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THE STAR FORMATION AND NUCLEAR ACCRETION HISTORIES OF NORMAL GALAXIES
IN THE AGES SURVEY
Casey R. Watson1 , Christopher S. Kochanek2 , William R. Forman3 , Ryan C. Hickox3 ,
Christine J. Jones3 , Michael J. I. Brown4 , Kate Brand5 , Arjun Dey6 , Buell T.
Jannuzi6 , Almus T. Kenter3 , Steve S. Murray3 , Alexey Vikhlinin3 , Daniel J.
Eisenstein7 , Giovani G. Fazio3 , Paul J. Green3 , Brian R. McNamara8 , Marcia Rieke6 ,
Joseph C. Shields8
ABSTRACT
We combine IR, optical and X-ray data from the overlapping, 9.3 deg2 NOAO Deep Wide-Field
Survey (NDWFS), AGN and Galaxy Evolution Survey (AGES), and XBoötes Survey to measure the Xray evolution of 6146 normal galaxies as a function of absolute optical luminosity, redshift, and spectral
type over the largely unexplored redshift range 0.1 <
∼z<
∼ 0.5. Because only the closest or brightest of the
galaxies are individually detected in X-rays, we use a stacking analysis to determine the mean properties
of the sample. Our results suggest that X-ray emission from spectroscopically late-type galaxies is
dominated by star formation, while that from early-type galaxies is dominated by a combination of hot
gas and active galactic nucleus (AGN) emission. We find that the mean star formation and supermassive
black hole accretion rate densities evolve like ∼ (1+z)3±1 , in agreement with the trends found for samples
of bright, individually detectable starburst galaxies and AGN. Our work also corroborates the results of
many previous stacking analyses of faint source populations, with improved statistics.
Subject headings: cosmology: observations — galaxy evolution
(> 2 keV) X-ray luminosity (presumably from HMXBs)
and other star formation indicators, such as radio, far-IR,
B-band, and UV flux for both local (e.g., Fabbiano 1989,
David, Jones, & Forman 1992) and higher redshift (Seibert et al. 2002, Bauer et al. 2002) galaxy samples. Many
studies have found a linear correlation between X-ray luminosity and the SFR (e.g., Ranalli et al. 2003, Grimm et
al. 2003, Gilfanov et al. 2004, Persic et al. 2004; Colbert
et al. 2004). In particular, Grimm et al. (2003) found
that the hard (2–10 keV) HMXB X-ray luminosity scales
with the SFR according to
SFR
HMXB
40
ergs s−1 .
(1)
Lx,hard ' 0.67 × 10
M yr−1
1. introduction
There are three primary sources of galactic X-ray emission: diffuse, hot gas, accreting stellar remnants, such
as X-ray binaries, and accreting supermassive black holes
(SMBHs), i.e., active galactic nuclei (AGNs). Apart from
nearby ellipticals, which tend to be dominated by hot gas
emission (e.g., Forman, Jones, & Tucker 1994), local surveys indicate that X-ray binaries dominate the flux from
“normal” galaxies with quiescent nuclei (e.g., Fabbiano &
White 2003, Smith & Wilson 2003, Muno et al. 2004).
There are two distinct populations of X-ray binaries: the
6
short-lived (<
X-ray binaries (HMXBs)
∼ 10 yr), high-mass
8
and the long-lived (>
∼ 10 yr), low-mass X-ray binaries
(LMXBs). Because of their short lifetimes, one expects
the X-ray emission from HMXBs to track the current star
formation rate (SFR). In contrast, the X-ray emission from
longer lived LMXBs should track the integrated stellar
mass with some time lag due to stellar and binary evolution (e.g., Ghosh & White 2001, Ptak et al. 2001, Grimm
et al. 2003).
These expectations are largely borne out by observations. There are strong correlations between the hard
In contrast, the (total band: 0.5–8 keV) X-ray emission
from LMXBs is well correlated with the K-band flux of
galaxies, which in turn is a good tracer of stellar mass.
Kim and Fabbiano (2004) find that
LK
40
LLMXB
'
10
erg s−1 ,
(2)
x
LK∗
1 Department of Physics and Astronomy, Millikin University, 1184
West Main Street, Decatur, IL 62522;
[email protected]
2 Department of Astronomy, The Ohio State University, 140 West
18th Avenue, Columbus, OH 43210; Center for Cosmology and
Astro-Particle Physics, The Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio
43210
3 Harvard-Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics, 60 Garden Street,
Cambridge, MA 02138
4 School of Physics, Monash University, Clayton, Victoria, 3800,
Australia
5 Space Telescope Science Institute, 3700 San Martin Drive, Baltimore, MD 21218
6 National Optical Astronomy Observatory, Tucson, AZ 85726-6732
7 Steward Observatory, University of Arizona, 933 North Cherry
Avenue, Tucson, AZ 85721
8 Department of Physics and Astronomy, Ohio University, Athens,
OH 45701
1
where LK∗ = νK LνK ,∗ = 2.6 × 1043 erg s−1 corresponds
to MK∗ = −23.4 mag (Kochanek et al. 2001).
Because the stellar mass density evolves slowly between
z = 0 and z ' 0.5 (e.g., Bell 2004 and references therein),
we expect little change in the number of LMXBs and assume that Eqn. (2) holds out to z ' 0.5. On the other
hand, the SFR density rises rapidly with look-back time,
(e.g., ∝ (1 + z)2.7±0.7 Hogg 2001), so we should see a
correspondingly rapid evolution in the X-ray flux of starforming galaxies due to the increasing number of HMXBs.
The accretion luminosity density of AGNs also rises
rapidly with redshift (e.g., ∝ (1 + z)3.2±0.8 , Barger et al.
2005) with higher densities of more luminous sources at
higher redshifts (e.g., Barger et al. 2001, Cowie et al. 2003,
Ueda et al. 2003, Miyaji 2004, Hasinger 2005, Hasinger,
Miyaji, & Schmidt 2005). The observed trends suggest
that faint AGNs with characteristic X-ray luminosities ap41
−1
proaching those of bright starbursts, Lx <
∼ 10 ergs s ,
2
Watson et al.
may be most abundant at z <
∼ 1 and, if so, they could produce a substantial fraction of the “normal” galaxy X-ray
flux at these redshifts.
Given their similar evolution, spectral shapes (e.g., Ptak
et al. 1999), and potentially similar luminosities, it may
be difficult to disentangle the X-ray emission from AGNs
and star formation at z <
∼ 1. Probing the X-ray evolution
of normal galaxies between z ' 0.1 and z ' 1 is also
difficult because it requires relatively deep observations
over relatively wide areas. In fact, most of our knowledge
about the X-ray properties of galaxies still comes from
either large-area, local surveys (e.g., Fabbiano 1989; David
et al. 1992) or high-redshift, small-volume deep fields (e.g.,
Georgakakis et al. 2007; Ptak et al. 2007; Tzanavaris &
Georgantopoulos 2008).
This is the second in a series of papers in which we
attempt to bridge this gap by examining the X-ray evolution of galaxies within the 9.3 deg2 Boötes field of the
NOAO Deep Wide-Field Survey (NDWFS; Jannuzi & Dey
1999, B. T. Jannuzi et al., in preparation, A. Dey et al. in
preparation). The XBoötes survey (Murray et al. 2005)
obtained a 5 ks Chandra mosaic of the entire 9.3 deg2
field based on 126 ACIS-I pointings. These data are too
shallow, however, to detect typical galaxies even at modest redshifts. Fortunately, the wide area of the survey
allows us to measure the mean properties of a large, representative population of galaxies by “stacking” (averaging)
their X-ray emission (Brandt et al. 2001; Nandra et al.
2002; Hornschemeier et al. 2002, Georgakakis et al. 2003,
Lehmer et al. 2005, 2007, 2008; Laird et al. 2005, 2006).
In the first paper in the series, Brand et al. (2005; hereafter B05) employed the stacking technique to examine
the X-ray luminosity evolution of ≈ 3300 optically luminous (∼ L∗ ), red galaxies with photometric redshifts
0.3 < z < 0.9. By constraining the sample to have the
same evolution-corrected, absolute R-band magnitude distribution at all redshifts (MR < −21.3, hMR i ' −22.0),
it was possible to follow the nuclear accretion histories of
a consistent population of galaxies throughout this epoch.
Because these massive, early-type galaxies are the typical
hosts of powerful quasars at higher redshifts (McLeod &
McLeod 2001; Dunlop et al. 2003), tracking the decay
of their nuclear activity to lower redshifts is essential to
our understanding of the decline in SMBH accretion from
its peak during the quasar phase (z >
∼ 2) to the present.
The observed variation in the nuclear accretion rate of the
> L∗ red galaxies, Lx ∝ (1 + z)4±2.4 , is broadly consistent
with the behavior of bright, individually detected AGNs
studied by Barger et al. (2001; hereafter Ba01) and Barger
et al. (2005; hereafter Ba05).
In the present paper, we combine the NDWFS and XBoötes
surveys with redshifts from the AGN and Galaxy Evolution Survey (AGES, C. S. Kochanek et al. 2009, in preparation) to study the X-ray properties of a complete, fluxlimited sample of galaxies as a function of absolute optical
luminosity, redshift, stellar mass, and spectral type. While
our general procedures are similar to those of other recent
stacking analyses (e.g., Brandt et al. 2001; Nandra et al.
2002; Hornschemeier et al. 2002; Georgakakis et al. 2003,
Laird et al. 2005, 2006; Lehmer et al. 2007), the number of objects we consider (≈ 6500) is 10–100 times larger.
The size of our sample allows us to convert the short mean
exposure time of the XBoötes survey (5 ks) into stacked,
effective exposure times that are large enough to detect
galaxies at intermediate redshift (Msec).
In Section 2 we describe the data and illustrate our
ability to detect X-ray emission from the AGES galaxies through the stacking approach. In Section 3 we provide further details of our stacking analysis and use Monte
Carlo simulations to test it and to refine our choices of
signal and background apertures. In Section 4 we present
measurements of the mean evolution of all the AGES galaxies. We then consider the radial emission profiles of a
nearby (z ≤ 0.1) subsample in order to test for weak/obscured
AGNs. We also examine the hardness and X-ray to optical luminosity ratios as a function of redshift, stellar mass,
and spectroscopic type (late-type, early-type, or AGNs).
Based on these tests, we evaluate the relative contributions of hot gas, LMXBs, HMXBs, and AGNs emission to
the observed signal. We then discuss our results and compare them to previous studies. Lastly, we determine the
evolution of the SFR per unit galactic stellar mass and the
SFR density based on emission from the late-type galaxy
sample and trace the evolution of the nuclear accretion
rate and accretion rate density of AGNs in the early-type
galaxy sample. We summarize our findings in Section 5.
Throughout the paper, we assume a flat Λ cold dark matter (ΛCDM) cosmology with Ωm,0 = 0.3, ΩΛ,0 = 0.7, and
H0 = 70 km s−1 Mpc−1 .
2. the x-ray data, the galaxy sample and
methods
The NDWFS obtained BW , I, R, and (partial) K-band
observations of two roughly 9.3 deg2 regions. The Northern Boötes field has also been surveyed at radio (VLA
FIRST, Becker et al. 1995 and WSRT, de Vries et al.
2002), far-IR (Spitzer/MIPS, Soifer et al., 2004), mid-IR
(Spitzer/IRAC, The IRAC Shallow Survey, Eisenhardt et
al., 2004), near-IR (NDWFS and the Flamingos Extragalactic Survey; Elston et al. 2006), UV (GALEX; Hoopes
2004), and X-ray (XBoötes, Murray et al. 2005) wavelengths. In particular, the XBoötes survey covered the
entire Northern Boötes field with 126 170 × 170 ACIS-I images of mean exposure time 5 ks using the Chandra X-ray
Observatory (Murray et al. 2005). The survey detected
approximately 3300 point sources and 43 extended sources
in the field with ≥ 4 counts (4767 sources with ≥ 2 counts,
Kenter et al. 2005).
2.1. X-ray Data
For our current analysis, we use the positions of the
420,000 photons detected in the XBoötes observations,
with weights correcting for off-axis vignetting and variations in exposure time, their estimated energies ± δ,
and their positions relative to the pointing center of the
observations. We limited the analysis to photons with
0.5 < < 7 keV, dividing them into total (0.5 − 7 keV),
hard (2 − 7 keV), and soft (0.5 − 2 keV) energy bands. The
mean total, hard, and soft backgrounds measured during these observations were approximately 2.8, 1.9, and
0.96 × 10−3 counts arcsec−2 , respectively.
For the normal galaxies, the average ratio between the
hard and soft X-ray counts is 0.73. To fit this count
ratio, we assume an absorbed power-law dN (E)/dE ∝
X-ray Evolution of AGES Galaxies
E −Γ (counts s−1 keV−1 ) for the intrinsic X-ray spectrum.
We then use portable, interactive multi-mission simulator (PIMMS v3.9d)9 to find the best-fit photon index,
Γ = 1.29, assuming a fairly low absorption column density
(N (H) = 4 × 1020 cm−2 ), half of which is the Galactic absorption for the Böotes field from Stark et al. (1992). Factor of 2 changes in the assumed column densities change
Γ by only a few percent. The spectrum of the “normal”
galaxies is very similar to that of the Cosmic X-ray Background (CXB), ΓCXB ' 1.4 (e.g., Tozzi et al. 2001; Nandra et al. 2004) and of resolved populations in the Chandra Deep Fields (e.g., Civano, Comastri, & Brusa 2005).
Photon indices in this range are also typical for both Xray binaries and obscured AGNs (1 <
∼ Γ <
∼ 2, e.g., Ptak
et al. 1999, Muno et al. 2004). Based on our model
of the composite AGES galaxy X-ray spectrum, we estimate that one soft, hard or total band count corresponds
to 1.05 × 10−15 erg cm−2 s−1 , 3.65 × 10−15 erg cm−2 s−1
and 2.14 × 10−15 erg cm−2 s−1 , respectively, for an on-axis
source with a 5 ks exposure time.
2.2. The Galaxy Sample
For our stacking analysis, we cross referenced the XBoötes
catalog of X-ray photon positions (i.e., the event list) with
those of the galaxies observed by the AGES (C. S. Kochanek
et al. 2009, in preparation). We focus on the approximately 6500 galaxies in the 2004 AGES main galaxy sample. This sample consists of all galaxies with R < 19.2 mag
and a randomly selected 20% of galaxies with 19.2 < R <
20 mag. We use Vega magnitudes throughout the paper.
The spectroscopic redshifts of the galaxies were measured
using Hectospec, a robotic 300 fiber spectrograph for the
MMT (Fabricant et al. 1998, Roll et al. 1998, Fabricant et
al. 2005) and are 95% complete for R < 19.2; our analysis
is not significantly affected by the modest level of incompleteness. Although we have redshifts for roughly half of
the remaining 80% of galaxies with 19.2 < R < 20 mag, we
do not include them in this analysis because they were not
targeted based on a simple R-band flux-limited criterion.
Redshifts were measured using two independent data reduction pipelines (the Hectospec pipeline at the CfA and a
modified SDSS pipeline at Steward Observatory), and the
results were verified by visually inspecting the spectra for
features consistent with the pipeline redshift. Both the
pipelines and the visual inspection flagged galaxies with
spectroscopic signatures of AGNs, both obvious broadlined systems and those with emission-line ratios characteristic of Type II optical AGNs. We also carried out a
principal component analysis of the optical spectra (e.g.,
Formiggini & Brosch 2004, Ferreras et al. 2006). In our
analysis, the level of star formation was largely characterized by the ratio of the second component relative to the
first, so we divided the sample into early and late-type
galaxies at the median of the distribution of that ratio for
the full AGES galaxy sample.
Rest-frame absolute R-band magnitudes, MR , were determined by combining the redshift measurements with
the standard ΛCDM cosmology and the kcorrect algorithm (Blanton et al. 2003) adapted to the AGES data
and the NDWFS BW , I, and R photometric filters. Figure 1 shows the distribution of the galaxies as a function
9
http://heasarc.nasa.gov/Tools/w3pimms.html
3
of redshift and absolute magnitude. The median redshift
of the galaxies is hzi ' 0.25 with an appreciable tail extending to z ≈ 0.6. The change in the density of points
at fainter magnitudes is due to the random 20% sampling
of the fainter galaxies. To compensate for this effect, we
weight the emission from these galaxies by a factor of 5.
We also determined the rest-frame K-band luminosities,
LK , with kcorrect. We use the K-band luminosities to
estimate the contribution of LMXBs to the observed X-ray
emission (Eqn. 2), and to estimate the stellar mass
LK
M∗ ' (8.0 ± 2.0) × 1010
M ,
(3)
LK∗
based on the results of Colbert et al. (2004, also see Gilfanov 2004). To explore how late-type galaxies of different
masses contribute to star formation, we then combine our
estimates of the stellar mass and the SFR (determined using Eqn. 1) to compute the specific star formation rate
(SSFR) = SFR/M∗ (e.g., Cowie et al. 1996, Guzman et
al. 1997, Brinchmann & Ellis 2000, Juneau et al. 2005,
Feulner et al. 2004, Pérez-González et al. 2005).
If, instead of star formation, the X-ray emission is primarily due to accretion onto AGNs, then we can estimate
the SMBH growth rates, ṀBH , using the scaling of Ba01,
−1
−1
ṀBH = 1.76 × 10−6
LAGN
,
(4)
x40 M yr
0.1
40
where LAGN
erg s−1
x40 is the AGN luminosity in units of 10
and is the efficiency of energy conversion in AGNs. Cowie
et al. (2003) and Ba05 showed that the X-ray luminosities
of both obscured and unobscured AGNs (with 1042 erg
s−1 < Lx < 1044 erg s−1 ) are consistent with a radiative
efficiency of ' 0.1 all the way to z = 0. Moreover, the
results of AGN models do not agree with observations if
one assumes that lower radiative efficiency AGNs dominate black hole growth (e.g., Shankar et al. 2004, Hopkins
et al. 2007). We will therefore adopt = 0.1 throughout
the paper.
To fit the X-ray luminosities of the AGES galaxies as a
function of K-band luminosity and redshift, we assume
β
Lx ∝ L α
K (1 + z) .
(5)
In order to estimate the mean star formation density ρ̇∗
and nuclear accretion rate density ρ̇BH we must extrapolate our results from the magnitude-limited AGES galaxy
samples to fainter fluxes. By assuming our power-law
model (Eqn. 5) holds for fainter sources and combining
the K-band luminosity functions for late- and early-type
galaxies measured by Kochanek et al. (2001), with a
change of variables from LK to Lx , we compute the X-ray
luminosity density as a function of redshift. The X-ray luminosity density can then be converted to star formation
or nuclear accretion rate densities using Eqns. (1) or (4),
respectively.
We restrict our analysis to a sample of 6146 “normal”
galaxies with no optical or X-ray evidence of AGN activity.
When stacked, these galaxies produce a total of 486/669
hard/soft counts above the background level. In Table
1, we compare the emission from the normal galaxies to
two classes of sources we exclude from the analysis. We
eliminated 47 spectroscopically identified AGNs (3 broad
line and 44 narrow line) that were not identified in the
XBöotes Survey (Kenter et al. 2005), but these produced
4
Watson et al.
Fig. 1.— Absolute R-band magnitudes of the AGES main sample
of galaxies as a function of redshift. The transition from higher to
lower density background points reflects differences in sampling: all
R < 19.2 galaxies are present but only a random 20% of galaxies
with 19.2 < R < 20 have been sampled. Four of the eight absolute
magnitude strips of galaxies we analyze are outlined.
a stacked flux of only 32/27 hard/soft counts. Much more
importantly, we excluded 58 galaxies that were identified
both by XBöotes as X-ray sources and by AGES as spectroscopic broad line (24) or narrow line (34) AGNs. Although these 58 AGNs represent less than 1% of our sample by number, they generate 787/1196 hard/soft counts
– nearly twice the X-ray flux of the normal galaxies – and
would therefore dominate our results if they were not eliminated from the analysis (see Figure 5). Note, however,
how similar the composite X-ray spectrum of the remaining “normal” galaxies (ΓNormal ' 1.3) is to that of these
AGNs (ΓAGN ' 1.3) and to that of typical AGNs, which
account for the bulk of Cosmic X-ray Background (CXB;
ΓCXB ' 1.4, e.g., Tozzi et al. 2001; Nandra et al. 2004).
The remaining “normal” galaxies therefore provide a representative sampling of the CXB source population, and,
in fact, comprise ≈ 8.8% of the total CXB emission, based
on the soft and hard band CXB flux estimates of De Luca
& Molendi (2004).
3. method, monte carlo simulations and tests
The basic principle of a stacking analysis is simple. The
X-ray images of a large number of sources are stacked to
determine the mean properties of a group of objects that
are individually undetectable (Brandt et al. 2001; Nandra
et al. 2002; Hornschemeier et al. 2002, Georgakakis et al.
2003, Lehmer et al. 2005, 2007; Laird et al. 2005, 2006).
Quantitatively, if stacking a sample of n objects yields Ns
counts in a signal aperture of area As and Nb counts in a
background annulus of area Ab , then the mean number of
Fig. 2.— Total band X-ray images of the stacked early-type,
late-type, and combined samples of galaxies have been Gaussian
smoothed on a scale of 5 kpc and divided into three redshift bins:
0 < z < 0.15, 0.15 < z < 0.3, and 0.3 < z < 0.6. We have included only galaxies (extended sources) that had no obvious optical
signatures of AGN activity. In each panel, the outer circle shows
the fixed 30 kpc aperture we use to extract the signal and the inner
circle shows the size of the 50% enclosed energy radius averaged
over the field and converted to a physical scale based on the mean
redshift of each bin (r̄PSF ' 2, 10, and 15 kpc, respectively).
source counts per object in the signal region is
1
As
hN isrc =
Nb .
Ns −
n
Ab
(6)
The uncertainties in hN isrc can be computed either by
assuming a Poisson distribution of X-ray counts per object,
1/2
1
A2s
σ=
Ns + 2 Nb
,
(7)
n
Ab
or by bootstrap resampling of both the galaxy and X-ray
photon catalogs (event lists). Adopting the latter method,
we generate 100 bootstrap samples by randomly drawing
new lists of galaxies and X-ray photons (with replacement)
from the input catalogs until each bootstrap sample contains the same number of galaxies and X-ray photons as
the real catalogs. Each mock data set is then subjected to
the same analysis as the real data. Our error estimates are
defined by the range encompassing 68% of the bootstrap
results about the true mean. This approach will produce
more realistic error bars than the Poisson statistics of the
stacked image, particularly if the net flux is dominated by
a small fraction of the objects included in the analysis.
As a general proof of principle for the subsequent analyses, Figure 2 shows images of the stacked early-type, latetype and combined samples of galaxies in three redshift
bins, excluding direct X-ray detections and galaxies with
optical signatures of AGN activity. Based on the Monte
Carlo simulations we discuss in the following section, we
X-ray Evolution of AGES Galaxies
5
X-ray emission that is essentially independent of galaxy
(optical) luminosity and stellar mass (Eqn. 3).
In addition to spectroscopically identified AGNs, we excluded directly detected X-ray sources that did not satisfy
Lx ≤ 6.6 × 1042 erg s−1 (luminosity limit),
Fig. 3.— Comparison of the mean X-ray luminosities of the AGES
normal galaxies and of random locations in the XBoötes field. The
mean X-ray luminosities (in units of 1040 erg s−1 ) of galaxies drawn
from bins in the half-integer (integer) absolute magnitude strips
with MR < −19 (see Figure 1) are designated, from faint to bright,
by open (closed) triangles, squares and pentagons. No statistically
significant X-ray flux was detected from the intrinsically faintest
galaxies. Most of the trend here is due to the higher redshifts of the
more massive (and luminous) galaxies in our flux-limited sample.
The dashed line shows our expected sensitivity limit given the 5 ks
exposure time and the typical number of objects in each bin (see
Section 3). Note that through stacking we are able to detect average
X-ray signals that are much less than the luminosity equivalent of
one total band count (solid line).
adopt a 30 kpc signal aperture and a 30−60 kpc background annulus about the center of each galaxy. Each
panel shows this signal aperture and the field-averaged
point-spread function (PSF), i.e., the 50% enclosed energy
radius averaged over the field and converted to a physical
scale based on the mean redshift of each bin. We clearly
detect a signal from these “normal” galaxies.
To understand the X-ray evolution of the galaxies quantitatively, we bin them by absolute magnitude, spectroscopic type and redshift. We analyze the galaxies in staggered, 1 mag wide absolute magnitude strips (see Figure 1), beginning at integer and half-integer absolute magnitudes (i.e., −17.5 > MR > −18.5, −18 > MR > −19,
−18.5 > MR > −19.5, . . . − 20 > MR > −21). We divide each strip into two redshift bins that contain roughly
equal numbers of galaxies after correcting for the sparse
sampling. We also analyze the combined, late-type, and
early-type galaxy samples separately. For each bin we then
determine the mean X-ray and rest-frame K-band luminosities of the member galaxies. Because the X-ray and
optical luminosities of galaxies are approximately linearly
correlated (e.g., David, Jones, & Forman 1992; Shapley et
al. 2001), the X-ray to optical luminosity ratio should provide a measure of the redshift evolution of normal galaxy
(8)
which corresponds to two total band counts observed at
the upper redshift limit for the normal galaxies: z = 0.6.
The most luminous detected sources at lower redshifts,
with 1041 erg s−1 < Lx < 1042 erg s−1 , are within the
range possible for star forming galaxies, (e.g., Norman et
al. 2004). Moreover, our bootstrap uncertainty estimates
are close to the Poisson limits, which means that the X-ray
flux cannot be dominated by a small number of luminous
sources.
As an additional check on our ability to detect galaxies and to diagnose problems with background subtraction or contamination, we constructed a null sample to
compare with the fluxes of the real sources. To create the
null sample we kept the redshifts and (optical) luminosities of the galaxies fixed but assigned them random positions in the field, excluding locations closer than 60 kpc
to an AGES galaxy. We then analyzed the random catalog in the same manner as the actual data. In Figure 3,
we compare the luminosities of the real galaxies and the
“empty” regions. While the real galaxies generate a significant signal in all but the faintest (MR >
∼ −18) bins, the
mean luminosities of the random fields are always consistent with zero. The uncertainties in the random signal
closely follow the expected trend of Φmin 4πd2L (z), where
Φmin ≈ 4 × 10−17 erg s−1 cm−2 is the sensitivity of the
observations divided by the square root of the number of
galaxies in a typical bin. Stacking the galaxies in our luminosity and redshift bins generally provides >
∼ 25 times the
sensitivity associated with the 5 ks exposure time for individual sources. Over the range of redshifts we probe,
this flux limit corresponds to threshold luminosities of
≈ 1038 erg s−1 to 1040 erg s−1 .
The X-ray properties of our stacked galaxy samples are
summarized in Tables 2 and 3. Table 2 provides upper
limits on the hard and soft band X-ray luminosities of
the optically faintest AGES galaxies that were either not
detected in X-rays or had net stacked emission with S/N
< 1 in all X-ray bands. Table 3 provides the data for the
detected (S/N > 1) galaxies.
3.1. Monte Carlo Simulations
We used Monte Carlo simulations to test our analysis
methods and to refine our choices of parameters. We
started by generating a mock galaxy catalog using the
Brown et al. (2001) R-band luminosity function, a simple
model for galaxy evolution, and the AGES main galaxy
sample selection criteria including the sparse sampling.
The general properties of the resulting synthetic catalog
are quite similar to those of the real one. The absolute
magnitude strips are a case in point. From faint to bright
magnitudes, the real strips with integral, absolute magnitude boundaries in Figure 1 contain 471, 1621, 2526 and
1496 galaxies including the corrections for sparse sampling,
6
Watson et al.
while the corresponding strips in the synthetic catalog contain 614, 1630, 2218 and 1527 galaxies.
To simulate the X-ray data, we began by distributing
≈ 350,000 background photons at random positions in the
field with surface densities of 1.9 × 10−3 hard (2–7 keV)
and 0.9×10−3 soft (0.5–2 keV) photons arcsec−2 , based on
the background estimates for the XBoötes survey (Kenter
et al. 2005). We then assigned each galaxy an extended Xray component and a point-like nucleus. For simplicity, the
extended emission consists solely of soft photons and the
AGN component consists solely of hard photons. These
components have mean luminosities of
Lx40,soft = 5(L/L∗ )(1 + z)3
Lx40,hard = 5(L/L∗ )(1 + z)4 ,
40
(9)
−1
respectively, in units of 10 erg s , where L/L∗ is the
rest-frame (R-band) optical luminosity in units of the characteristic luminosity, L∗ , at the knee of the Schecter luminosity function. The redshift scaling and the correlation
between the X-ray and optical luminosities are motivated
both by previous studies (e.g., David, Jones, & Forman
1992; Shapley et al. 2001, Brand et al. 2005) and by our
own results (see Section 4).
Based on the X-ray spectrum of the AGES galaxies,
we converted the X-ray fluxes to counts using soft and
hard band flux limits of 1.05 × 10−15 erg cm−2 s−1 and
3.65 × 10−15 erg cm−2 s−1 , respectively and K-corrections
of (1 + z)(Γ−2) , with Γ = 1.29 (see Section 2.1). The hard
emission was distributed about the galactic centers using
a Gaussian model of the Chandra X-ray Observatory PSF
with a 50% enclosed energy radius of
2
D
rPSF = 0.00 5 + 6.00 0
,
(10)
100
where D is the randomly assigned distance of the galaxy
from the Chandra X-ray Observatory pointing center in arcminutes (see the Chandra X-ray Observatory Proposers’
Guide10 ). We modeled the extended emission as a Gaussian of dispersion rL = 10(L/L∗ )1/2 kpc convolved with
the PSF to get an overall radial profile of
−R2
Pextended (R) ∝ exp
.
(11)
2 + r2
2(rL
PSF )
In this model the X-ray surface brightness of the galaxies
is independent of optical luminosity.
3.2. Radial Emission Profiles
We first verified that our analysis correctly extracts the
X-ray emission profiles by analyzing the data for the roughly
800 galaxies in the mock catalog with z ≤ 0.1 (mean redshift hzi ' 0.07) and within 100 of the pointing center.
We consider only these lower redshift sources because, in
spite of the Chandra X-ray Observatory’s high, on-axis
resolution, the field-averaged PSF still approaches 2 kpc
at z ' 0.07. Figure 4 shows the extracted profile for the
total band. Using a 30 kpc signal aperture and a 30–60
kpc background subtraction annulus, we recover the input
profile (and background level) to within the 1σ bootstrap
uncertainties. We carry out a similar analysis on the real
data in Section 4.1.
10
http://cxc.harvard.edu/proposer/POG/html
Fig. 4.— Monte Carlo test of the stacking procedure. The solid
curve shows the input total band emission profile in our Monte Carlo
simulation, and the open circles show the profile extracted by the
stacking analysis. The extracted profile agrees with the input profile
in all radial bins.
At higher redshifts, where we cannot spatially resolve
the emission, we concentrate on extracting the redshift
evolution of the X-ray luminosity. This involves a tradeoff between the signal-to-noise ratio (S/N) and the need for
aperture corrections. Larger apertures capture more signal
but introduce extra noise from the background, while small
apertures lose some of the signal and require more substantial aperture corrections. Redshift-dependent biases will
be minimized by using a fixed angular aperture for point
sources and a (sufficiently large) fixed physical aperture
for extended sources. Since we expect a significant contribution from extended emission in the real data (e.g., Figure 2), we focused on fixed physical apertures with proper
radii of Rap = 10, 20, 30, 40, and 50 kpc and background
annuli extending over the larger of 30–60 kpc or Rap –2Rap .
Adopting a signal aperture of Rap = 30 kpc (at the mean
redshift of each bin) led to the most accurate reproduction
of the input profiles with the highest S/N; our detection
criterion is S/N > 1. This fixed physical aperture corresponds to angular apertures of ∼ 1500 −500 over the range of
mean redshifts we analyze (0.1 < z < 0.5, see Table 2 and
Figure 2). The size of the field-averaged PSF begins to exceed that of significantly smaller apertures, particularly in
the higher redshift bins (see Figure 2). For point sources
we could apply a redshift-dependent aperture correction
to remedy this problem, but it is impossible to do so for
extended sources when we are uncertain of their intrinsic
profiles. For larger apertures, our signal-to-noise ratio begins to drop due to the increasing fraction of background
photons included in the signal region. In the Monte Carlo
simulations, small deviations (<
∼ 10 kpc) from Rap = 30
kpc have little effect on the results or the signal-to-noise
X-ray Evolution of AGES Galaxies
Fig. 5.— Specific X-ray luminosity of all AGES sources compared
to that of the normal galaxy sample. The solid line is a fit to
the sum of the mean luminosity of the normal galaxies and the
mean luminosity of the 58 X-ray detected AGNs (see Section 2.2 and
Tables 1 and 3) that lie within the absolute magnitude and redshift
ranges we consider. The binned data shows the mean luminosity
evolution of the normal galaxies alone; the point type conventions
are the same as those used in Figure 3. The two points at each value
of LK demonstrate the evolution from the low to high redshift bin
in each absolute magnitude strip (Figure 1).
ratio but larger (factor of 2) changes in the aperture lead
to serious problems.
Using Rap = 30 kpc and 30–60 kpc background annuli, which we adopt throughout the remainder of the paper, we successfully recover the input luminosity evolution
(Eqn. 9); i.e., when we fit our results with a double power
law model (Eqn. 5), we find scalings for the soft and hard
band X-ray luminosities that are statistically consistent
with the input evolution rates and normalization:
1.0±0.2
LK
Lx40,soft = (4.7 ± 1.7)
(1 + z)2.7±0.8 ,
LK∗
0.9±0.3
LK
Lx40,hard = (4.0 ± 2.4)
(1 + z)3.4±1.1 .(12)
LK∗
4. results
We now turn to the real sources, starting with a comparison of the X-ray emission from normal galaxies and from
spectroscopic AGNs. Figure 5 shows the specific X-ray
luminosity, hLx40 i/hLK /LK∗ i, as a function of hLK /LK∗ i
for both the normal galaxies and the full sample including the X-ray and spectroscopically flagged AGNs. With
the top and right axes, we also show the inferred scaling
with stellar mass, based on Eqn. (3), although this conversion does not apply when the bright AGNs dominate the
K-band flux. While the AGNs have significantly larger Xray luminosities than the “normal” galaxies, the “normal”
7
galaxies are clearly detected. The two points at each LK
show the evolution of the normal galaxy X-ray emission
from the low to high redshift bin in each absolute magnitude strip (Figure 1). When we fit the normal galaxy data
as a double power law in K-band luminosity and redshift
(Eqn. 5), we find that
1.1±0.2
LK
(1 + z)3.2±0.8 ,
Lx40 = (6.0 ± 1.0)
LK∗
1.2±0.3
LK
Lx40,hard = (4.6 ± 0.9)
(1 + z)3.5±1.0 ,
LK∗
1.1±0.2
LK
(1 + z)2.7±0.7(13)
Lx40,soft = (2.0 ± 0.5)
LK∗
for the total, hard, and soft X-ray bands, respectively, in
units of 1040 erg s−1 . Because our results indicate that
Lx is roughly proportional to LK in all X-ray bands, the
specific X-ray luminosities of the galaxies should evolve
similarly regardless of their optical luminosity or mass.
The X-ray luminosities we measure are roughly an order of magnitude brighter than the contribution expected
from LMXBs (Eqn. 2), so we are left with three major
candidates for the origin of the emission−−HMXBs associated with recent star formation, accretion onto SMBHs
(AGNs), and hot gas. We use three tests to try to determine the dominant source(s). We first use fits to the
AGES spectra to divide the normal galaxies into latetype and early-type subsamples. Doing so allows us to
compare the X-ray emission from galaxies with and without (optical) spectroscopic signatures of star formation.
The resulting subsamples contain 3178 late-type galaxies
and 2968 early-type galaxies. Second, we examine the radial emission profiles of the low redshift galaxies, since
emission due to star formation and hot gas will be more
spatially extended than emission from AGNs. Third, we
compare the hardness ratios of the galaxies, in terms of
the hard and soft band counts Chard and Csoft , HR =
(Chard − Csoft )/(Chard + Csoft ), to the typical values expected for X-ray binaries, AGNs, and hot gas.
4.1. Radial Emission Profiles
Figure 6 shows the average, background-subtracted soft,
hard, and total band emission profiles of 488 (360 late-type
and 128 early-type) low redshift (z < 0.1), galaxies within
100 of the Chandra X-ray Observatory optical axis, excluding X-ray sources that violate our luminosity limit (Eqn. 8)
and AGNs identified through optical spectroscopy. The
mean redshift of these galaxies is hzi ' 0.07. Rather than
use a model for the PSF (Eqn. 10), we determined it empirically by averaging the emission profiles of ≈ 500 z > 1
X-ray selected AGNs from the XBoötes survey. As with
the galaxies, we used only AGN sources within 100 of the
Chandra field centers and stacked the emission based on
the optical positions. We then applied the angular corrections needed to put the PSF model on the same physical
scale as the galaxies.
We find that the emission profiles of the late-type galaxies are clearly extended while those of the early-type galaxies have a more pronounced nuclear component. We use
the Kolmogorov−Smirnov (K−S) test to compare the radial distribution of (total band) photons from the latetype galaxies, early-type galaxies, and high redshift AGNs.
8
Watson et al.
Within 5 kpc of the stacking centers, we find that the
early-type galaxy distribution (∝ r −1.1 ) is consistent with
the AGN distribution (K−S likelihood 97%), while the
late-type galaxy distribution (∝ r −0.4 ) is not (K−S likelihood 3%). However, if we analyze the full extraction
region, neither galaxy profile is consistent with the AGN
model (K−S likelihood < 1%). Between 10 and 30 kpc,
both galaxy types show significant (>
∼ 2.5 σ) emission,
which we attribute primarily to diffuse gas and LMXBs.
Soft X-ray emitting gas has been observed out to >
∼ 20
kpc around late-type (e.g., Strickland et al. 2004) and
early-type (e.g., Mathews & Brighenti 2003) galaxies, as
have LMXBs (late-type: e.g., Wang et al. 1999; earlytype: e.g., Kim et al. 2006), leading to extended profiles
like those in Figure 6. Our results imply that the emission from the low-redshift early-type galaxies comes from
a combination of AGNs, hot gas, and LMXBs. In contrast, because the emission from the late-type galaxies is
significantly less centrally concentrated than the emission
of AGNs – even within a radius of 5 kpc – the dominant
source of the late-type galaxy flux is most likely a radially
extended distribution of HMXBs and LMXBs.
4.2. Hardness Ratios
In Figure 7, we show the HRs based on the hard- and
soft-band counts of the two galaxy classes. To improve the
statistical significance of our HRs, we combine hard and
soft counts from bins of comparable redshifts in adjacent
absolute magnitude strips (Figure 1). For reference, we
compare these HRs to those observed in these bands for
accreting binaries (HR >
∼ 0, e.g., Muno et al. 2004), Type
I AGNs (HR ' −0.5, e.g., Rosati et al. 2002; Franceschini,
et al. 2005), Type II AGNs (0 ≤ HR ≤ 1, e.g., Rosati et
al. 2002), and hot gas with a temperature of 0.5–1 keV
(HR ' −1).
In general, we observe that the late-type galaxies have
slightly harder spectra than the early-type galaxies and
that the spectra of both galaxy types become somewhat
harder with increasing redshift. This is most likely a consequence of the larger amount of soft X-ray emitting gas in
earlier type galaxies and the steadily increasing contributions of HMXBs and AGNs, respectively, to the late-type
and early-type galaxy spectra at higher redshifts.
4.3. Luminosity Evolution
To isolate the dependence of Lx on LK , we examined the
evolution of the X-ray luminosity of the early and late-type
galaxies in three narrow redshift slices: hzi = 0.20 ± 0.02,
hzi = 0.25 ± 0.02, and hzi = 0.35 ± 0.03. As shown in
Figure 8, the specific X-ray luminosities are relatively flat
in LK , indicating an approximately linear correlation between Lx and LK as found previously (e.g., David, Jones,
& Forman 1992; Shapley et al. 2001). If we fit these
results with a power law model, Lx ∝ Lα
K , we find consistent values of α among the three redshift slices for both the
LATE
LATE
= 1.12 ± 0.15) and
= 1.19 ± 0.31; αsoft
late-type (αhard
EARLY
EARLY
= 1.07 ± 0.15)
early-type (αhard = 1.09 ± 0.23; αsoft
galaxies.
Figures 9 and 10 illustrate the dependence of the specific
X-ray luminosity of the late-type and early-type galaxies,
respectively, on redshift (left panels) and optical luminosity (right panels). If we fit the late-type galaxies with the
double power-law model (Eqn. 5), we find that, in units of
1040 erg s−1 ,
1.2±0.4
LK
LLATE
=
(5.9
±
1.6)
(1 + z)3.6±1.2 ,
x40,hard
LK∗
1.1±0.2
LK
LATE
Lx40,soft = (2.5 ± 0.6)
(1 + z)2.2±1.0 .(14)
LK∗
The reduced χ2 (per degree of freedom) for these fits are
0.78 and 0.81 for the hard and soft bands, respectively. If
we fit the early-type galaxies, we find that
1.0±0.3
LK
LEARLY
=
(3.0
±
0.6)
(1 + z)3.9±0.8 ,
x40,hard
LK∗
1.1±0.2
LK
EARLY
(1 + z)3.1±0.8 .(15)
Lx40,soft = (1.8 ± 0.4)
LK∗
In this case, the reduced χ2 values are 0.86 and 1.14 for the
hard and soft bands, respectively. The reduced χ2 values
for the best-fit curves given in the remainder of the paper
are all similarly good, i.e., ≈ 1 ± 0.2. In all cases, the
upper limits set by non-detections (bins with S/N < 1)
are used in conjunction with detections to establish the
best-fit curves. In particular, if any best-fit curves exceed
these upper limits, the squared difference is added to the
χ2 sum.
The results for the individual luminosity and redshift
bins are summarized in Tables 2 and 3. In spite of the evidence that different physical processes dominate the emission of the late-type and early-type galaxies, the two populations exhibit qualitatively similar behaviors. In particular,
• the X-ray luminosity monotonically increases from low
mass galaxies at low redshift to high mass galaxies at high
redshift and
• the X-ray luminosity is significantly higher than what
would be expected from LMXBs on the basis of the Kband luminosities, Eqn. (2), assuming a hardness ratio of
HR = 0 (e.g., Muno et al. 2004).
These similarities are not surprising, as we expect the
X-ray emission of LMXBs and hot gas to be nearly timeindependent for z <
∼ 0.5, while the HMXB and AGN emission should be evolving rapidly and at approximately the
same rate (∝ (1 + z)3±1 , e.g., David, Jones, & Forman
1992; Shapley et al. 2001, Hogg 2001, Norman et al. 2004,
and Schiminovich et al. 2005 and Ba01 and Ba05, respectively).
4.4. Comparisons to Previous Work
In general, we find excellent agreement between our
results and those of earlier studies of normal galaxy Xray evolution, but our uncertainties are smaller. There
are three general categories of earlier results: surveys of
nearby, individual galaxies, stacking analyses of low to
intermediate-redshift galaxies and stacking analyses of intermediate to high-redshift galaxies in small-area, deep
fields (CDF-N and CDF-S). Taking the late-type and earlytype galaxies in turn, we first consider the Shapley et al.
(2001, S01) and O’Sullivan et al. (2001, OS01) surveys of
local spiral and early-type galaxies. Second, we compare
our results to the Georgakakis et al. (2003, G03) stacking
analysis of 2dF galaxies at z ' 0.1 and to our own earlier
stacking analysis of massive early-type galaxies at 0.3 <
∼
X-ray Evolution of AGES Galaxies
z<
∼ 0.9 (B05). Finally, we consider the Hornschemeier et
al. (2002, H02) and Lehmer et al. (2007) stacking analyses of normal galaxies in the CDF-N at 0.4 <
∼z<
∼ 1.5 and
optically bright early-type galaxies in the extended CDF-S
out to z <
∼ 0.7, respectively.
Shapley et al. (2001, S01) studied the correlation between the X-ray (0.2–4.0 keV) and H-band flux of 234
local spiral galaxies with no sign of AGN activity. Their
results indicate a trend of
1.2±0.1
LK
,
(16)
LLATE
(z
'
0)
'
(2
±
1)
x40,S01
LK∗
assuming H−K= 0.27 mag and a 50% uncertainty in the
normalization of the correlation. It is clear that Eqn. (16)
agrees very well with Eqn (14) at z = 0, and, as shown
in Figure 9, the agreement extends to all redshifts if we
allow for evolution (see Figure 9). Similar trends have
been found in other local surveys (e.g., David, Jones, &
Forman 1992).
Georgakakis et al. (2003, G03) considered 200 galaxies in
the 2dF redshift survey with hLB i ' L∗ at a mean redshift
hzi ' 0.1. They measured mean soft band luminosities of
log(Lx /erg s−1 ) ' 40.2 ± 0.2, 39.7 ± 0.4 and 40.5 ± 0.2 for
the combined, late-type and early-type samples. They also
estimated an upper limit of log(Lx /erg s−1 ) <
∼ 40.5 on the
hard band luminosities of the samples. These results are
consistent with ours, particularly if we allow for positive
redshift evolution of the X-ray luminosity between hzi '
0.1 for G03 and our points for galaxies of similar optical
luminosities at z ' 0.25 and 0.45.
Hornschemeier et al. (2002, H02) conducted a stacking analysis of late-type galaxies in the HDF-N/CDF-N,
finding that 29, ' 0.7L∗ galaxies in the redshift range
0.4 − 0.75 have mean total (0.5 − 8 keV) and soft band
(0.5−2.0 keV) luminosities of Lx40 = 2.9±0.4 and 1.3±0.2,
respectively. These too are consistent with the values we
find for ' 0.7L∗ galaxies at 0.2 <
∼ 0.3 (3.6 ± 0.8 and
∼z<
1.6 ± 0.3, respectively).
Turning to the early-type galaxies, we first checked the
relative contributions of hot gas and AGN emission by
comparing our results to the ROSAT PSPC (0.1-2.5 keV)
X-ray survey of 401 local early-type galaxies discussed
in O’Sullivan et al. (2001). Because the hot gas emission from the early-type galaxies is primarily a function of
galaxy mass rather than epoch, there should be little difference between the soft band flux of the local and AGES
galaxies (at 0.15 <
∼ hzi <
∼ 0.45), provided that the soft
band AGN contamination in the AGES sample is small.
Figure 10 shows that the soft band luminosity from the
AGES early-type galaxies is, in fact, comparable to that
of the local sample even at high optical luminosities (which
tend to be associated with higher redshifts in the AGES
sample). In contrast, the total luminosity of the AGES
early-type galaxies is consistently higher than that of the
local sample. Figure 10 also demonstrates that the hard
X-ray component of the early-type galaxies is well in excess of the estimated LMXB emission and undergoes rapid,
positive redshift evolution. These findings reinforce our
conclusions in Section 4.2, that the soft band flux of the
AGES early-type galaxies comes primarily from hot gas,
while the more rapidly evolving hard component comes
primarily from AGNs.
Our results for the massive (∼ L∗ ) early-type galaxies
9
agree with those of G03 and with our earlier work (B05),
where we found that bright red (MR < −21.3) galaxies at
z ' 0.4 had total X-ray luminosities of Lx ' 1041 erg s−1 .
By incorporating the results of G03 and B05 with ours, we
gain more leverage on the behavior of L∗ early-type galaxies at lower (z ' 0.1) and higher (0.5 <
∼z<
∼ 0.9) redshifts
than what we can probe with AGES alone. Using this
combined sample, we find that the hard and soft band
luminosities of L∗ early-type galaxies follow the trends
and
4.5±1.7
LEARLY
x40,hard (L∗ ) = (3.6 ± 1.5)(1 + z)
(17)
2.8±1.1
LEARLY
x40,soft (L∗ ) = (2.0 ± 0.8)(1 + z)
(18)
out to z ' 1. These global fits, which are shown in Figure 11, are consistent with those found for the AGES L∗
early-type galaxies alone (Eqn. 15 at LK = LK∗ ).
Lehmer et al. (2007) conducted a stacking analysis of
222 optically bright (∼ LB∗ ) early-type galaxies in the ECDF-S with photometric redshifts ranging from 0 to 0.7.
The mean hard X-ray luminosity trend inferred for AGNs
in the Lehmer et al. galaxy sample is in excellent agreement with the hard band trend found in B05 (see Lehmer
et al. 2007; Figure 13) and in the present paper (Figure 11).
10
Watson et al.
Fig. 7.— Redshift evolution of the hardness ratio (HR) for the
late-type (squares) and early-type (circles) samples of galaxies. The
late-type galaxies exhibit slightly harder spectra than the early-type
galaxies, which is most likely due to the early-types’ characteristically larger halos of soft X-ray emitting gas. Typical HRs of HMXBs
and LMXBs (dashed line) as well as Type I (dotted line) and Type
II AGNs (typically above the dashed line) have been included for
reference.
Fig. 6.— Background-subtracted radial emission profiles of 360
late-type (top) and 128 early-type (bottom) galaxies with z ≤ 0.1,
a mean redshift of hzi ≈ 0.07 and within 100 of Chandra X-ray
Observatory field centers. The solid, dashed, and dotted curves
represent the total, hard, and soft band profiles, respectively, in
each panel. The dot-dashed curve shows an empirical model of the
PSF, based on the radial emission of ≈ 500, z >
∼ 1 AGNs within
100 of a Chandra X-ray Observatory field center. We have shifted
the normalization of the PSF model to match the amplitude of the
galaxy profile in each panel.
X-ray Evolution of AGES Galaxies
11
Fig. 8.— Specific X-ray luminosity evolution of the early and late-type galaxies in three narrow redshift slices: hzi = 0.20 ± 0.02 (threepointed stars), hzi = 0.25 ± 0.02 (five-pointed stars), and hzi = 0.35 ± 0.03 (seven-pointed stars). In all redshift slices, the specific X-ray
luminosities are relatively flat in LK (roughly, Lx,late ∝ L1.2±0.3
∝ Lx,early , see Section 4.3), indicating an approximately linear correlation
K
between Lx and LK as found previously (e.g., David, Jones, & Forman 1992, Shapley et al. 2001).
12
Watson et al.
Fig. 9.— Left: the mean hard and soft band specific X-ray luminosities of the late-type sample of galaxies as a function of redshift. The
point type conventions are the same as those used in Figure 3. The best-fit curves for the hard and soft band emission are also shown. Right:
the mean hard and soft specific X-ray luminosities as a function of hLK i for the late-type sample of galaxies. The instances in which there are
two points at each value of LK demonstrate the evolution from the low to the high redshift bin in the corresponding absolute magnitude strip
(Figure 1). Top and right axes display the corresponding behavior of hLx i/hM∗ i vs. hM∗ i based on Eqn. 3. Upper limits (1 σ) are provided
in the hard band panels for bins with negative net counts (see Table 2). For comparison, we have plotted the specific X-ray luminosities found
by Shapley et al. (2001, S01, four-pointed star at z ' 0), Georgakakis et al. (2003, G03, six-pointed star in the soft-band panel; upper limit
in the hard-band panel at z ' 0.1), and Hornschemeier et al. (2002, H02, 8-pointed star at z ' 0.55 ± 0.15). The shaded region in the lower
right panel shows the local S01 Lx,soft (LK ) trend, roughly log(Lx40 ) = (0.3 ± 0.2) + (1.2 ± 0.1) log(LK /LK∗ ), which encompasses both the
scatter in and error bars on the S01 data points.
X-ray Evolution of AGES Galaxies
13
Fig. 10.— Same as Figure 9 for the early-type sample of galaxies. For comparison, we have plotted the specific X-ray luminosities of
z ' 0.1 L∗ galaxies found by Georgakakis et al. (2003, G03, four-pointed star in the soft-band panel; upper limit in the hard band panel)
and Brand et al. (2005, B05, six-pointed star in both panels at z = 0.4 ± 0.1). The best-fit curve for soft- and hard-band emission from the
AGES galaxies is also shown. The shaded region in the lower right panel shows the local O’Sullivan et al. (2001, OS01) L x,soft (LK ) trend,
roughly log(Lx40 ) = (0.3 ± 0.3) + (1.7 ± 0.2) log(LK /LK∗ ), which encompasses both the scatter in and error bars on the OS01 data points.
14
Watson et al.
Table 1
X-ray Counts From Stacked Normal Galaxies & Excluded AGN
Class
Source
Normal Galaxies
Late-Type Galaxies
Early-Type Galaxies
Broad Line AGN
Narrow Line AGN
Broad Line AGN
Narrow Line AGN
Spectroscopic AGN
X-ray Sources
Number of
Objects
Net Hard
Counts
Net Soft
counts
3178
2968
27
78
24
34
240
246
319
496
319
468
327
342
872
404
872
367
X-ray Evolution of AGES Galaxies
15
Table 2
X-ray Luminosity Upper Limits for the Optically Faintest AGES Galaxies
MR,max
(mag)
−17.5
−17.5
−18.0
−18.0
−17.5
−17.5
−18.0
−18.0
−18.5
−18.5
MR,min
(mag)
hzi
Ngalaxies
Late-Type Galaxies
−18.5 0.0693
126
−18.5 0.0951
126
−19.0 0.0969
228
−19.0 0.1286
228
Early-Type Galaxies
−18.5 0.0756
13
−18.5 0.0882
13
−19.0 0.1051
59
−19.0 0.1303
56
−19.5 0.1166
119
−19.5 0.1586
119
Lx40
(h/s)
< 0.6/
< 1.9/
< 1.2/
< 1.2/
< 0.2
< 1.0
< 0.7
< 0.4
< 1.8/
< 2.2/
< 2.6/
< 3.4/
< 2.4/
< 3.5/
< 0.4
< 0.9
< 0.6
< 0.9
< 0.4
< 1.5
Note. — The range of absolute R-band magnitudes of the
galaxies in a bin is MR,max > MR > MR,min and the mean
redshift is hzi. Ngalaxies is the effective number of galaxies in
the bin, including the correction for sparse sampling. The 1 σ
upper limits on the hard (h; 2–7 keV) and soft (s; 0.5–2 keV)
band X-ray luminosities, Lx40 , of the optically faintest AGES
galaxies are given in units of 1040 erg s−1 in the final column.
Table 3
Summary of Results
hMR i/hMK i
(mag)
hzi
Ngalaxies
−18.98/−21.31
−19.02/−21.33
−19.42/−21.75
−19.47/−21.80
−19.93/−22.25
−19.94/−22.26
−20.36/−22.68
−20.44/−22.75
−20.85/−23.16
−20.90/−23.20
−21.27/−23.57
0.1159
0.1614
0.1434
0.1979
0.1709
0.2464
0.2032
0.3011
0.2465
0.3774
0.2878
375
376
580
576
667
667
555
556
403
403
195
−19.55/−21.88
−19.51/−21.84
−19.99/−22.31
−20.00/−22.32
−20.45/−22.77
−20.45/−22.76
−20.90/−23.21
−20.90/−23.20
−21.33/−23.63
−21.38/−23.67
0.1482
0.2047
0.1672
0.2438
0.2102
0.3146
0.2564
0.3823
0.2954
0.4691
328
327
560
561
804
796
844
844
594
593
Net Counts
(h/s/t)
S/N
(h/s/t)
Late-Type Galaxies
17/ 34/ 51 0.8/2.0/1.8
− 1/ 17/ 16
—/1.3/0.7
− 4/ 71/ 67
—/3.9/2.3
27/ 52/ 79 1.5/3.6/3.4
55/ 61/116 2.4/3.3/4.0
− 23/ 45/ 22
—/3.4/1.0
39/ 59/ 98 2.1/4.2/4.2
3/ 30/ 33 0.2/2.7/1.9
46/ 50/ 96 3.1/4.3/5.1
36/ 34/ 70 3.6/3.7/5.1
25/ 39/ 64 2.4/4.4/4.7
Early-Type Galaxies
14/ 31/ 45 0.8/2.2/2.0
11/ 19/ 30 0.7/1.7/1.6
47/ 62/109 2.1/3.4/3.8
20/ 53/ 73 1.2/3.9/3.4
31/ 72/103 1.3/4.0/3.5
37/ 65/102 2.1/4.5/4.5
38/103/141 2.0/6.1/5.6
55/ 98/153 3.4/6.7/7.0
45/ 69/114 3.0/4.9/5.5
48/ 42/ 90 3.8/3.7/5.3
Lx40
(h/s/t)
0.7/ 0.4/ 1.1
< 1.4/ 0.4/ 0.3
< 0.8/ 0.7/ 0.6
2.1/ 1.1/ 3.2
2.6/ 0.8/ 3.5
< 2.6/ 1.4/< 3.0
3.4/ 1.4/ 4.8
0.6/ 1.8/ 2.4
8.5/ 2.5/11.0
17.5/ 4.6/22.2
13.2/ 5.9/19.1
1.0/
1.6/
2.6/
2.5/
2.0/
6.0/
3.6/
13.3/
8.4/
26.5/
0.6/ 1.6
0.8/ 2.4
1.0/ 3.6
1.9/ 4.4
1.3/ 3.3
3.0/ 8.9
2.8/ 6.4
6.6/19.9
3.6/12.0
6.6/33.1
hLx40 i/hLK /LK∗ i
(h/s/t)
4.3/ 2.5/ 6.8
< 9.2/ 2.5/ 1.8
< 3.9/ 3.4/ 2.8
9.4/ 5.1/14.5
7.7/ 2.4/10.1
< 7.5/ 4.0/< 9.0
6.3/ 2.6/ 8.9
1.1/ 3.3/ 4.4
10.2/ 3.1/13.2
21.1/ 5.6/26.6
10.2/ 4.5/14.8
4.5/
7.3/
7.6/
7.4/
3.7/
11.2/
4.4/
15.9/
6.5/
20.4/
2.8/ 7.3
3.6/10.9
2.8/10.4
5.5/12.8
2.4/ 6.1
5.5/16.7
3.3/ 7.7
8.0/23.9
2.8/ 9.2
5.1/25.5
Note. — The mean R-band and K-band absolute magnitudes of the galaxies in a bin are hMR i and hMK i and
the mean redshift is hzi. Ngalaxies is the effective number of galaxies in the bin, including the correction for sparse
sampling. The Net Counts column gives the number of photons observed above background in the hard (h; 2–
7 keV), soft (s; 0.5–2 keV) and total (t; 0.5–7 keV) bands; the corresponding signal-to-noise ratio (S/N) of the
measurements appears in the adjacent column. (Our detection criterion is S/N > 1). Lx40 is the mean X-ray
luminosity in the hard, soft and total bands in units of 1040 erg s−1 , and the final column is the specific X-ray
luminosity, hLx40,(h,s,t) i/hLK /LK∗ i, for each band. In the cases of negative net counts, 1 σ upper limits have been
provided. Only bins that contain ≥ 100 galaxies and have net stacked emission with S/N > 1 in at least one X-ray
band have been included in the table.
16
Watson et al.
Fig. 12.— Specific star formation rate (SSFR = hSFRi/hM∗ i)
as a function of hLK i and hM∗ i based on the hard (dashed) and
soft (dotted) X-ray luminosities of the AGES late-type galaxies and
Eqns. (1) - (3). For the soft band values, the point-type conventions
are the same as those used in Figure 3. We compare our results to
those of Bauer et al. (2005) (six-pointed stars), and Bell et al.
(2005) (four-pointed star).
Fig. 11.— Mean hard (top) and soft (bottom) specific X-ray
luminosities of ' L∗ early-type galaxies from G03 (2dF, z = 0.1),
this work (AGES: filled points), and B05 (NDWFS: open points at
z >
∼ 0.4). The solid lines are global fits to the combined samples
(see Section 4.4).
5. interpretation as star formation and nuclear
accretion
In this section, we interpret the trends in X-ray luminosity in terms of star formation (HMXBs) and nuclear accretion (AGNs) after estimating and subtracting the additional contributions of LMXBs and hot gas. Under the assumption, discussed in the introduction, that Eqn. 2 holds
out to z ' 0.5, LMXBs represent a modest contribution
to the emission from the late-type (<
∼ 15%) and early-type
Fig. 13.— Estimates of the SFR density ρ̇∗ based on the hard
(solid) and soft (dashed) X-ray luminosities of the AGES late-type
galaxies as compared to the GALEX results (Schiminovich et al.
meas
2005) after either their minimum (Amin
FUV ) or best-fit (AFUV ) corrections for dust extinction have been applied.
X-ray Evolution of AGES Galaxies
Fig. 14.— The specific SMBH accretion rate as a function of
redshift based on the hard band X-ray luminosity of AGES earlytype galaxies (in excess of LMXB emission) and Eqn. (4). The
dashed line is the curve of best fit. The point type conventions are
the same as those used in Figure 3.
(<
∼ 20%) galaxies. The comparison of the (primarily) hot
gas emission from local early-type galaxies (O’Sullivan et
al. 2001) shown in Figure 10 suggests that, at all redshifts,
' 50% of the soft band (and <
∼ 20% of the total) emission
of the AGES early-type galaxies is produced by hot gas.
Based on these arguments, we conclude that >
∼ 85% of the
X-ray flux of the late-type galaxies is produced by HMXBs
and >
∼ 80% of the hard) X-ray flux
∼ 60% of the total (and >
of the early-type galaxies is produced by low luminosity
AGNs. In the analysis that follows, we use the hard and
soft band luminosities of the late-type galaxies to estimate
the evolution of star formation rates in normal galaxies
and the hard band luminosity of the early-type galaxies to
estimate the growth rates of supermassive black holes in
normal galaxies.
Before we can implement these assumptions, we must
also consider the possibility that the flux from the high
redshift late-type galaxies is being contaminated by AGNs.
Since we cannot resolve their radial emission profiles as we
did for the nearby subsamples (Section 4.1) and their luminosity evolution is fairly similar to that of the early-type
galaxies, which we largely attribute to AGNs, we must
find other ways to address this possibility. Fortunately,
there are three key properties of the late-type galaxy emission that suggest the level of AGN contamination is small.
First, the star formation signatures in the late-type galaxy
optical spectra are necessarily correlated with a significant
flux from HMXBs (Eqn. 1), suggesting that only a small
fraction of the late-type galaxy emission could come from
AGNs. Second, the X-ray emission from late-type galaxies
is extended at low redshifts (Figure 6), directly demonstrating the absence of AGNs among the nearby members
17
Fig. 15.— Comoving SMBH accretion rate density as a function of
redshift for the AGES early-type galaxies. Because we are dealing
with normal galaxies rather than X-ray bright AGNs, our results
lie roughly a factor of four below the Ba05 data (open squares at
0.15 < z < 0.3 and 0.35 < z < 0.5) and the (solid) Ba05 best-fit
curve (which is based on additional data out to z ' 1.2). The slopes
of the best-fit curves shown do agree to within errors, however. Our
value is 2.9 ± 0.7 (dashed line), while Ba05 finds 3.2 ± 0.8 (for z <
1.2).
of the sample. Third, the Poisson and bootstrap error
estimates are similar at all redshifts, which they would
not be if a small number of individual, high-count sources
(AGNs) were hidden within the sample. This disfavors
small to moderate AGN contamination. Significant AGN
contamination is also disfavored by our analysis and comparisons to previous work in Section 5.1.
5.1. Star Formation Rates in the Late-Type Galaxies
Studies of star formation over the redshift range 0 <
∼
z <
∼ 3 have demonstrated that the relationship between
X-ray luminosity and SFRs is reasonably universal (e.g.,
Brandt et al. 2001; Seibert et al. 2002; Nandra et al.
2002; Cohen 2003; Grimm et al. 2003; Persic et al. 2004;
Reddy & Steidel 2004; Lehmer et al. 2005). We use
Eqn. (1) to estimate the hard band SFR from LHMXB
x,hard =
LMXB
LMXB
LLATE
−
L
,
where
L
is
based
on
Eqn.
(2) and
x,hard
x,hard
x,hard
a typical LMXB spectrum with HR = 0 (e.g., Muno et
al. 2004) and LLATE
x,hard is given in Eqn. (15). The result is
SFRhard = (6.4 ± 1.8)hLK /LK∗ i1.2±0.4
×(1 + z)3.4±1.2 M yr−1 .
(19)
Using Eqn. (3) to estimate the stellar mass M∗ of the
galaxies, we find that SFRhard corresponds to a specific
star formation rate (SSFR = SFR/M∗ ) of
SSFRhard = (8.4 ± 2.4) × 10−2 (1 + z)3.4±1.2
18
Watson et al.
×hM∗ /1011 M i0.2±0.4 Gyr−1 .
(20)
Based on the work of Ranalli et al. (2003, as modified by Gilfanov et al. 2004) we also use Eqn. (1) to esLATE
LMXB
timate the soft band SFR from LHMXB
x,soft = Lx,soft −Lx,soft :
SFRsoft = (3.4 ± 0.7)hLK /LK∗ i1.1±0.2
×(1 + z)2.4±1.0 M yr−1
(21)
and a corresponding specific star formation rate of
SSFRsoft = (4.3 ± 0.9) × 10−2 (1 + z)2.4±1.0
×hM∗ /1011 M i0.1±0.2 Gyr−1 .
(22)
As shown in Figure 12, the results of earlier SSFR studies by Bauer et al. (2005), Bell et al. (2005), and Feulner et
al. (2004) fall within the range encompassed by our hard
and soft band SSFR trends (Eqns. 20 and 22), but we
have smaller uncertainties due to our larger sample size.
Our results also agree with those of more recent analyses
of comparably large galaxy samples (Noeske et al. 2007
and Zheng et al. 2007) in bins of similar stellar mass
(10.5 <
∼ 0.45
∼z <
∼ 11) and redshift (0.2 <
∼ log(M∗ /M ) <
and z ' 0.3, respectively).
We compute the star formation rate per comoving volume, ρ̇∗ , by integrating Eqns. (19) and (21) over the comoving density of the late-type galaxies (see Section 2.2).
These results are shown in Figure 13. We find
M
(23)
ρ̇∗,hard = (2.1 ± 0.4) × 10−2 (1 + z)2.9±0.7
yr Mpc3
and
M
ρ̇∗,soft = (1.6 ± 0.3) × 10−2 (1 + z)2.5±0.5
, (24)
yr Mpc3
for the hard and soft bands respectively. As illustrated
in Figure 13, our results are broadly consistent with the
range of ρ̇∗ values inferred from the standard extinctioncorrected ultraviolet luminosity measurements of GALEX
(Schiminovich et al. 2005).
It is important to note that significantly larger extinction corrections have already been ruled out by neutrino
detectors. Values of ρ̇∗ more than 50% larger than ρ̇∗,hard
would be in serious conflict with the Super-Kamiokande
upper limit (Malek et al. 2003) on the Diffuse Supernova
Neutrino Background (DSNB) from M > 8M stars (Strigari et al. 2005, Hopkins and Beacom 2006).
Our soft-band estimates of ρ̇∗ sit closer to the GALEX
minimum extinction correction curve. Nevertheless, the
consistency of our hard and soft band results with each
other and with the range of GALEX results indicates that
we are in general agreement with earlier studies (e.g., based
on Hα measurements: Tresse & Maddox 1998, Tresse et
al. 2002, Pérez-González et al. 2003, and Brinchmann et
al. 2004 and the meta-analysis of Hogg 2001) as well as
more recent comprehensive studies (e.g., Hopkins & Beacom 2006).
The level of agreement between our hard and soft band
results also provides a check on the contamination of our
sample by AGNs. We first note that the soft band SSFR
and ρ̇∗ values (Eqns. 22 and 24) are systematically lower
than the corresponding hard band values (Eqns. 20 and
23), but this is not uncommon. Many previous studies
have also generally inferred lower SFR and ρ̇∗ values based
on soft band flux (e.g., G03 and Norman et al. 2004), suggesting that a low-normalization conversion between the
soft band X-ray flux and the star formation rate (e.g.,
Hornschemeier et al. 2005), rather than contamination in
the hard band, is to blame for this discrepancy. Furthermore, if sources harder than X-ray binaries, like Type II
AGNs (see Figure 7), were contributing excess hard band
emission to the late-type galaxy flux, ρ̇∗,hard (Eqn. 23)
would lie above rather than slightly below the GALEX
best-fit curve (Figure 13).
5.2. Accretion Rates in the Early-Type Galaxies
For the early-type galaxies, we use Eqn. (2) to estimate
and subtract the contamination from LMXBs and use the
remaining hard X-ray luminosity to determine the average
supermassive black hole growth rate via Eqn. (4). Assuming a constant accretion efficiency of = 0.1, we find that
ṀBH = (5.8 ± 1.1) × 10−6 hLK /LK∗ i1.1±0.4
×(1 + z)
3.3±0.7
M yr
−1
(25)
.
This growth rate (see Figure 14) is roughly an order of
B01 >
−4
−1
magnitude below the estimates of Ba01 (ṀBH
∼ 10 M yr ),
because we are considering very different source populations. The Ba01 estimates are based on directly detected
X-ray sources with luminosities exceeding 1042 erg s−1 ,
while we have eliminated such bright sources and consider
only “normal” galaxies with mean luminosities of order
1041 erg s−1 . The rapid redshift evolution of the accretion rate in normal galaxies is consistent, however, with
the redshift evolution of bright AGNs found by Ba01 and
Ba05.
We estimate the accretion rate density ρ̇BH by integrating the accretion rate per unit (stellar) luminosity over
the early-type galaxy luminosity function (see Section 2.2).
We find that
ρ̇BH = (2.0±0.4)×10−8 (1+z)2.9±0.7 M yr−1 Mpc−3 . (26)
As shown in Figure 15, the evolution rate we determine is
consistent with the rates found by Ba01 (ρ̇BH ∝ (1+z)3±1 )
and Ba05 (ρ̇BH ∝ (1 + z)3.2±0.8 ) but we have a systematically lower normalization for ρ̇BH because of the different
source populations we have examined. This suggests that
even at z <
∼ 0.5 the aggregate growth rate of black holes in
normal galaxies is still a factor of a few less than that occurring in the much smaller number of bright, low-redshift
AGNs.
6. summary and conclusions
After eliminating AGNs flagged by AGES spectroscopy
and X-ray sources brighter than our luminosity limit (Eqn.
8), we used a stacking technique to determine the average X-ray properties of a magnitude-limited sample of
6146 (R < 20 mag, z < 0.6) apparently normal galaxies.
The results substantially improve our knowledge of normal
X-ray Evolution of AGES Galaxies
galaxy X-ray evolution over the redshift range 0.1 <
∼z<
∼
0.5, which has been difficult to probe based on either local
studies of individual objects or small-area deep fields.
We spectroscopically divided the galaxies into late-type
and early-type subsamples. The spectroscopic signatures
of star formation, spatially extended radial emission profiles, luminosity evolution, and low LMXB emission (<
∼
15%) of the late-type galaxies suggest that their X-ray
emission is dominated by HMXBs and therefore traces the
star formation rate.
Conversely, because the early-type galaxies lack spectroscopic evidence for star formation, yet have rapidly evolving hard X-ray luminosities that are well in excess of that
expected from LMXBs (<
∼ 20%), we concluded that their
emission is increasingly dominated by AGNs at higher redshifts.
β
When we use a double power law (Lx ∝ Lα
K (1 + z) ,
Eqn. 5) to fit the trends in the X-ray emission, we see
that the X-ray luminosity increases monotonically from
low mass galaxies at low redshift to high mass galaxies
at high redshift for both galaxy types. The redshift evolution of the late-type galaxies, Lx ∝ (1 + z)3±1 , is in
good agreement with previous estimates (e.g., H02, Ptak
et al. 2001) and with theoretical expectations for normal,
star-forming galaxies (Ghosh & White 2001). The optical
luminosity dependence of the late-type galaxy emission,
1.2±0.3
roughly Lx ∝ LK
, also matches previous results (e.g.,
S01; David, Jones, & Forman 1992). In addition, the specific star formation rates, SSFR = SFR/M∗ , and star formation rate densities, ρ̇∗ , we infer from the hard and soft
band emission of the late-type galaxies span the range of
previously reported values (Figures 12 and 13).
The specific X-ray luminosities we found for the earlytype galaxies are in good agreement with the results of past
studies (O’Sullivan et al. 2001, G03, B05, and Lehmer et
al. 2007). Additionally, our work provides the first X-ray
estimates of the SMBH accretion rates, ṀBH , and accretion rate densities, ρ̇BH , in normal galaxies at these redshifts. Our findings suggest that the redshift evolution
of low luminosity AGNs in our early-type galaxy sample is similar to that of higher luminosity AGNs (Ba01
and Ba05), which we exclude from our analysis. However,
the lower luminosity AGNs contribute little to the overall growth of supermassive black holes. In general, our
work shows that there is a continuum rather than a sudden break in the star formation and SMBH accretion histories of galaxies from the powerful starbursts and AGNs
of the past to the fainter, optically-normal galaxies more
prevalent today.
Our analysis of the X-ray evolution of galaxies in the
NDWFS XBoötes field can be significantly expanded in the
future. A second phase of AGES has doubled the size of
the spectroscopic sample and extended the redshift range
of galaxies. If combined with photometric redshifts based
on the very extensive, multiwavelength NDWFS photometry, it will be possible to reach z ∼ 1 to a uniform luminosity limit and greatly reduce statistical errors.
C.R.W. thanks John Beacom, Mark Brodwin, Xinyu
Dai, Stephan Frank, Oleg Gnedin, Andy Gould, Dirk Grupe,
Himel Ghosh, Matt Kistler, Smita Mathur, Pat Osmer,
Rick Pogge, Ken Rines, Louie Strigari, Ezequiel Treister,
19
Meg Urry, Pieter van Dokkum, Jeff van Duyne, David
Weinberg, Jong-Hak Woo and Hasan Yuksel for helpful
discussions. We also thank the referee for useful and extensive comments.
This research was supported by the National Optical
Astronomy Observatory which is operated by the Association of Universities for Research in Astronomy (AURA),
Inc. under a cooperative agreement with the National Science Foundation. Spectroscopic observations reported here
were obtained at the MMT Observatory, a joint facility of
the Smithsonian Institution and the University of Arizona.
We thank the CXC for scheduling the Chandra X-ray Observatory observations that made this work possible and
the CXC Data Processing Team for the pipeline data.
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