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Star and Planet Formation Neal Evans The University of Texas at Austin Star Formation in Galaxies CO(1-0): OVRO Antennae: galaxy merger. Visible (HST) shows copious star formation, but misses the main show. Most intense star formation in obscured region traced by CO. Whitmore et al. (1999) Wilson et al. (2000) New Views are Coming The Archive is open: http://ssc.spitzer.caltech.edu/ Star Formation/Galaxy Formation Key part of galaxy formation Properties of molecular clouds in other galaxies Connect studies of distant galaxies to MW • Collective, clustered, massive SF • Molecular line probes of high density • Dust continuum emission Insights into high-z starbursts Star Formation traced by HCN Relation between LIR and LCO becomes non-linear for very high LIR. 12 H C N 1-0 on galaxies G ao & S olom on, 2003 log[L IR ] (L SUN ) 10 Stays linear for LHCN. S lo p e is clo se to 1 C O 1-0 on galaxies S olom on et al. 1997 8 Is this correlation still correct for sm aller and larger scale ?? 6 4 4 6 8 -2 log[L' M olecule ] (K km /s pc ) 10 J. Wu et al. Data from Gao and Solomon 2003. Relation Same for Cores in MW 15 APM08279 Gao galaxy sample HCN1-0 Solomon galaxy sample CO 1-0 Paglione Galaxy sample HCN 3-2 (Stars) High Z CO 1-0 galaxies Galactic massive cores HCN 3-2 Galactic massive cores CS 5-4 Cloverleaf log[L IR ] (L SUN ) 10 y=1.31X -1.19 y=0.98X +3.81 5 G alactic C O clouds y=0.96X +1.19 (M ooney & S olom on,1988) ? y=0.97X +3.10 LHCN or LCS for cores in MW also linear with LIR. (For LIR > 104 Lsun) These points are for HCN 3-2 and CS 5-4. Same line as HCN 3-2 in galaxies. Parallel to HCN 1-0 relation for starbursts. ? 0 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 Checking HCN 1-0 in MW. -2 log[L' M olecule ] (K km /s pc ) J Wu et al. In prep. What probes can we use? Dust Extinction of background stars • Probe Nd(b), Bperp Emission in infrared to millimeter • Probe Td( r), Nd(b), Bperp Problem: need to know dust properties Molecules Emission or absorption (infrared to radio) • Probe TK( r), n( r), v( r), Bpar Problem: chemistry Studies of High Mass Regions Many Detailed Studies Ho, Zhang, … Surveys van der Tak et al. (2000) (14 sources) Beuther et al. (2002) (69 sources) Survey of water masers for CS • CS survey Plume et al. (1991, 1997) Dense: <log n> = 5.9 • Maps of 51 in 350 micron dust emission Mueller et al. 2002 • Maps of 63 in CS J = 5–4 emission Shirley et al. 2003 Luminosity versus Mass Log Luminosity vs. Log M red line: masses of dense cores from dust Log L = 1.9 + log M blue line: masses of GMCs from CO Log L = 0.6 + log M L/M much higher for dense cores than for whole GMCs. Mueller et al. (2002) Linewidth versus Size Correlation is weak. Linewidths are 4-5 times larger than in samples of lower mass cores. Massive clusters form in regions of high turbulence, pressure. Shirley et al. 2003 Cumulative Mass Function Incomplete below 103 Msun. Fit to higher mass bins gives slope of about –0.93. Steeper than that of CO clouds or clumps (–0.5 on this plot). Similar to that of clusters, associations (Massey et al. 1995) in our Galaxy and in Antennae (Fall et al. 2004). Shirley et al. 2003 Massive Cores: Gross Properties Massive, Dense, Turbulent Mass distribution closer to clusters, stars than GMC Much more turbulent than low mass cores A model for starbursts? Luminosity correlates well with core mass Less scatter than for GMCs as a whole L/M much higher than for GMCs as a whole L/Mdust ~ 1.4 x 104 Lsun/Msun ~ high-z starbursts L/L(HCN) similar to starbursts Starburst: all gas like dense cores? Hints of Dynamics A significant fraction of the massive core sample show self-reversed, blue-skewed line profiles in lines of HCN 3-2. Of 18 double-peaked profiles, 11 are blue, 3 are red. Suggests inflow motions of overall core. Vin ~ 1 to 4 km/s over radii of 0.3 to 1.5 pc. J. Wu et al. (2003) Open Questions for ALMA Studies of gas, dust, high n tracers in galaxies Detailed structure of massive cores Can we separate into fragments/clusters? • Simulations predicting properties • Understand IMF? • See SMA early results as preview for ALMA Can we study dynamics? • Test inward motion hints in single-dish spectra • Separate dynamics of fragments Evolution of dust, ice, gas-phase chemistry • Combine ALMA with Spitzer, SOFIA, Herschel, … What do we need? High resolution High dynamic range, image fidelity Bright, but complex, sources Flexible correlator Very rich spectrum, need many diagnostics Full complement of receivers For exgal clouds, excellent sensitivity Low Mass vs. High Mass Low “Isolated” (time to form < time to interact) Low turbulence (less than thermal support) Nearby (~ 100 pc) High Mass star formation Mass star formation “Clustered” Time to form may exceed time to interact Turbulence >> thermal More distant (>400 pc) High vs. Low Early Conditions Property Low High p ~1.8 ~1.8 nf (median) 2 x 105 1.5 x 107 Linewidth 0.37 5.8 n( r) = nf (r/rf)–p ; rf = 1000 AU Even “Isolated” SF Clusters Taurus Molecular Cloud Prototypical region of “Isolated” star formation Myers 1987 But Not Nearly as Much Taurus Cloud at same scale 4 dense cores, 4 obscured stars ~15 T Tauri stars 1 pc Orion Nebula Cluster >1000 stars 2MASS image The Basic Features Envelope Disk Protostar Jet/wind/outflow T. Greene Studies of the Envelope All quantities vary along line of sight Dust temperature, Td( r) • Heating from outside, later inside Gas temperature, TK( r) • Gas-dust collisions, CRs, PE heating Density, n(r), predicted to vary Velocity, v(r), connected to density Abundance, X(r), varies • Photodissociation, freeze-out, desorption Combined Modeling of Dust and Gas nd(r), L Radiative Transfer Gas to dust S I(b) Dust PhysicalModel Model Physical n(r),v(r) v(r) n(r), Iterate TD(r) to TK(r) n(r), TK(r) v(r) Simulate Observations TD(r) Observations Observations Gas Chemistry X(r) Monte Carlo nJ(r) Simulate Obs. TA (v,b) An Evolutionary Model A physical model from theory Sequence of Bonnor-Ebert spheres of increasing nc e.g., Shu (1977) “Inside-out collapse” Calculate luminosity of central star+disk Dust temperature through envelope Gas temperature Chemical abundances Follow gas as it falls, using evolving conditions Line Profiles including all effects Theory gives n(r,t), v(r,t) QuickTime™ and a GIF decompressor are needed to see this picture. t<0: Series of Bonnor-Ebert spheres t>0: Inside-out collapse model (Shu 1977) C. Young L(t) from Accretion, Contraction L(t) calculated. First accretion. First onto large (5 AU) surface (first hydrostatic core). Then onto PMS star with R = 3 Rsun, after 20,000 to 50,000 yr. And onto disk. Prescriptions from Adams and Shu. Contraction luminosity and deuterium burning dominates after t ~100,000 yr. C. Young and Evans, in prep. Evolution of Dust Tracers QuickTime™ and a GIF decompressor are needed to see this picture. Assumes distance of 140 pc and typical telescope properties. C. Young and Evans, in prep. Calculate Gas Temperature QuickTime™ and a GIF decompressor are needed to see this picture. Use gas energetics code (Doty) with gas-dust collisions, cosmic rays, photoelectric heating, gas cooling. Calculate TK( r, t). C. Young and J. Lee et al. Calculate Abundances Chemical code by E. Bergin 198 time steps of varying length, depending on need. Medium sized network with 80 species, 800 reactions. Follows 512 gas parcels. QuickTime™ and a GIF decompressor are needed to see this picture. Includes freeze-out onto grains and desorption due to thermal, CR, photo effects. No reactions on grains. Assume binding energy on silicates for this case. J. Lee et al. In prep Calculate Line Profiles QuickTime™ and a GIF decompressor are needed to see this picture. Line profiles calculated from Monte Carlo plus virtual telescope codes. Includes collisional excitation, trapping. Variations in density, temperature, abundance, velocity are included. Assumes distance of 140 pc and typical telescope properties. J. Lee et al. In prep J. Lee et al. In prep A Closer Look Lines of HCN (J = 1–0). Shown for four times. Top plot with 50” resolution. Bottom plot with 5” resolution. ALMA will probe the desorption wave. J. Lee et al. In prep Evidence for Infall Good evidence in a few. (e.g., Zhou et al. 1993) Surveys indicate infall is common at early stages. Gregersen et al. 1997, 2000 Mardones et al. 1997 Observing Infall with ALMA A key observation is to observe the infalling gas in redshifted absorption against the background protostar Very high spectral resolution (<0.1 km/s) is required High sensitivity to observe in absorption against disk. Low Mass Cores: Gross Properties Molecular cloud necessary, not sufficient Centrally peaked density distribution High density (n>104 cm–3) Low turbulence Power law slope ~ high mass Fiducial density ~ 100 times lower Complex chemistry, dynamics even in 1D Evidence for infall seen, but hard to study Outflow starts early, strong effect on lines Rotation on small scales Open Questions Initial conditions Cloud/core interaction Trace conditions in core closer to center Inward motions before point source? Timescales for stages Establish existence and nature of infall Envelope-Disk transition Inverse P-Cygni profiles against disks Chemo-dynamical studies Inner flow in envelope Outflow dynamics Nature of interaction with ambient medium Sub-stellar Objects Brown dwarfs, free-floating planets, … BDs clearly exist, clearly have disks, accretion,… How do these form? Ejection from multiples, clusters Formation like stars Properties of disks Do they form in low-mass, dense envelopes? Low end of core mass function Planet Formation Best studied around isolated stars Origin and evolution of disk Gaps, rings, … Debris disks as tracers of planet formation Chemistry in disks Evolution of dust, ices, gas Planet Formation SMM image of Vega shows dust peaks off center from star (*). Fits a model with a Neptune like planet clearing a gap. This is with 15-m at 850 microns and 15” resolution. ALMA can do at higher resolution. SMM image of Vega JACH, Holland et al. Model by Wyatt (2003), ApJ, 598, 1321 With higher resolution Vega also observed by Wilner et al. (2003). Model of resonance with planet. Predicts motion of dust QuickTime™ and a GIF decompressor are needed to see this picture. Model and Animation by Marc Kuchner ALMA Resolution Simulation Contains: * 140 AU disk * inner hole (3 AU) * gap 6-8 AU * forming giant planets at: 9, 22, 46 AU with local over-densities * ALMA with 2x over-density * ALMA with 20% under-density * Each letter 4 AU wide, 35 AU high Observed with 10 km array At 140 pc, 1.3 mm Observed Model L. G. Mundy Chemistry of Planet-forming Disks LkCa15 with OVRO. Trace the composition changes with evolution. QuickTime™ and a TIFF (LZW) decompressor are needed to see this picture. Qi et al. 2004 ALMA will have resolution and sensitivity to do this kind of study in many disks. The Icy Component Rich spectrum of ices: CO2, H2O, CH3OH, OCN– and others. Can study ice evolution in regions forming sunlike stars. Little processing at T>50 K, some evidence for lower temperature processing. Spitzer IRS plus Keck/NIRSPEC or VLT/ISAAC Boogert et al. ApJS, submitted Open Questions How the disk initially forms Timescales for disk evolution How planets form in the disk How unusual the solar system is Core accretion or Gravitational Instability Systems with giant planets out where ours are Evolution of dust, ice, gas in disk Building blocks for planets Requirements Maximum Image fidelity (gaps will be hard to see) Best sensitivity Especially for debris disks Flexible Spatial resolution correlator, receiver bands Chemistry In the ALMA era… SOFIA 2005 Spitzer 2003 SMA, CARMA, eVLA, LMT, GBT, APEX, ASTE, JCMT, CSO, … Herschel 2007 SAFIR ~2015 JWST 2011 AT-25 2012 Making the most of ALMA Complementary Observatories User-friendly system Low barriers to those from other wavelengths Proposals, planning tools, reduction, analysis Scientific support staff Broad wavelength experience Financial support tied to time A Closer Look A few abundance profiles at t=100,000 yr. Vertical offset for convenience (except CO and HCN). Big effect is CO desorption, which affects most other species. Secondary peaks related to evaporation of other species. J. Lee et al. In prep Bolocam map of Ophiuchus Bolocam map (1.2 mm) of region in Spitzer survey. Covers very large area (> 10 sq. deg.) compared to any previous map. Rms noise ~ 50 mJy, with about half the data. K. Young et al. In prep Early Results from Spitzer Based on validation data (about 1%) Observed two small cores (IRAC/MIPS) One (L1228) with a known infrared source One (L1014) without Observed a few IRS targets B5 IRS HH46/47 IRS (with ERO team) A Typical Starless Core L1014 distance ~ 200 pc, but somewhat uncertain. R-band image from DSS A Surprise from Spitzer Three Color Composite: Blue = 3.6 microns Green = 8.0 microns Red = 24 microns R-band image from DSS at Lower left. We see many stars through the cloud not seen in R. The central source is NOT a background star. L1014 is not “source-less”. Larger size in red is PSF. C. Young et al. ApJS, submitted Source Peaks on mm Emission Both long-wave maps are 3-sigma contours. C. Young et al. ApJS, submitted Left: 8 micron on 1.2 mm MAMBO dust continuum emission (Kauffmann & Bertoldi) Right: 24 micron on 850 micron SCUBA data (Visser et al. 2002) Models Model of SED for d = 200 pc. Central object has very low luminosity: 0.09 Lsun. Requires BB plus disk (red line) in an envelope. M(envelope) about 2 Msun. Cannot be a stellar-mass object with significant accretion. Probably substellar at this point. Alternative model: more distant (2.6 kpc) object lined up by chance with peak of a foreground core (dashed line) C. Young et al. ApJS, submitted Lessons from L1014 “Starless” Or may have substellar objects 1 out of 1 has a source (will soon have more) Very cores may not be low luminosity sources may exist Must be low mass and low accretion Caveat: possible background source HH46/H47 Cloud QuickTime™ and a MPEG-4 Video decompressor are needed to see this picture. NASA/JPL-Caltech