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Origins and beginnings Transition to Complex societies Adapted from: http://intra.burltwpsch.org/users/rlee/apworl d.htm What are the ingredients that transform a society into a civilization? What is an inherent problem with the word “civilized”? • cities that serve as administrative centers rather than isolated communities usually coupled with monument building • a political system based on territory rather than kinship • a specialization of labor in areas other than food production called division of labor • advancing technological skills • the division of the society into classes, which accompanies the accumulation of wealth and prestige • a recordkeeping system formed from a writing system • long-distance trade, as opposed to local trade • major advances in the sciences and arts. • The term civilization is an ambiguous concept and must be discussed carefully because of the tendency throughout time to equate civilization with our own way of life. People tend to define themselves as “civilized” and anyone else as “uncivilized” or “barbaric.” Other than learned behavior – what is culture? • Culture consists of learned patterns of action and expression and includes art, music, clothing, dwellings, tools, values, beliefs, and languages. • Although Stone Age music and dance remain hidden from investigation, early human art and tools are important sources for studying Stone Age culture. • Cave paintings reveal much about human society and wildlife. • The development of increasingly specialized tools is evident in the archaeological record. • Tools for gathering and digging food as well as for killing and butchering animals demonstrate human ingenuity. • Tool and weapon design changed along with new methods of hunting and agriculture, revealing the adaptability of the human species. • Methods of food preparation are deduced from the tools made for those tasks and are important indicators of cultural phenomena, such as the gendered division of labor Indus – Mesopotamia - Egypt • All three civilizations were built around fertile river valleys. • The resulting surplus production of foodstuffs supported a government and religious infrastructure, a middle class of merchants and artisans. • All three civilizations also developed a complex system of writing to accompany the growth of government and urban life. • While little is known about Indus religion, Egyptians and Mesopotamians linked their religious beliefs and practices to the natural environment. • Because of the size of the Indus River system, the civilization there was much larger than that in Mesopotamia. • Whereas the Mesopotamian civilization was urban centered, that of the Indus Valley was more dispersed and rural. • Metals were more readily available in the Indus Valley, both those occurring naturally and those acquired through trade. • Consequently, metal objects tended to be more utilitarian in design and more generally distributed through the population. • Metal objects in Egypt and Mesopotamia, on the other hand, were more likely to have a decorative and ceremonial function. As the Harrapan script has yet to be deciphered, how do historians make inferences about the civilization of the Indus River Valley? • The geography provides some clues. • For example, the rivers, ocean access, and particularly the mountain ranges all shape the history of the region. • The geography supports intensive cultivation therefore city life and civilization is possible. • The excavations of the cities Mohenjo-Daro and Harappa are also fertile places to find information on this society. • The archaeological evidence of the cities helps to figure out information on settlements. The identity of the people who lived there isn’t certain; however, the design and construction of the cities can be examined and suggests the existence of a central government. The natural resources, crafts, and metals can also be discovered. Trade contacts through the Persian Gulf are also evident, although we know little about their religious, social, economic, and political structures. The decline of this civilization is also not certain. There is speculation that natural disaster like earthquake or flooding may be responsible. What are social divisions and how do they appear within Mesopotamian society, and what are reasons for those divisions? • Divisions arise among groups of people because of differences in wealth, social or religious functions, and legal and political rights. • Social classes are formed when a society grants or acknowledges status and privilege because of these imbalances. • Wealthy and middle classes were formed in Mesopotamia with the establishment of a royalty, a religious hierarchy, large landholdings, and long-distance trade. • There were three distinct classes: – the large landholders, royalty, priests, and merchants – dependent farmers and most artisans and workmen – slaves. • Slavery was not economically crucial to Mesopotamian society, and it was not an inherited condition. What was the political structure within the Mesopotamia region and how was this main framework of civilization created? • Mesopotamia was a civilization based on villages and cities and thus relied on the existence of a large agricultural sector to supply those urban areas with food. • An agricultural surplus makes possible the existence of merchants, artisans, government officials, scribes, and religious specialists who are not directly engaged in producing food themselves. • The city supplied markets for foodstuffs and crafted items, and military protection for the agriculturalists. • As political leadership in Sumerian Mesopotamia grew, leaders were able to organize and coerce labor to build an irrigation system, dikes, canals, and roads, which contributed to further agricultural expansion. • As cities grew, political, social, religious, educational, judicial, and economic institutions expanded as well. How did the status and experience of women change as Mesopotamian society developed into a civilization? • Because of their primary role in procuring much of the family’s food, women in hunter-gatherer societies had relatively high status. In the transition to food production, women’s status suffered as more of the heavy cultivating work was done by men. • As increased food supplies encouraged larger family size, raising children occupied greater portions of women’s time, further detracting from their social status. • When Mesopotamia developed an urban middle class and private wealth, women were used to enhance family status and privilege through arranged marriages and family alliances. It is possible that the women also began to wear the veil at this time. • New laws granted higher levels of control to male family members. • Despite the fact that women had no political role, some women worked outside the home in such occupations as textile weaving, brewing, prostitution, tavern keepers, bakers, and fortunetellers in addition to carrying out the ever-present domestic duties, preserving families, and raising children throughout time. The conditions leading to the transition from food gathering to food cultivation had universal environmental implications but resulted in regional and irregular spread of the technology and also led to differences in types of agriculture. • Changes in the global climate about ten thousand years ago made increased food supplies necessary, and humans began manipulating native plants to enhance their food supply. • As hunter-gatherers returned yearly to the same sites, they deliberately scattered seeds from desirable plants to encourage their growth. • Using fire and rudimentary tools, they cleared land for cultivation and discouraged the growth of unwanted plants. • Selecting seeds from the highest-yielding plants eventually led to new types of crops. • Climate and soil conditions heavily influenced the development of agriculture. • Emmer wheat and barley were among the first grains grown in the Middle East but were unsuitable for humid or dry climates. • In those areas, root crops or other grains such as sorghum and millet predominated. • Agricultural Revolutions developed independently in many different places. – Maize, for example, became the most important domesticated crop in the Americas but was unknown in other parts of the world. Geography contributed to Egyptian vision of cosmic order • The abundance and benevolence of the environment of the Nile Valley gave their vision of the cosmos a quality that emphasized renewal and bounty. • The support of the monarchy was related to the support of this cosmic order. – The king was a chief priest as well as political leader. – Egypt had many gods, many of whom were depicted with animal heads, others with human form. • There is a correlation between the benevolent environment and the development of temples and festivals held for the gods. – Egyptians believed that the afterlife was a journey beset with hazards. – There was extensive preparation for this journey in the embalming process to help with the journey. • Later the Book of the Dead provided a map for the living on how to maintain this cosmic order One of the most enduring symbols of Egypt is the pyramids. How does the role of the Pharaoh engender the construction of the pyramids and contribute to the strength of Egypt? • The Egyptians viewed the pharaoh as a god on earth, the incarnation of Horus and the son of the sun god Re. • The pharaoh had come to earth to maintain ma’at, the divine order of the universe. • He was the link between the people and the gods, therefore ensuring the welfare and prosperity of the country. • The death of the pharaoh was a critical moment because the well-being of the state depended on him. • Therefore every effort was made to ensure that he had a safe journey back to the gods in his afterlife. • Massive resources were poured into the construction of royal tombs, the celebration of funeral rites and offerings in chapels. • The tombs started as flat-topped rectangular tombs made of mud brick, but this was replaced with a pyramid design that has become an enduring symbol of ancient Egypt. • Between 2550 and 2490 B.C.E. the Egyptians erected huge pyramids at Giza, which were the largest stone structures ever built by human hands. • Amazingly this construction was done without machinery, with only stone tools and muscle power. • These construction projects connected the Egyptians and allowed them to share culture better than even the Nile that brought them together. • • • • • • • • How was the first Egyptian civilization shaped by its natural environment? Imposing natural barriers of desert and harborless seacoast surrounding Egypt protected it from outside influences and threats. Egypt was also well endowed with the natural resources necessary for forming a civilization. Those barriers and resources allowed Egypt to develop a unique culture in isolation and security. Except for a narrow stretch of fertile land along the Nile River, Egypt is almost entirely desert. Without adequate rainfall, agriculture was made possible only by the yearly flooding of the Nile, which carried rich deposits of silt along with it. The Nile was also the primary means of communication and transportation. Reeds growing in marshy areas along the river were used for making papyrus (paper), as well as items such as sails and ropes. Egyptians had plenty of stone and clay for building materials; they also had access to metals, from which they could fashion tools and decorative objects. Because of the need to predict the Nile floods and survey taxable agricultural land, mathematics and astronomy became advanced sciences in Egypt. Egyptian religion was rooted in the physical landscape of the Nile Valley and the recurrent cycles and periodic renewal caused by the environment. Discuss the importance of technology and the various Mesopotamian technological advances. Would you describe the Mesopotamians as “advanced”? Why? • In general, technology refers to the tools and machinery that humans use to manipulate the physical world. – Technology is what is used to overcome your environment • • • • • • • • • • Scholars now use the term technology more broadly to describe any specialized knowledge that is used to transform the natural environment and society. The Mesopotamians developed many different technological advances to control their environment such as irrigation, which is essential for agriculture, and the building and maintenance of canals, dams, and dikes. They also developed transportation such as carts, sledges, and boats for maneuvering in the varied terrain. They also became skilled in metallurgy, developing bronze. The advantage of bronze was its malleability over stone as well as its strength and durability. Mesopotamians also developed brick building materials, which were used for the construction of monumental architecture. Therefore they developed the knowledge of engineering and architecture. The Mesopotamians also developed the potter’s wheel, weapons and machinery of warfare, and a number system. Perhaps one of the most important technological contributions of the Mesopotamians was their system of writing. Originally developed to keep economic records, this system of cuneiform was also used for political, literary, religious, and scientific purposes. Why did Neolithic peoples form permanent settled communities? What were the advantages and disadvantages of those communities? • • • • • • • • • Humans formed permanent settled communities to ensure a more dependable food supply. There were numerous cultural and societal benefits to community life as well. The religious practices of food producers reflected their lifestyles and differed greatly from those of hunter-gatherers. Neolithic communities helped develop and spread the large language families across the globe. Architecture evolved as towns grew. Objects too large and cumbersome for hunting and gathering peoples became practical and necessary for settled life, creating a demand for such items as pottery. Consequently, trade and craftwork became important. Early metalworking emerged, but mostly for decorative and ceremonial uses. Still, there were drawbacks for agriculturalists and pastoralists. Their diets were not as varied or nutritious as the diets of hunter-gatherers, and farmers had to work longer and harder than foragers. The Egyptian hieroglyphic and Mesopotamian cuneiform writing systems had similar purpose but the Egyptian system developed well beyond its original purpose. How were the systems similar in development, purpose and results? • • • • • • • • • The earliest form of Egyptian writing, a system of hieroglyphics, developed at the beginning of the Old Kingdom. Hieroglyphics were picture symbols, made with a brush, standing for words, syllables, or sounds. The writing system was developed for government administration, but Egyptians used it for purposes beyond recordkeeping. Tales of adventure, magic, and love, as well as religious hymns and instruction manuals, were recorded in hieroglyphics and the simplified systems descending from them. The Egyptians also developed writing material called papyrus, which was made from the stems of the papyrus reed. This is a difference because the plant grew only in Egypt but was in high demand throughout the ancient world. The Mesopotamians wrote instead on a moist clay tablet with a pointed stylus, producing wedge-shaped symbols. Both systems of writing were highly specialized activities requiring long training and practice. Literacy afforded individuals prestige and status, as well as administrative qualifications. – Scribes held an elevated social position in both societies