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Chapter 16
America’s Place in a Dangerous World
Focus Questions
Q1
Is it fair to say that the United States has been an expansionist power throughout its history?
A1
One must remember that the early colonists immigrated to America to escape religious persecution,
and/or pursue economic opportunities. Once arriving in North America, the opportunity to explore
“the new world” and secure land for cultivation motivated many to move westward. After gaining
independence from Great Britain, the concept of manifest destiny or the idea that the United States
had the right to expand to the Pacific Ocean to the benefit of economic gain and military security is
largely seen as an inherent power of the federal government. There are numerous examples of
American expansionist policies. First, President Jefferson’s purchase of the Louisiana Territory
from Napoleon for $15 million doubled the size of the United States. In addition, the federal
government aided the republic of Texas in seceding from Mexico in 1836. After Texas was
admitted into the Union, the United States went to war with Mexico to gain lands in what we know
identify as the American Southwest. After the Civil War, the United States began to insert itself
into international politics. Given the numerous revolutions in Latin and South America from
Spanish rule, the United States began to recognize these new countries (Columbia, Mexico, Chile,
Argentina, Brazil, and Peru) as sovereign nations. In 1823, President James Monroe proclaimed the
Monroe Doctrine stating that the United States would view further colonization of the Western
hemisphere by European powers as hostile acts.
In effect, these early examples of American expansionism have led to further international
involvement in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries and explain America’s current status as an
economic and military superpower.
Q2
What were our post-World War II political, economic, and military strategies in relation to western
Europe, the Soviet Union, and Japan?
A2
At the end of World War II, cities in Germany, Japan, Italy, and Northern Africa lay in ruins. This
illustrated the Allies’ military capabilities but also provided an opportunity for the Western
democracies to form international institutions that would embody democratic principles and
advocate free market values. In turn, the United States would be the leader in facilitating global
rebuilding. To this end, the United States instituted the Marshall Plan providing $15 billion in
financial assistance to rebuild Europe between 1947 and 1953. To facilitate an international
dialogue, the United Nations (UN) was formed in 1945 allowing all the nations of the world
membership in order to “maintain international peace and security.” Furthermore, delegates to the
Bretton Woods Conference of 1944 sought to encourage international trade and development. Three
components were necessary to accomplish this global economic structure: The International
Monetary Fund (IMF), the World Bank, and the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT).
However, the United States had to build military alliances given the Soviet Union’s expansionist
policies and ideological opposition to American capitalism. To this end, the United States designed
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the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) or a collective security pact formed in 1949
between the United States and eleven other Western democracies to oppose further Soviet
expansion in Europe. President Harry Truman developed a policy known as the Truman Doctrine
stating that the United States would actively support anti-communist forces globally in their battle
against communism. In turn, the United States adhered to the idea of containment to limit Soviet
power by supporting anti-communist forces and strengthening U.S. allies on the periphery of the
Soviet empire. By pursuing a policy of containment, Western democracies believed that denying
communism the opportunity to grow and expand would eventually lead to its decay and collapse.
Q3
How does the United States wield its overwhelming economic and military power in the world
today?
A3
After World War II, the United States became a major economic and military superpower. Yet, the
economies of Europe, Japan, and China threaten America’s economic and military hegemony.
Currently, the United States is occupied with fighting the War on Terror and has over 163,000
troops deployed in Iraq and Afghanistan. This has presented the American military with a
tremendous challenge to fight an enemy that is not a recognized state or regime. Thus, the enemy
seems ubiquitous, which has not helped the American military’s strategic mission. The Bush
administration showed no sign of changing foreign policy and continued to promote the neoconservative philosophy advocating using military and economic power to promote American
ideals and interests. However, this proved to be a tough sell to the global community and the
American public. Furthermore, the Bush Doctrine radically changed American foreign policy. The
Bush Doctrine contends doctrines of multilateralism, containment, and deterrence will not work
against the twenty-first century dangers of terrorism, rogue states, and weapons of mass destruction;
in turn, the United States has the right to take preemptive action, if necessary, to defend itself
against threats to prevent a reoccurrence of the September 11, 2001 terrorist attacks.
Q4
What responsibilities, if any, do the wealthy nations of the world have to the poorer nations?
A4
The United States of America occupies a unique role in the new world order as the only major
military superpower. Yet, other interrelated issues must be addressed including income, energy, and
population. Developed nations account for 20 percent of the world’s population yet consume 66
percent of the world’s goods and services. Developing countries want to increase wealth in order to
begin to consume more. This presents a dilemma as these developing countries must accept
Western businesses to facilitate economic growth usually at the expense of their cultural practices.
Depending on the country, this economic assistance is usually well received. Second, the developed
countries use the vast majority of oil but have been forced to seek alternative energy sources.
Subsequently, this may help developing countries that have sources of energy (for example Nigeria
and countries in South America). Yet, the rift between developed nations and developing countries
concerns population growth in the undeveloped nations. Developed countries view the world’s
increasing population as alarming while developing nations counter that most resources are still
being consumed by the developed world.
Q5
In light of our cultural, economic, and military resources, what place should the United States seek
to create for itself in the world of the twenty-first century?
A5
Since 9/11, the United States stands as the only remaining military superpower. Yet, Americans are
concerned that attention to foreign affairs has overshadowed domestic concerns. Currently, no other
nation rivals the United States’ economic and military power. European and Asia countries have
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made remarkable strides to improve infrastructure and provide a much higher standard of living
than ever before to their citizens. However, this has come with great assistance from Western
democracies. Moreover, developing countries have benefited from foreign aid. For example, the
United States contributes over 25 percent of all aid to Africa. Currently, the U.S. military
involvement in Iraq and Afghanistan has stretched the military budget and the patience of the
American public. Therefore, questions abound. Can or should the United States decline the role of
“world policeman” and reduce military spending to concentrate its efforts on domestic or economic
pursuits? On the other hand, should the United States continue to act as the guarantor of democracy,
free trade, and human rights throughout the world? These questions were relevant to the 2008
presidential election and have required President Obama to continue U.S. foreign policy or radically
alter it.
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Chapter Outline
The geographical location of the United States of America has provided a natural defense against foreign
aggression. However, the tragic events of September 11, 2001 indicate otherwise. Apparent after these
attacks was that America’s enemies were not nation-states as was the case during the wars of the
eighteenth, nineteenth, and twentieth centuries. Furthermore, a diffuse, stateless, yet organized terrorist
group who sought to indicate its dissatisfaction with Western values using American-owned commercial
airlines as weapons forced policy-makers to re-evaluate the United States’ foreign policy goals and
instilled unprecedented fear within the American public. The twenty-first century poses great challenges
to the United States, specifically what should be accomplished through foreign policy and how to achieve
this. There are two ways a nation can pursue its interests in the world. Realists advocate that a nation
should focus its attention and resources on protecting and expanding its national security and prosperity
while others do the same. Idealists say that a nation such as the United States should promote its ideals of
freedom, democracy, and opportunity in the world because we are most secure when others are safe, free,
and prosperous. Realists depend on our hard power assets such as military and economic power. Idealists
advocate soft power assets such as attractive values, culture, prosperity, and generosity. While idealists
and realists agree on the importance of both hard and soft power, they weight them differently. Two
avenues are suggested to gain compliance. First, neo-liberalism attempts to gain concessions from other
countries through economic cooperation and relations. Conversely, proponents of liberal theory believe
compliance can be achieved using economics to reward and punish countries. However, a third
philosophy, known as neo-conservatism, was embraced by the Bush administration that advocates using
military and economic power to promote American ideals and interests. This approach produced mixed
results given its strong reliance on hard power. America’s military involvement in Iraq and Afghanistan
dominated American foreign policy in the early 2000s, but other problems ranging from AIDS to how to
manage a global economy must be considered when formulating foreign policy.
I.
The United States in the Old World Order
In the seventeenth century, the major global powers of Europe included Great Britain, the
Netherlands, France, Portugal, and Spain. Each country established colonial rule to gain a military
advantage over the other countries, but colonization also provided raw materials and markets for
commerce and global trading.
A. Early Experience and Precedents
1.
Wars were fought to control colonies throughout the world.
2.
In the American colonies, the French, British, and Spanish competed to control North
America since the first landing at Jamestown, Virginia, in 1607.
3.
It is important to note that American independence would not have been possible
without these conflicts as the American colonists received financial and military
support from France in their war with England.
4.
After the colonists gained their independence from England, the French Revolution
occurred and Europe was thrown into war: Britain supporting the monarchy versus the
French who were democrats.
5.
Prudently, President George Washington unilaterally proclaimed America’s neutrality
in the European wars. This allowed the new republic to stay out of European politics
and concentrate on domestic concerns.
6.
America did benefit from these conflicts because they weakened the European powers.
a.
President Jefferson’s purchase of the Louisiana Territory from Napoleon for $15
million doubled the size of the United States.
b.
In 1812, President James Madison asked Congress to declare war against Great
Britain due to its repeated violations of American commercial rights.
c.
With the defeat of Napoleon in 1814, England directed its attention toward
America.
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d.
e.
f.
g.
h.
i.
j.
k.
l.
m.
n.
Yet, the War of 1812, although fought in America, pitted Britain against France.
Both nations desired to keep America from helping the other.
The British sent 4,000 troops to land at Maryland and they proceeded to destroy
the newly constructed capital in Washington, DC.
The Treaty of Ghent ended the second war of English aggression and
catapulted General Andrew Jackson, who won the Battle of New Orleans, to
national fame.
The long period of war in Europe and America drove the political powers in
Europe to develop a “Concert of Europe” that would maintain the balance of
power.
Although the United States did not have a part in this meeting, American
representatives began to insist the United States flex its international muscle.
Given the numerous revolutions in Latin and South America from Spanish rule,
the United States began to recognize these new countries (Colombia, Mexico,
Chile, Argentina, Brazil, and Peru) as sovereign nations.
On December 2, 1823, President James Monroe proclaimed the Monroe
Doctrine stating that the United States would view further colonization of the
Western Hemisphere by European powers as hostile acts. This formal
declaration:
1)
Guided American foreign policy throughout the nineteenth and twentieth
centuries.
2)
Established the United States as a regional and international power.
While the Monroe Doctrine dealt with European influence in all of the Western
hemisphere, manifest destiny or the idea that the United States had the right to
expand to the Pacific Ocean to the benefit of economic gain and military security
dominated the American psyche.
1)
The idea of manifest destiny led to the battle for independence in Texas.
2)
This led to the Mexican-American War.
3)
Furthermore, advances in communications and transportation after the
Civil War propelled the United States to become the economic equal of
global superpowers such as England and France.
The Industrial Revolution in the late nineteenth century produced dramatic
changes to the American economy:
1)
Manufacturing replaced agriculture as the dominant sector in the
economy.
2)
As a result, commercial enterprise began to seek more global markets.
3)
The most significant change was the United States’ use of military power
to secure economic interests in Chile, Peru, Cuba, and the Philippines and
acquire territories including Hawaii and Samoa.
On account of increasing international interests, the United States called for an
Open Door Policy advocating countries such as China should remain open to free
trade rather than remain under the control of Great Britain. In effect, America
saw a market and wanted commercial access.
This challenged traditional powers like Britain, which called for “spheres of
influence.”
Yet, President Woodrow Wilson’s failed attempt to rally public opinion to
support a League of Nations in the early 1920s indicated America’s reluctance
to become an international leader. As a result, the United States returned to
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B.
other
isolationism. However, this would be short-lived as a new global menace was
emerging in the Weimar Republic in post-war Germany.
World War II and World Power Status
At the end of World War II, cities in Germany, Japan, Italy, and Northern Africa lay in ruins.
This illustrated the Allies’ military capabilities but also provided an opportunity for the
Western democracies to form international institutions that would embody democratic
principles and advocate free market values. In turn, the United States would be the leader in
facilitating global rebuilding. However, one of America’s allies in World War II, the USSR,
sought to promote communism, which is opposed to the Western democracies’ values of
capitalism and individualism. Consequently, the end of World War II produced a new
war, a cold war, between former allies.
1.
Containment of the Soviet Menace
a.
The period following the end of World War II and lasting until the mid-1980s is
described as the Cold War era characterized by an atmosphere of continuous
hostility short of actual warfare that existed between the United States and the
Soviet Union.
b.
U.S. foreign policy incorporated a bipolar approach whereby policy-makers
sought to strengthen friendships and weaken enemies.
1)
The United States’ postwar foreign policy vision was greatly influenced by
the former ambassador to Moscow, George Kennan, who asserted in the
1947 article in Foreign Affairs magazine that the United States must adopt
a policy of containment against Soviet expansionism.
2)
This idea of containment was a long-term goal to limit Soviet power by
strategic deterrence that strengthened U.S. allies on the periphery of the
Soviet empire.
3)
Almost immediately, this foreign policy was implemented by:
(a) The Marshall Plan that provided $15 billion in financial assistance
to rebuild Europe between 1947 and 1953.
(b) President Truman developed a policy known as the Truman Doctrine
stating that the United States would actively support anticommunist
forces globally in their battle against communism.
(c) By pursuing a policy of containment, Western democracies believed
that denying communism the opportunity to grow and expand would
eventually lead to its decay and collapse.
2.
Cold War Security: NATO, the Warsaw Pact, and Deterrence
a.
The first part of America’s foreign policy was to build alliances. To this end, the
United States designed the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) or a
collective security pact formed in 1949 between the United States and eleven
Western democracies to oppose further Soviet expansion in Europe.
b.
The Soviets responded by forming an alliance of their own among Eastern
European regimes, known as the Warsaw Pact.
c.
Each side adhered to a strategy of deterrence or the military doctrine
seeking to amass sufficient power to prevent, or deter, an opponent from
resorting to force.
d.
The collapse of the Soviet Empire in the late 1980s redefined NATO’s role in the
world. NATO’s membership became more inclusive by:
1)
Accepting former countries of the Soviet empire (Poland, Hungary,
Latvia, Slovakia).
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2)
3.
4.
II.
Developing a more flexible military structure to deal with trouble in and
around Europe.
United Nations: International Order versus Terrorism
a.
In 1945, the United Nations (UN) was formed allowing all the nations of the
world membership in order to “maintain international peace and security.”
1)
Located in New York City, the UN provides a forum for discussing a full
range of international issues and has major peacekeeping responsibilities.
2)
The UN’s principal components are the General Assembly and the
Security Council that provides permanent seats to China, Russia, Great
Britain, France, and the United States who hold veto power during Security
Council votes.
b.
The UN’s effectiveness in providing refugee relief and international
peacekeeping strategies has been overshadowed by mismanagement and
corruption:
1)
Iraqi oil-for-food program.
2)
Sexual exploitation of African girls by UN peacekeepers.
3)
The inability to stop genocide in Rwanda and Darfur.
c.
UN Secretary General, Ban Ki-moon, has promised to enact U.S. led
reforms, but the complicated relationships among the permanent members has
been strained by Russia’s new nationalism and the United States’ military
policies in Iraq and Afghanistan. In turn, reforming the UN will continue to be
very difficult.
IMF, World Bank, and GATT
a.
At the end of World War II, the delegates to the Bretton Woods Conference of
1944 sought to encourage international trade and development. Three
components were necessary to accomplish this global economic structure:
1)
The International Monetary Fund (IMF) was designed to monitor the
system of fixed currency exchange rates and now seeks to assist nations in
managing debt.
2)
The World Bank provides capital to finance reconstruction and
development. Initially, this organization concentrated on rebuilding Europe
but now focuses on the plight of developing countries.
3)
The General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) were a series of
international treaties (the first completed in 1947, the most recent in 1994),
designed to rationalize and reduce tariff and non-tariff barriers to
international trade. In January 1995, the World Trade Organization (WTO)
replaced GATT.
b.
These three organizations, plus the Marshall Plan and strategic alliances, have
served the interests of the United States. Yet, the War on Terror has strained
these alliances.
The United States in the New World Order
The collapse of the Soviet Union prompted the United States to sit at the head of the international
table as the sole superpower. However, events in the twenty-first century have challenged American
hegemony. The 9/11 attacks exposed American vulnerabilities. Second, the emergence of economic
powers including China, India, and the European Union compete with the United States to gain
access to expanding international markets. In turn, other countries are now poised to challenge
America’s economic and military power.
A. The Global Economy
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In the early 1950s, the United States became an economic and military superpower.
1.
Post-World War II Economic Dominance
a.
The American economy grew 50 percent during World War II.
b.
In 1945, the U.S. economy accounted for more than 60 percent of the value of
manufactured goods produced in the world.
c.
The United States implemented the Marshall Plan that combined economic
expansion with the strategy of containment. Hence, the United States was able to
mold global economic order via IMF, World Bank, and GATT.
d.
Yet, America’s role in the international economy receded during the 1960s
and 1970s, which sparked concern among policy-makers whether this signaled a
controlled return to a more natural position within the world economy or an
uncontrolled slide to marginality.
e.
The economic boom beginning in the mid-1990s signaled confidence in the
American economy.
2.
The Growth of a Multipolar World Economy
a.
In the last quarter of the twentieth century three super economies emerged in
Europe, North America, and Asia.
b.
Each economy faced a decision whether to become a closed market or engage in
trade negotiations with other countries, in turn, forming trading blocs.
c.
It is important to note that trading blocs form among nations with similar
political, cultural, and economic structures.
1)
The European Community (EC), including Western European countries,
was formed in 1957 during the Treaty of Rome.
2)
Also, the European Free Trade Association (EFTA) was formed to further
the economic interests of Northern European countries.
3)
In 1991, the EC and EFTA formed the European Union (EC) and
established a common market and currency among twenty-seven countries
and
accounts for $13 trillion in economic activity per year.
4)
A second major trading bloc is the North American Free Trade
Agreement (NAFTA), which includes Mexico, Canada, and the United
States.
5)
In 2004, the new Central American Trade Pact (CATP) was signed and
work continues among thirty-four countries of the Western hemisphere on
the Free
Trade of the Americas (FTAA) initiative.
6)
The third trading bloc comprises East Asian countries such as China,
Hong Kong, Singapore, South Korea, Indonesia, Taiwan, and Japan.
7)
The Association of Southeastern Asian Nations (ASEAN) which formed in
2010 exemplifies the transition that many countries have made from developing nation to regional trading
partner.
d.
However, two problems stand in the way of continued global trade liberalization:
1)
Countries including Japan and China have succeeded to this point by
exporting aggressively while keeping domestic markets closed (a form of
economic protectionism).
2)
There are important human rights, labor, and environmental issues that
must be
considered.
3.
Global Competition and U.S. Competitiveness
a.
Prior to World War II, the American economy was dominated by American
businesses (i.e. self-contained).
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b.
c.
With the move toward globalism, cooperation and business ownership has
become complex.
Global competition, defined as the competition of producers for sales within their
own market and in each other’s markets, has increased competitiveness, profits,
and consumer choices.
III. The Role of U.S. Military Power: Hegemony or Empire
Realists argue that the United States should exercise its economic and military power to
advance its own interests. Idealists and neo-conservatives assert U.S. power should be used to
advance peace, prosperity, and human rights. Thus, the debate concerns how the United
States should use its position in the world and to what end this serves.
A. The Scope of U.S. Military Power
1.
Currently, the United States enjoys a military predominance unequalled in world
history.
2.
The U.S. military, while not the largest, is certainly the most technologically advanced.
a.
The U.S. military expenditures buy both quantity and quality concerning
weaponry.
b
Also, the United States is the only nation in the world with a global basing
structure, air and sealift capacity to deploy large amounts of military equipment
or troops, and the telecommunication technology to integrate and coordinate
air, sea, and ground forces anywhere in the world.
B.
IV.
Military Hegemony and the Bush Doctrine
1.
The collapse of the Soviet Union and the end of the Cold War initially provided a
“peace dividend” of reduced military spending and increased domestic spending.
However, the events of 9/11 changed this.
2.
In response to these tragic events, President George W. Bush established the Bush
Doctrine signaling a radically new direction for American foreign policy. The Bush
Doctrine held that, since the classic Cold War doctrines of multilateralism,
containment, and deterrence will not work against the twenty-first century dangers of
terrorism, rogue states, and weapons of mass destruction, the United States had the
right to take preemptive action, if necessary, to defend itself against such threats.
a.
This view of America’s role in the new world order involved unilateralism and
preemptive action to protect national security and promote American supremacy
in the global community.
b.
Critics of the Bush Doctrine point to its overreliance on military power, disregard
for the use of international organizations, neglecting diplomacy and the
use of military preemption.
The Burden of the Old Order on the New
The United States of America occupies a unique role in the new world order as the only major
military superpower. Yet, other interrelated issues must be addressed, including income, energy,
and population.
A. Income
1.
The 20 percent of the world’s population living in developed countries enjoys twothirds of the goods and services produced in the world each year.
2.
The 80 percent who live in the developing countries subsist on the remaining 20
percent.
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3.
Specifically, the developed countries accumulate while developing countries survive.
In
turn, the developing world is searching for policies that will allow growth.
B.
Energy
1.
Energy powers the economic engines of the world. Yet, questions including who has
it, who gets it, and at what price are paramount to the United States as the largest
consumer of energy.
2.
While sources of energy has been readily available, since the 1970s oil
production has shifted from Western run companies to Middle Eastern countries.
Consequently, the United States has relied on foreign oil markets, specifically the oil
producing nations comprising the Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries
(OPEC). OPEC is the commodity cartel of mostly Middle Eastern oil-producing
nations. OPEC exercises more control than any other organization on both the volume
and price of oil in the international economy.
3.
In the years 1973–1974 and 1979–1980, it became apparent how dependent Americans
were on foreign oil as the price of a barrel of crude went from $3 per barrel to $40.
4.
Dramatic changes in oil prices forced nations to deal with higher energy prices. In
2005, the average price for a barrel of oil was $50. In 2006, the price per barrel rose to
$80.
5.
OPEC supplies 40 percent of the world’s oil and sits on 60–75 percent of the world’s
known oil reserves.
6.
Increased demand from populous countries such as India and China has only
contributed to higher prices.
7.
Alternatives to traditional fuels continue to be explored. These include coal, natural
gas, nuclear power, ethanol (corn-based fuel), and other renewable energy sources like
thermal and hydroelectric power.
8.
If consumption continues at its current rate, developed countries will see even higher
oil process and increased pollution.
C.
World Population
1.
The world’s population is growing at an astounding rate. Moreover, improvements in
food production and healthcare have led to longer life spans.
2.
The current global population is 6.5 billion with a projected population of nine billion
by
the year 2050.
3.
After economic growth, population growth separates developed nations from
developing nations. Each has different perspectives:
a.
Developed nations see the world’s population as too large.
b.
Developing nations view developed nations as consuming the world’s resources
and, therefore, population is not the problem.
V.
What Should America Be in the World?
Since 9/11, the United States stands as the only remaining military superpower. Yet,
Americans are concerned that attention to foreign affairs has overshadowed domestic
concerns. Currently, no other nation rivals the United States’ economic and military power.
European and Asian countries have made remarkable strides to improve infrastructure and
provide a much higher standard of living than ever before to their citizens. However, this has
come with great assistance from Western democracies. Moreover, developing countries have
benefited from foreign aid. For example, the United States contributes over 25 percent of all
aid to Africa. Currently, the U.S. military involvement in Iraq and Afghanistan has stretched the military
budget and the patience of the American public. Therefore, questions abound. Can or should the United
States decline the role of “world policeman” and reduce military spending to concentrate its efforts on
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domestic or economic pursuits? On the other hand, should the United States continue to act as the
guarantor of democracy, free trade, and human rights throughout the world?
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Lecture Suggestions
Current Events/American Political Development (APD) Focus: The Bush Doctrine
I.
Background
With the end of the Cold War, economic power has challenged the primacy of military power.
Thus, the world is economically multipolar while the world military scene is now unipolar, i.e.
dominated by the United States. The United States remains the world’s only military superpower.
The Gulf War of 1990–1991 provided the first test to the United States’ military hegemony.
President George Herbert Walker Bush (41) assembled a coalition of countries to oust Saddam
Hussein from Kuwait. However, his son, President George W. Bush (43), had a decidedly different
approach to conducting foreign affairs. Specifically, the Bush Doctrine of 2002 rejected the tenets
of the Cold War Doctrine of containment, multilateralism, and deterrence; instead, foreign policy is
premised upon unilateralism, preemption, and military supremacy.
II.
The Rise of the Bush Doctrine
A. At the end of the Gulf War, neo-conservatives, specifically Paul Wolfowitz, Dick Cheney,
William Kristol, and Richard Perle, viewed the United States’ decision not to intervene in the
Iraqi uprising in Southern Iraq as a missed opportunity to remove Saddam Hussein from
power.
B.
In response, Under Secretary of Defense, Paul Wolfowitz, drafts a new “military and political
strategy” to address the global changes in a post-Cold War era. In the 1992 document,
Defense Planning Guidance, he advocates the need for the United States to act unilaterally
and preemptively to prevent the proliferation of weapons of mass destruction.
C.
In 1995, Saddam Hussein’s son-in-law who heads the Iraqi Weapons of Mass Destruction
program defects and informs the United States and UN weapons inspectors of Iraq’s
production of biological and chemical weapons. It is important to note that chemical weapons
were used on the Kurds in 1988, which prompted the United Nations to enact sanctions and
send weapons inspectors into Iraq.
D. In 1998, neo-conservatives form The Project for a New American Century to promote
stronger and more aggressive U.S. leadership in global affairs via “military strength and
moral clarity.” The aforementioned neo-conservatives plus Donald Rumsfeld, Richard
Armitage, and John Bolton submit a letter to President Clinton advocating a more decisive
approach to Iraq. Specifically, they believe the current policy is “dangerously inadequate”
and Saddam Hussein must be removed from power.
E.
In October 1988, the UN inspectors are removed from Iraq because Hussein has, once again,
violated conditions of the UN Security Council resolutions. Between December 16 and 19,
1998 the U.S. and British launch attacks against Iraqi military targets. The mission is called
Operation Desert Fox.
F.
In January 20, 2001, George W. Bush becomes president and assembles a cabinet
dominated by neo-conservatives but also includes “pragmatic realists” such as Secretary of
State Colin Powell and National Security Advisor Condoleezza Rice, who advocate
continuing sanctions against Iraq.
G. The neo-conservative approach to foreign affairs becomes evident after the September 11,
2001 attacks when Bush addresses the nation and asserts that the United States government
“makes no distinction between the terrorists who committed these acts and those who harbor
them.”
H. Two days later at a Pentagon briefing, Wolfowitz proclaims, “I think one has to say it’s not
just simply a matter of capturing people and holding them accountable, but removing the
sanctuaries, removing the support systems, ending states who sponsor terrorism. And that’s
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I.
J.
K.
J.
M.
N.
why it has to be a broad and sustained campaign” which prompts realists to question the
administration’s intention to expand a war on terror to a war on states (specifically, Iraq).
In a meeting at Camp David on September 15, Bush convenes his advisors and cabinet
secretaries to discuss the military response to the 9/11 attacks. The decision to attack Al
Qaeda and the Taliban in Afghanistan is supported by the cabinet (Secretary of Defense,
Donald Rumsfeld, abstained from voting).
In January 2002, George Bush addresses the nation in the annual State of the Union Speech
and identifies Iran, Iraq, and North Korea as an “Axis of Evil.” Within the speech, Bush
presents the idea of rogue states colluding with terrorists that threatens the free world.
In June 2002, Bush is the commencement speaker at West Point and outlines a “major shift
in national security strategy from containment to preemption.” Bush also advocates the aim
of America is to continue military hegemony. This refers to the 1992 document,
Defense Planning Guidance, written by the current Assistant Secretary of Defense, Paul
Wolfowitz.
The Bush administration is fractured between pragmatic realists (Powell, Rice) and
neo-conservatives (Rumsfeld, Wolfowitz). On August 5, 2002 Colin Powell advises the
president should not attempt to act unilaterally as European countries including Germany and
Russia are concerned action in the Middle East may escalate tensions. Many former Cabinet
officials from the Bush (41) administration share Powell’s concerns. In the August 15 edition
of the Wall Street Journal, former National Security Advisor, Brent Scowcroft, warns the
current approach to Iraq is “moving too quickly” and the president should allow more time
for diplomacy and inspections to proceed.
Soon after this editorial, Vice-President Dick Cheney, while addressing a Veterans of Foreign
Affairs group in Nashville, advocates a long-term strategy of regime change that would
transform the Middle East and “advance the Israeli-Palestine peace talks.”
On September 17, 2002, the Bush administration formally submits its National Security
Strategy maintaining a radical change in foreign policy. This document incorporates tenets of
the 2002 Defense Planning Guide composed by Wolfowitz, including a reliance on
preemption when dealing with rogue states, the need for American military hegemony, and
the use of military power to ensure economic supremacy and provide for national security.
(Source: http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/iraq/etc/cron.html.)
Institutional Focus: The War Powers Resolution
I.
Background
A. Primarily due to the perception that executive powers must be curtailed, Congress passed the
War Powers Resolution in 1973 over a presidential veto by Richard Nixon. Consequently,
this legislation placed restrictions on the president’s ability to use military force.
B.
Opponents of the resolution contend the president, as commander-in-chief, must possess the
right to respond immediately to international threats and attacks on U.S. territories,
embassies,
or allies. Consequently, opponents of the resolution believe this legislation may impede
the presidential powers of dispatch, energy, and resolve.
II.
The 1973 War Powers Resolution
A. The president is mandated to do the following when deploying military troops without the
prior approval of Congress:
1.
Section 4 states, the president must report in writing to Congress within forty-eight
hours after
deploying troops where hostilities have occurred or are imminent.
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2.
an
without
B.
Section 5 asserts if Congress does not declare war, offer specific statutory
authorization or vote to continue troop deployment within sixty days, the president has
additional thirty days to withdraw the troops.
(Therefore, the president may have “boots on the ground” for a total of ninety days
a formal declaration from Congress.)
3.
If Congress passes a concurrent resolution (which the president cannot veto)
mandating the removal of the troops, the president must comply.
4.
Finally, if Congress does not authorize the continued deployment of American troops
(barring they are not prevented from doing so because of foreign attack or insurrection)
the president must withdraw the troops.
The War Powers Resolution has had very little effect on the actions of the presidents.
1.
In fact, no president has acknowledged the resolution’s constitutionality.
2.
Also, Congress is reluctant to challenge the president because they can only
discontinue funding the operation. This would be seen as a political maneuver with
drastic results. Consequently, many constituents would find this troubling, as the troops
would be placed in severe and imminent danger.
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Projects, Exercises, and Activities
1.
In Robert Wright’s book, Nonzero: The Logic of Human Destiny, the author proposes that the
history of human evolution is largely indicative of cooperation. Consequently, human societies
have become more advanced through non-zero-sum games where both sides benefit from
interactions (this contrasts with a zero-sum game in which one side gains at the expense of
another’s loss). In turn, globalization is natural. Moreover, Wright posits that world governance
may be achieved by cooperative strategies among countries. This is a great thesis as it addresses
human nature and is sure to spur class discussions exploring if this is utopian or practical. If so,
how can this be achieved?
2.
As a classroom exercise or assignment, have the students compare the Bush Doctrine of
unilateralism with the Cold War doctrine of multilateralism. What are the differences between the
two approaches to foreign policy? Is one schema superior to the other given the new world order
attributed to twenty-first century globalism? (See: Suggested Lecture; Bush Doctrine.)
3.
Americans have used foreign policy to support regime change, to influence the domestic
policies of foreign leaders, and to encourage favorable trade conditions. Now that your
students are well acquainted with American democracy and the fundamental principles of
what allows a government to successfully operate, ask them to consider our relationship
with one of our nearest global neighbors. Break students into groups and have them
investigate American foreign policy initiative toward Mexico. Ask students to posit what
kinds of foreign policy initiatives could strengthen Mexican democracy or impact the
ongoing drug war. How might these initiatives, if successful, impact Mexico-American
trade relations? How might it affect other cross-national issues like human trafficking, drug
trafficking, immigration, etc.?
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Additional Resources
Supplemental Readings
Allison, Graham T. 1971. Essence of Decision: Explaining the Cuban Missile Crisis. Boston: Little,
Brown.
Axelrod, Robert. 1981. The Evolution of Cooperation. New York: Basic Books.
Barber, Benjamin. 1995. Jihad v McWorld. New York: Times Books.
Barnett, Thomas P.M. 2004. The Pentagon’s New Map: War and Peace in the 21st Century. New York:
Berkeley Books.
Chirot, Daniel and Clark McCauley. 2006. Why Not Kill Them All? The Logic and Prevention of Mass
Political Murder. Princeton: Princeton University Press.
De Waal, Frans. 1998. Chimpanzee Politics. Revised Edition. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press.
Friedman, Thomas L. 1999. The Lexus and the Olive Tree: Understanding Globalization. New York:
Farrar, Strauss and Giroux.
Frisch, Morton J. 2007. The Pacificus-Helvidius Debates of 1793–1874. Baltimore: Liberty Fund.
Huntington, Samuel P. 1996. The Clash of Civilizations and the Remaking of World Order. New York:
Simon & Schuster.
Kant, Emmanuel. 1795. Perpetual Peace. New York: Great Books Foundation.
Lord, Carnes. 2003. The Modern Prince: What Leaders Need to Know Now. New Haven: Yale University
Press.
Machiavelli, Niccolo. 1935. The Prince. New York: Mentor Books.
Pape, Robert A. 2006. Dying to Win: The Strategic Logic of Suicide Terrorism. New York: Random
House.
Rosen, Stephen Peter. 2005. War and Human Nature. Princeton: Princeton University Press.
Silverstein, Gordon. 1996. Imbalance of Powers: Constitutional Interpretation and the Making of
American Foreign Policy. New York: Basic Books.
Stern, Jessica. 2003. Terror In the Name of God: Why Religious Militants Kill. New York: HarperCollins.
Wright, Robert. 2000. Nonzero: The Logic of Human Destiny. New York: Vintage Books.
Wriston, Walter B. 1992. The Twilight of Sovereignty: How the Information Revolution is Transforming
the World. New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons.
Websites
Council on Foreign Relations
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This is the website for the Council on Foreign Relations, which provides non-partisan analysis of
international affairs.
CIA
This is the official website of the Central Intelligence Agency. Access this site before traveling to another
country! The CIA provides valuable information concerning other countries’ laws, customs, and provides
travel warnings that are useful to those individuals traveling internationally.
NATO
The official website of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) a Cold War left-over that
provides collective security for its member-states in which the United States is a leading actor.
U.S. Department of State
This link provides access to the website of the United States Department of State. The Web page provides
information on the agency, locations of U.S. embassies, and information about other countries.
UN
The official website of the United Nations providing up-to-date information on world affair as it relates to
the global governance procedures of this international organization.
U.S. Department of Defense
This site provides access to the entire component sister services of the U.S. military, the Army, Navy, Air
Force, and Marine Corps as well as the Coast and National Guards. It has video clips and is updated with
defense oriented news on a daily basis. In particular it has up-to-date briefings on the ongoing wars in
Afghanistan and Iraq. It is a good source to guide students to for basic information for research purposes
as well as those who may be considering enlisting or pursuing a commission in our armed forces.
© 2013 Taylor & Francis