
• Patchiness & Heterogeneity
• Landscape Dynamics
Restoration Ecology
•
•
•
•
•
Rehabilitation
Remediation
Reclamation
Re-creation
Nature, self-healing
CHAPTER 6
POPULATION DYNAMICS
Population Growth
•
•
•
•
Exponential Growth
Geometric Growth
Arithmetic Growth
J Curve
Population Oscillations and
Irruptive Growth
• Dieback
• Overshoot
• Irruptive or Malthusian growth
Growth to a Stable Population
• Logistic growth
• Environmental resistance
Strategies of Population Growth
• Malthusian Strategies
• Logistic Strategies
Factors affecting Population
•
•
•
•
•
•
Natality, Fecundity, and Fertility
Immigration
Mortality and survivorship
Age Structure
Emigration
Education
Factors Affecting Birth and Fertility Rates
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Education/affluence
Importance of children to family labor force
Urbanization
Cost - raising and educating children
Education & Employment opportunity - women
Infant mortality rate
Average marriage age
Availability - pension
Birth control
Religious beliefs, tradition and culture
Factors Affecting Death Rate
• Nutrition
• Fewer infant deaths and increased longevity
• Health and technology
• Teen Pregnancy in the USA
• Migration
• Immigration
Population Age Structure
– Ways of classifying
• Pre-reproductive age
• Reproductive age
• Post-reproductive age
Solutions Influencing Population
– Controlling Migration
– Reducing Birth Rates
•
•
•
•
Economic development
Family planning
Economic rewards
Empowering women
– Population Control Studies
• India
• China
Population Distribution
– Urbanization and Growth
•
•
•
•
The future is urban
Hyper-urbanization - LDCs
The United States and other MDC’s
Spatial patterns of development
CHAPTER 7
HUMAN POPULATIONS
Population Growth
• Birth Rates
• Over-population
• Technology and Ingenuity
Limits to Population Growth
• Malthusian checks
• Karl Marx
• Neo-Malthusian
– Technology solutions?
– Can More people be Beneficial?
Human Demography
•
•
•
•
•
•
Fertility
Birthrate
Zero population growth
Mortality and death rates
Population growth rates
Life span and life expectancy
– dependency ratio
• Emigration and Immigration
Population Growth: Opposition
• Pronatalist/Social Pressures
• Birth Reduction Pressures
– Education
– Birth control
– Economics
Demographic Transition
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Improved living conditions
Development and Population
Optimistic View
Pessimistic View
Social Justice View
Ecojustice View
Infant Mortality
Women’s Rights
Family Planning & Fertility Control
• Birth Control
–
–
–
–
–
–
Celibacy
Mechanical barriers
Surgery
Chemicals
Implantation of physical controls
Abortion
CHAPTER 8
ECOLOGICAL
ECONOMICS
Classical Economics
•
•
•
•
•
•
Diminished Returns
Demand
Supply
Market Equilibrium
Marginal Costs
Price Elasticity
• Neoclassical Economics
– Karl Marx
– E. F. Schumacher
• Ecological Economics
– steady-state economy
Resources, Capital and Reserves
• Resource Types
–
–
–
–
–
Capital
Resource
Nonrenewable resources
Renewable resources
Intangible resources
Economic Resource Categories
•
•
•
•
Proven resources
Known resources
Undiscovered resources
Recoverable resources
Population, Technology, and Scarcity
• Market Efficiencies
• Increasing Environmental Carrying
Capacity
• Economic Models
• Why Not Conserve Resources?
Natural Resource Accounting
•
•
•
•
•
•
Gross National Product (GNP)
Human Development Index (HDI)
Non-market Values
Cost/Benefit Ratios
Green Business
Jobs and the Environment
Sustainability
Sustainable Development
CHAPTER 9
ENVIRONMENTAL
HEALTH AND
TOXICOLOGY
Health Hazards
• Infectious Diseases
• Respiratory diseases
–
–
–
–
pneumonia
tuberculosis
influenza
whooping cough
•Malaria
•Parasitic Mematodes
•Schistosomiasis
•Onchocerciasis (river blindness)
•Trachoma
•STD’s
Toxic Chemicals
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Irritants
Respiratory fibrotic agents
Asphyxiants
Allergens
Neurotoxins
Mutagens
Teratogens
Carcinogens
• Natural and Synthetic Toxin
• Physical Agents
– radiation
• Trauma
– stress
• Diet
Chemical Hazards and Toxicology
• Dose and response
– LD5O factor
• Acute effect
• Chronic effect
• Types
–
–
–
–
–
toxic substances
hazardous
carcinogens
mutagens
teratogens
Movement, Distribution and
Fate of Toxins
•
•
•
•
•
Solubility
Bioaccumulation
Biomagnification
Persistence
Chemical Interactions
Minimizing Toxic Effects
• Metabolic Degradation
• Excretion
• Repair Mechanisms
Measuring Toxicity
•
•
•
•
Animal Testing
Toxicity Ratings
Acute vs. Chronic Doses and Effects
Detection Limits
Assessment
• Risks
• Acceptable risks??
Risk Analysis
–
–
–
–
–
Identifying Risks
The Greatest Risks
Problems - Risk Assessment
Risk-Benefit Analysis
Managing Risks
CHAPTER 10
FOOD, HUNGER AND
NUTRITION
Human Nutrition
• Energy Needs
– undernourishment
– over-nourishment
• Nutritional Needs
–
–
–
–
–
proteins
carbohydrates
lipids and oils
minerals
vitamins
World Food Resoureces
• Major Crops
–
–
–
–
wheat
rice
corn
potatoes
• Meat and Milk
• Croplands
Increasing Food Production
• Green Revolution
– Technology
– Genetic Engineering
– Increased Farm Output
• New Food Sources
• Blue Revolution
– Aqua-culture
Agricultural Economics
•
•
•
•
•
Food Supplies
Food Subsidies
Agricultural Aid
International Food Trade
Cash Crops
• World Hunger
– Famines
– Food Shortages
CHAPTER 11
SOIL RESOURECES
AND SUSTAINABLE
AGRICULTURE
What is soil?
• Soil, a renewable resource
• Soil composition
– humus
• Soil organisms
• Soil profiles
–
–
–
–
top soil
sub-soil
parent material
bedrock
Use and Abuse of Soil
• Land Resources
• Land Degradation
Erosion
• Types of erosion
–
–
–
–
sheet erosion
rill erosion
gully erosion
streambank erosion
• Erosion in the United States
• Erosion in other countries
Agricultural Resources
•
•
•
•
•
Water
Fertilizer
Climate
Energy
Crop Diversity
Soil Conservation
• Managing Topography
–
–
–
–
contour plowing
strip-farming
tied ridges
terracing
• Providing Ground Cover
– cover crops
– mulch
• Reduced Tillage Systems
CHAPTER 12
PEST CONTROL
What are Pest and Pesticides?
• Biological Pests
– Insects
– Large animals
• Botanical Pests
– Weeds
• Pesticides
– Insecticides
• Herbicides
– Fungicides
Pest Controls
• Early Controls
– Botanical
– Chemical
• Modern Controls
– Synthetic chemicals
• DDT
Pesticide Types
• Inorganic pesticides
• Natural organic pesticides
– botanicals
•
•
•
•
•
Fumigants
Chlorinated hydrocarbons
Organophosphates
Carbamates
Microbial agents
Pesticide Benefits
• Disease control
• Crop protection
• Increased crop production
Pesticide Problems
•
•
•
•
Effects on Nontarget Species
Pesticide Resistance/Pest resurgence
Creation of New Pests
Persistence and Mobility in the
Environment
• Human Health Problems
Alternative Pesticide Uses
• Crop rotation
• Biological controls
– predatory insects
– pathogens
• Herbivorous insects
• Genetic and bioengineering
Reducing Pesticide Exposure
• Regulation
– EPA
– USDA
• Personal Safety
CHAPTER 13
BIODIVERSITY
Biodiversity and Species Concept
• What is Biodiversity?
• What are species?
– Number of species
Benefits of Biodiversity
•
•
•
•
•
Food
Drugs
Medicine
Ecological Benefits
Aesthetic and Cultural Benefits
Threats to Biodiversity
• Extinction
• Natural Causes
• Mass Extinction
Human-Caused Reductions in
Biodiversity
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Habitat Destruction
Hunting and Fishing
Commercial products and Live Specimens
Predator and Pest Control
Exotic Species Introductions
Disease
Pollution
Genetic Assimilation
Biodiversity Protection
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Hunting and Fishing Laws
Endangered Species Act
Recovery Plans
Private Land and Critical Habitat
Minimum Viable Populations
Habitat Protection
International Wildlife Treaties
Zoos
Botanical Gardens
Captive Breeding Programs
CHAPTER 14
LAND USE: FORESTS AND
RANGELANDS
World Land Use
•
•
•
•
Forest, 30%
Range and pasture, 26%
Cropland, 1%
Other, 33
–
–
–
–
tundra
desert
wetlands
urban areas
World Forests
• Forest Distribution
– Closed canopy
– Open canopy
– Woodland
Forest Products
• Industrial Timber
• Fuelwood
Tropical Forests
•
•
•
•
Diminishing Forests
Swidden Agriculture
Logging and Land Invasions
Forest Protection
– Reforestation
• Debt-for-Nature Swaps
Temperate Forests
•
•
•
•
Ancient forest/old growth forests
Wilderness Protection
Wildlife Protection
Harvesting old growth forests
– clear-cutting
– strip-cutting
– selective-cutting
• Fire Management
Rangelands
• Range Management
• Overgrazing and Land
Degradation
– desertification
• Forage Conversion
• Harvesting Wild Animals
Rangelands in the U.S.
• Bureau of Land Management
• State of the Range
– feral animals
• Grazing Fees
Land Ownership
• Who owns what?
• Land Reform
• Indigenous Lands
CHAPTER 15
PRESERVING NATURE
Parks and Nature Preserves
• Origins and History
• Natural Landscaping
North American Parks
– Existing Systems
– U.S. National Park System
– Park Problems
•
•
•
•
Over crowding
Roads
Commercialism
Pollution
– Wildlife
– New Directions
– New Parks
World Parks and Preserves
• Biosphere Reserves
• Protecting Natural Heritage
• Size and Design of Nature Preserves
–
–
–
–
recreation areas
historic areas
conservation areas
pristine research areas
• Conservation and Economic Development
• Indigenous Communities
Wilderness Areas
• Wildlife Refuges
– Refuge Management
– International Wildlife Preserves
• poaching
Wetlands, Floodplains, & Coastal
Regions
• Wetland Values
• Wetland Destruction
• Floods and Flood Control
– Floodplains
• Beaches, barrier Islands, and Estuaries
CHAPTER 16
EARTH AND ITS CRUSTAL
RESOURCES
Earth, A Dynamic Sphere
• Earth’s Layers
–
–
–
–
Crust
Mantle
Outer Core
Inner Core
• Tectonic Processes
– Tectonic Plates
– Magma
• Shifting Continents
Rock Types & How They Formed
•
•
•
•
•
•
Igneous Rock
Weathering
Sedimentation
Sedimentary Rock
Biogenic Sedimentation
Metamorphic Rock
Mineralogy
• Metals
• Nonmetal Minerals
• Strategic Minerals
Environmental Effects of Resource
Extraction
• Mining
– tunneling
– water leakage
– strip mining
• Processing
– water pollution
– chemical emissions
Conserving Mineral Resources
• Recycling
– Aluminum & Platinum
– Steel & Iron
• Substituting New Materials for Old Ones
Geologic Hazards
• Earthquakes
– Tsunami
• Volcanoes
• Floods
CHAPTER 17
AIR, CLIMATE, AND
WEATHER
The Atmosphere,
Composition & Structure
• Gas Mixture
• Layered Envelope
–
–
–
–
–
Troposphere
Stratosphere
Mesosphere
Thermosphere
Ionosphere
Weather Engine
• Solar Radiation/ Heat
– Albedo (reflectivity)
– “Greenhouse effect”
• Convection Currents
– Water vapor
Weather
•
•
•
•
•
Energy Balance in the Atmosphere
Convection Cells
Prevailing Winds
Jet Streams
Frontal Weather
– cold and warm fronts
• Cyclonic Storms
– hurricanes and tornadoes
• Seasonal Winds
– monsoon
• Weather Modification
Climate
• Climatic Catastrophes
– Ice Ages
• Driving Forces & Patterns in Climatic
Changes
– Milankovitch Cycles
• El Niño
Human-caused Global
Climate Change
• Greenhouse Gases
– Carbon Dioxide
– Aerosols
• Sources
–
–
–
–
Burning Fossil Fuels
Industrial Processes
Deforestation
Agriculture
Effects of Climate Change
•
•
•
•
•
Temperature Changes
Impact on Plants and Animals
Rising Sea Levels impacting Coastlines
Melting Ice Packs
Possible Increase of Disease
Cutting Emissions
•
•
•
•
United Nations “Earth Summit”
Kyoto Protocol
Developed Nations
Developing Nations
CHAPTER 18
AIR POLLUTION
Natural Sources of Air Pollution
• Volcanoes
• Emissions from vegetation
Human-Caused Air Pollution
• Primary pollutants
• Secondary pollutants
• Fugitive emissions
Conventional or “Criteria”
Pollutants
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Sulfur compounds
Nitrogen Compounds
Carbon Oxides
Metals and Halogens
Particulate Materials
Volatile Organic Compounds
Photochemical Oxidants
Unconventional Pollutants
•
•
•
•
Emissions & emissions standards
Unconventional or noncriteria pollutants
Aesthetic degradation
Indoor air Pollution
– smoke
Climate, Topography, & Atmospheric
Processes
•
•
•
•
Inversions
Dust Domes and Heat Islands
Long Range Transport
Stratospheric Ozone
– chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs)
Effects of Air Pollution
• Human Health
– bronchitis
– emphysema
• Plant Pathology
• Acid Deposition
–
–
–
–
–
pH and atmospheric acidity
aquatic effects
forest damage
buildings and monuments
visibility reduction
Air Pollution Control
• Moving Pollution to Remote Areas
• Particulate Removal
– filters
• Sulfur Removal
– fuel switching and fuel cleaning
– limestone injection/fluidized bed combustion
– flue gas desulfurization
– sulfur recovery processes
• Nitrogen Oxide Control
• Hydrocarbon Controls
Clean Air Legislation
• Clean Air Act of 1963
• Amendments of 1970
• Amendments of 1990
– Acid rain
– Urban smog
– Toxic air pollutants
– Ozone protection
– Marketing pollution rights
– Toxic organic compounds
• EPA
CHAPTER 19
WATER USE AND
MANAGEMENT
Water Resources
• Hydrologic Cycle
– Evaporation/Sublimation
– Saturation Point
– Relative humidity
– Condensation
– Dew Point
• Rainfall & Topography
– Rain Shadow
• Desert Belts
• Balancing the Water Budget
Major Water Compartments
• Oceans
• Glaciers, Ice, & Snow
• Ground Water
– infiltration
– water table
– aquifers
• Rivers and Streams
• Lakes and Ponds
• Wetlands
• The Atmosphere
Water Availability and Use
• Water Supplies
• Drought Cycles
• Types of Water Use
– Withdrawal
– Consumption
– Degradation
• Quantities of Water Use
• Use by Sector
Freshwater Shortages
• A Scarce Resource
• Depleting Groundwater
– subsidence
– sinkholes
Increasing Water Supplies
•
•
•
•
Seeding Clouds &Towing Icebergs
Desalination
Dams, Reservoirs, Canals, & Aqueducts
Environmental Costs
– Evaporation, Leakage, and Siltation
– Loss of Free-Flowing Rivers
Water Management & Conservation
•
•
•
•
Watershed Management
Domestic Conservation
Industrial and Agricultural Conservation
Price Mechanisms
CHAPTER 20
WATER POLLUTION
Water Pollution
• Point Sources
• Non-point Sources
• Atmospheric Deposition
•
•
•
•
Types and Effects of
Water Pollution
Infectious Agents
Oxygen-Demanding Wastes
Plant Nutrients & Cultural Eutrophication
Toxic Inorganic Materials
– Heavy Metals
– Nonmetallic Salts
– Acids and Bases
• Organic Chemicals
• Sediments
• Thermal Pollution
Water Quality Today
• Surface Water in the U.S. &
Canada
• Surface Water in other Countries
• Groundwater and Drinking Water
Supplies
• Ocean Pollution
Water Pollution Control
• Source Reduction
• Non-point Sources and Land Management
–
–
–
–
Agriculture
Urban runoff
Construction sites
Land disposal
• Human Waste Disposal
– Natural Processes
– Municipal Sewage Treatment
• Primary treatment
• Secondary treatment
• Tertiary treatment
– Low-Cost Waste Treatment
• effluent sewerage
Water Legislation
• Clean Water Act
• Clean Water Act Reauthorization
• Other Important Water Legislation
– Safe Drinking Water Act
– Superfund
– Great lakes Water Quality Agreement
CHAPTER 21
CONVENTIONAL
ENERGY
Energy
• A Brief History
• Current Energy Sources
–
–
–
–
Fossil fuels
Nuclear power
Hydroelectric
Solar
• Per Capita Consumption
• Energy Use
Coal
• Coal Resources and Reserves
• Mining
• Air Pollution
Oil
• Oil Resources and Reserves
• Oil Imports and Domestic Supplies
• Oil Shales and Tar Sands
Natural Gas
• Natural Gas Resources and Reserves
• Unconventional Gas Sources
– Methane hydrate
Nuclear Power
•
•
•
•
Nuclear Reactors: How They Work?
Types of Reactors
Alternative Reactor Designs
Breeder Reactors
Radioactive Waste Management
• Ocean Dumping
• Land Disposal
– high-level waste repository
– monitored, retrievable storage
• Decommissioning Old Nuclear Plants
Changing Fortunes of Nuclear
Power
• Changing Public Opinion
• Nuclear Fusion
– Magnetic confinement
– Inertial confinement
CHAPTER 22
SUSTAINABLE
ENERGY
Conservation
• Utilization Efficiencies
• Energy Conversion Efficiencies
– net energy yield
• Negawatt programs
• Co-generation
Tapping Solar Energy
• A Vast Resource
• Passive Solar Heat
• Active Solar Heat
– Eutectic Chemicals
High-Temperature Solar Energy
• Solar Cookers
• Promoting Renewable Energy
• Photovaltaic Solar Energy
– Photovoltaic Cells
• Storing Electrical Energy
Energy from Biomass
•
•
•
•
Burning Biomass
Fuelwood crisis in LDCs
Dung and Methane as Fuels
Alcohol from Biomass
– gasohol
• Crop Residues, Energy Crops and Peat
Energy from the Earth’s Forces
• Hydropower
– Dams and Hydro Generators
• Wind Energy
– Wind Farms
• Geothermal Energy
• Tidal and Wave Energy
– Tidal Stations
• Ocean Thermal Electric Conversion
CHAPTER 23
SOLID, TOXIC AND
HAZARDOUS WASTE
Solid Waste
• Waste Stream
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
Paper, 38%
Yard waste, 17%
Metals, 8%
Plastics, 8%
Glass, 7%
Food, 7%
Miscellaneous, 14%
Waste Disposal Methods
•
•
•
•
•
Open Dumps
Ocean Dumpings
Landfills
Export Waste
Incineration and Resource Recovery
– Types of incinerators
• refuse-derived fuel
• mass burn
– Incinerator Cost and Safety
Reducing the Waste Stream
•
•
•
•
•
Recycling
Composting
Energy from Waste
Reuse
Producing Less Waste
– Photodegradable plastics
– Biodegradable plastics
Hazardous and Toxic Wastes
• Hazardous Waste Disposal
• Superfund
• Hazardous Waste Management
– Produce Less Waste
– Convert to Less Hazardous Substances
• Physical treatments
• Chemical treatments
• Bioremediation
– Store Permanently
• Retrievable Storage
CHAPTER 24
URBANIZATION AND
SUSTAINABLE CITIES
Urbanization
• What is a city?
–
–
–
–
–
–
Rural area
Urban area
Village
City
Megacity
Core region
• World Urbanization
Causes of Urban Growth
• Immigration Push Factors
• Immigration Pull Factors
• Government Policies
Urban Problems
• The Developing World
–
–
–
–
Traffic and Congestion
Air Pollution
Sewer Systems and Water Pollution
Housing
• Slums
• Shantytowns
• Squatter Towns
• The Developed World
– Urban Problems
– Urban Renewal
– Noise
Transportation and City Growth
• Transportation methods
– horse & buggy
– automobiles
• Roads/freeways
City Planning
• History
• Garden Cities and New Towns
• Cities of the Future
– technopolis
• Urban Redesign
• Design for Open space
– conservation
• Urban Redesign
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
Limit size
Development areas
Shopping malls into city centers
Convenience for shopping and services
Job location
Exercise areas
Diverse housing
“Superblocks”
Self-sustainable food and waste centers
Public participation
CHAPTER 25
WHAT THEN SHALL WE
DO?
Environmental Education
• Environmental Literacy
• Environmental Careers
Individual Accountability
• Shopping for Green Products
–
–
–
–
–
precycling
Non toxic products
recyclable products
natural products
Environmentally friendly products
• Blue Angels and Green Seals
• Limits of Green Consumerism
• Paying Attention to What’s Important
Collective Actions
•
•
•
•
•
•
Student Environmental Groups
Mainline Environmental Organizations
Broadening the Environmental Agenda
Deep or Shallow Environmentalism
Radical Environmental Groups
Anti-environmental Backlash
Global Issues
• Public Opinions and Environmental
Protection
– “Post materialist” values
• Sustainable Development
• International Nongovernmental
Organizations
Green Government and Politics
• Green Politics
– “Green” Parties
•
•
•
•
•
•
Green Plans
National Legislation
Courts
Executive Branch
Environmental Impact Statements
International Environmental Treaties and
Conventions