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VoicesofDemocracy(2015):20-40 1 20 RONALDREAGAN,“REMARKSATACEREMONYCOMMEMORATINGTHE40THANNIVERSARYOF THENORMANDYINVASION,D-DAY,”POINTEDUHOC,FRANCE(6JUNE1984) and RONALDREAGAN,“REMARKSATAUNITEDSTATES-FRANCECEREMONYCOMMEMORATING THE40THANNIVERSARYOFTHENORMANDYINVASION,D-DAY,”OMAHABEACH,COLLEVILLE SURMER,FRANCE(6JUNE1984) AllisonM.Prasch UniversityofMinnesota Abstract:ThisessayanalyzestwospeechesdeliveredbyPresidentRonaldReaganonJune6, 1984,withinthebroadercontextofReagan'sColdWarforeignpolicyrhetoric.Inhisremarksat PointeduHocandOmahaBeach,ReaganprovidedavividnarrativeofD-Dayandappliedthe morallessonsofWorldWarIItothepresentColdWarstrugglebetweenU.S.democracyand Sovietcommunism. KeyWords:RonaldReagan;D-Day;ColdWar;PointeduHoc;OmahaBeach;Epideictic OnJune6,1984,PresidentRonaldReagandeliveredtwospeechesinNormandy,France, markingthefortiethanniversaryofD-Day:oneatPointeduHocandtheotheratOmahaBeach. Inbothspeeches,Reaganpraisedthemenwhostormedthebeachesandscaledthecliffsof Normandy,usingthestoryofD-DaytoreaffirmtheWest'scommitmenttodemocracyin Europe.HecomparedthestrugglesofWorldWarIItothechallengesstillfacingEuropean democracies,pledgingthattheUnitedStateswouldstandwithothernationsdefending freedomagainstthethreatposedbytheSovietUnion.ForReagan,thishistoriccelebrationof theAlliedvictoryatD-DaywasanopportunemomenttorecommittheUnitedStatesandits WesternalliestotheColdWarstrugglebetweendemocracyandcommunism. Inthisessay,Ianalyzebothspeeches—Reagan'saddressatPointeduHocandhis remarksatOmahaBeach—asindependentandyetinterrelatedrhetoricalmomentswithin Reagan'slargerColdWarforeignpolicynarrative.BothspeechesexemplifyReagan’scommon themesofU.S.patriotism,moralresolve,andcommitmenttotheWesterndemocraticalliance. IfirstdescribehowReagan'sspeechesonthefortiethanniversaryofD-Dayechoedthemes fromhis1982AddresstotheBritishParliamentandhis1983speechtotheNationalAssociation ofEvangelicals.Ithenanalyzeeachspeechseparately,drawingonthearchivesoftheReagan LibrarytoilluminatetheWhiteHouse'sgoalsforReagan'sremarksandshowinghowthose goalsweremanifestedinthespeechesthemselvesthroughaclosereadingofbothtexts. AllisonPrasch:[email protected] Lastupdated:March2016 VoicesofDemocracy,ISSN#1932-9539.Availableathttp://www.voicesofdemocracy.umd.edu/ VoicesofDemocracy(2015):20-40 21 Finally,IshowhowReagan'scommemorationofD-Daywaslaterrepurposedbyhis1984 presidentialcampaign,andhowsuccessiveU.S.presidentshavecontinuedthetraditionof rememberingD-DaybyspeakingatNormandy. RonaldReagan'sColdWarDiplomacy WhenRonaldReagandefeatedincumbentJimmyCarterinthe1980presidential election,manysawReagan'slandslidevictoryasadirectrejectionoftheCarter’spoliciesat homeandabroad.1AccordingtoaNewYorkTimes/CBSNewsPoll,votersoustedCarter becauseoftwomainissues:thefailingU.S.economyandthenation'sforeignpolicyfailures, includingitstroubledrelationshiptotheSovietUnion.TheNewYorkTimesreportedthattwothirdsofvoters"citedeconomicproblemssuchasunemployment,taxesandinflationasakey reasonfortheirvote."Moreover,thosepolled,byamarginofalmosttwo-to-one,saidthey wantedtheUnitedStatestobe“moreforceful”indealingwiththeSovietUnion“evenifit increasedtheriskofwar.”2"WhenRonaldReagantookofficeinearly1981,"writesPaul Fessler,"theUnitedStatesappearedweakandfaltering.Inforeignaffairs,theUnitedStates, stillreelingfromdefeatinVietnam,facednotonlyaSovietUnionexpandingintoAfghanistan butalsoamajorhostagecrisisinIran....ItseemedasifAmerica'sself-imageasaconfident andstronginternationalsuperpowerwasfadingintoadistantmemory."3Reagancountered thisperceptionofaweakenedAmericainhisinauguraladdress,pledgingthatasthenation tookstepsto"renewourselveshereinourownland,wewillbeseenashavinggreaterstrength throughouttheworld.Wewillagainbetheexemplaroffreedomandabeaconofhopefor thosewhodonotnowhavefreedom."4 Earlyinhisfirstadministration,asReaganimplementedpoliciestorevitalizethe economy,healsodeliveredseveralimportantforeignpolicyaddressesthatoutlinedhisviews ontheColdWar,communism,andtheSovietUnion.Ina1997interview,Anthony"Tony" Dolan,oneofReagan'schiefspeechwriters,explainedthatReagan'sforeignpolicyrhetoric from1981to1983displayedthe"evolutionofacounter-strategytotheSoviets"that accomplishedtwothings: First,itreject[ed]thenotionthatyoucannotbemorallycandidandconfrontthe SovietUnion.Inotherwords,itestablishesasortofdualstrategy—aparadoxical strategy—ofcandorandreconciliation.Toughrhetoricandatthesametimean offerofdiplomaticengagement—manyoffersofdiplomaticengagement.Butit didsomethingelse:Itrejectedcontainment.ItsaidtheSovietUnionisaboutto collapseandwe'regonnapushit.That'sallit'severreallyneeded.Andwe'renot goingtostayonoursideofthefiftyyardlineanymore.5 Thirty-fiveyearslater,itisdifficulttofullyappreciatetheboldnessofthisapproach.Butaftera longhistoryofdétente,withU.S.presidentsstrivingtoappeasetheSovietUnion,Reagantook amoreaggressiveand,inasense,idealisticapproach.Reagan'sstrength,writesColdWar historianJohnLewisGaddis,"layinhisabilitytoseebeyondcomplexitytosimplicity.Andwhat hesawwassimplythis:thatbecausedétenteperpetuated—andhadbeenmeantto perpetuate—theColdWar,onlykillingdétentecouldendtheColdWar."6 VoicesofDemocracy(2015):20-40 22 Twospeechesinparticular—Reagan’s1982AddresstoMembersoftheBritish Parliament,andhis1983speechtotheNationalAssociationofEvangelicals—setforthhisnew visionofAmericanforeignpolicyandprovidedafoundationforhislaterspeechesinNormandy. ReaganAttorneyGeneralandconfidanteEdwinMeeselaterwrotethatthesetwospeeches weresignificantbecausethey"setforth[Reagan's]viewofcommunism,theSovietsystem,and therequiredfreeworldresponseincomprehensivefashion."7Thus,abriefconsiderationof Reagan's1982speechatWestminsterandhisso-called“EvilEmpire”speechthefollowingyear isnecessarytoappreciatefullythecontextforhisspeechesatNormandyin1984. OnJune8,1982,ReaganspoketomembersoftheBritishParliamentintheRoyal GalleryofWestminster.Inthisspeech,thepresidentpromisedsupportforEuropeannations seekingfreedomfromSovietdomination,intheprocesspredictingthat"themarchoffreedom anddemocracy...willleaveMarxism-Leninismontheash-heapofhistory."Healsospokeof thespecialpartnershipbetweentheUnitedStatesandGreatBritain,onethatwascemented duringWorldWarIIandfosteredbyPresidentRooseveltandPrimeMinisterChurchill.As leadersontheworldstage,ReagandeclaredthattheUnitedStatesandGreatBritainhada responsibilitytolearnfromthemistakesofWorldWarIIandactas"[f]reepeople,worthyof freedomanddeterminednotonlytoremainsobuttohelpothersgaintheirfreedomaswell."8 Reflectingontheaddressafterhispresidency,Reagancalledit"oneofthemostimportant speechesIgaveaspresident."Henotedthatalthoughmanyconsidered1982awatershedyear forhisdomesticandeconomicpolicyinitiatives,"therealstoryof1982isthatwebegan applyingconservatismtoforeignaffairs."9TheWestminsterAddresswasReagan'sopportunity tochartanewcourseforU.S.foreignpolicyandrenewtheUnitedStates'partnershipwith GreatBritain.AlthoughReagan'swillingnesstorelegateSovietcommunismtothe"ash-heapof history"strucksomecriticsasrecklessandnaïve,hispredictionprovedcorrectovertime.10 ThesecondspeechthatbearsmentionisRonaldReagan'sMarch8,1983addressatthe annualmeetingoftheNationalAssociationofEvangelicalsinOrlando,Florida.Althoughthe speechwasdesignedforareligiousaudience,Reagan'sremarksreceivedbothpraiseand criticismfordescribingcommunisminexplicitlymoralterms.Hecalledonhisaudiencetoresist thetemptation"toignorethefactsofhistoryandtheaggressiveimpulsesofanevilempire,to simplycallthearmsraceagiantmisunderstandingandtherebyremoveyourselffromthe strugglebetweenrightandwrongandgoodandevil."Reaganalsomaintainedthatthestruggle betweendemocracyandcommunismwasnotultimatelyamatterofmilitarymight,buta spiritualchallenge—“atestofmoralwillandfaith."11InsteadofsimplypresentingU.S. democracyandSovietcommunismastwocompetingviewsoftheworld,Reaganpronounced onegoodandtheotherevil,withtheU.S.onthesideofwhatwasrightandgood.Assuch,the nationhadaresponsibilitytoextenddemocraticlibertiestothosestilloppressedbySoviet communism.12 ThesetwospeechesestablishedanimportantfoundationforReagan'slaterspeechesat Normandyinatleasttwoways.First,thepresident'saddressatWestminsterandhis“Evil Empire”speechemphasizedtheneedforashareddemocraticalliancebetweentheUnited StatesandotherWesterndemocracies,mostnotablyGreatBritain.In1982,thepresident emphasizedthevitalityofaU.S.-Britishpartnershipthroughouthistory.HeremindedhisBritish audience(andtheU.S.audienceathome)thatthetwonationshadworkedtogethertodefeat NaziGermany,therebylinkingtheworldsituationin1941withthecurrentstruggleagainst VoicesofDemocracy(2015):20-40 23 Sovietcommunism.Reaganarguedthat"[i]fhistoryteachesanythingitteachesthatselfdelusioninthefaceofunpleasantfactsisfolly,”andhepraisedPrimeMinisterWinston Churchill'scourageousleadershipduring"thedarkdaysoftheSecondWorldWar."Thechoice in1982wasthesameasitwasduringWorldWarII:WouldtheUnitedStatesandGreatBritain standstrongorlet"freedomwitherinaquiet,deadeningaccommodationwithtotalitarian evil?"Attheendofhisspeech,Reaganansweredhisownquestion:"[T]ogether...[l]etusnow beginamajorefforttosecurethebest—acrusadeforfreedomthatwillengagethefaithand fortitudeofthenextgeneration."13ThisexplicitlinkbetweentheAlliedcauseinWorldWarII andthepresentsituationcontinuedinReagan'sD-Daycommemorationsin1984. ThesecondwaythesespeechesprovidedafoundationforReagan'srhetoricat NormandywasinhisportrayaloftheColdWarasamoralstrugglebetweengoodandevil. Reagan'sdeclarationthatcommunismwasan"evilempire"wasradicalin1983;allprevious U.S.presidentshadarguedforapolicyofaccommodationanddétentetowardstheSoviet Union.WhenReaganspokeatNormandyin1984,hesoftenedhistonebutstillhintedatthe underlyingspiritualethicoffightingtotalitarianism.ReaganreferredtotheAllies'"rockhard beliefthatProvidencewouldhaveagreathandintheeventsthatwouldunfoldhere;thatGod wasanallyinthisgreatcause"(PointeduHoc,15).14NamingGodasan"ally,"thepresident arguedthatProvidencewasonthesideofthosewhofoughtNaziGermany.Hestatedthatthe Allieswere"boundtodaybywhatboundus40yearsago,thesameloyalties,traditions,and beliefs"(PointeduHoc,24).Linkingthepresentstrugglebetweendemocracyandcommunism toWorldWarII,ReaganimplicitlyarguedthatGodwasonstillonAmerica’ssidein1984. SettingtheStageatNormandy RonaldReagan's1984visittoNormandywaspartofaten-dayEuropeantourdesigned tostrengthenU.S.tieswithitsWesternallies,particularlyGreatBritain,France,andIreland. "[O]urobjective,"wroteNationalSecurityAdvisorRobertC.McFarlanetoDeputyChiefofStaff MichaelK.Deaver,"bythetimethetripiscompleted,willbetoreassertU.S.interestina strongerandviableEuropewithinalargerpolicycontextembracingboththeAtlanticand Pacificcommunities,whilestressingshareddemocraticvalues."15Accordingtothe“Public DiplomacyActionPlan”thatMcFarlaneincludedwithhismemorandumtoDeaver,the"Primary Perception"theWhiteHousesoughttoadvancewasthatofa"StrongPresidentandthe AmericanRenewal:assertiveleadershipisessentialtoworldpeaceandprosperity."16 TheWhiteHousechosespecificgeographiclocationsthatwouldhighlightthesethemes. InanApril1984memo,WilliamFlynnMartin,theDirectorofInternationalEconomicAffairsfor theNationalSecurityCouncil,notedthatcertainplaceswouldplayasignificantroleinthe president'strip.HewrotethatReagan'svisitstoIreland,Normandy,andLondonwould "providethePresidentwithanidealbackdropforhisthemesofpeaceandprosperityandthe importanceofAlliedsupportandcooperationintheachievementofboth."17But,asSecretary ofStateGeorgeP.Schultznoted,thepresident'svisittoNormandywasparticularlysignificant: "ThepublicrelationshighlightofyourtriptoEuropewillundoubtedlybethecelebrationsin Normandy....Theintensemediainterestprovidesanopportunityforyoupersonally,and alliedleadersasagroup,toreachanunprecedentedaudienceonbothsidesoftheAtlantic."18 VoicesofDemocracy(2015):20-40 24 HistorianDouglasBrinkleyprovidessomeinsightintohowReagan'svisittoNormandy wouldlinkthesacrificesofWorldWarIIwiththepresentmoment.HerecallsaTimecoverstory thatranonMay28,1984,entitled"D-Day:FortyYearsAftertheGreatCrusade."Anunderlined copyofthisarticlesitsinthespeechwritingfilesattheReaganLibrary.LanceMorrow,the authorofthearticle,wrotethatWorldWarIIveteranswould"goupagaintoPointeduHocand shaketheirheadsagaininwonderatthemenwhoclimbedthatsheercliffwhileGermansfired downstraightintotheirfaces."Ofmoreimportance,however,isMorrow'sclaimthatthe fortiethanniversaryofD-Daywould"becometheelectionyearsymboloftheReagan administration'sNewPatriotism."AccordingtoMorrow, TheceremoniesinNormandywillcelebratethevictoryandmournthedead. Theywillalsomournthemoralclaritythathasbeenlost,asenseofcommon purposethathasallbutevaporated.Neveragain,perhaps,wouldtheAlliesso handsomelycollaborate.TheinvasionofNormandywasathunderouslyheroic blowdealttotheevilempire.Neveragain,itmaybe,wouldwarseemso unimpeachablyright,sonecessaryandjust.Neveragain,perhaps,would Americanpowerandmoralitysoperfectlycoincide.19 Inthisarticle,Brinkleyexplains,Morrowdemonstrated"howtheD-Daystoryhadspellbinding, redemptivequalitiesthatReagancouldselltoColdWarAmerica....Morrow,perhapsplacing himselfintothePresident'smind-setorpsyche,explainedD-DaytoTimereadersasan Americanreligiousfableorsterlingfolkloremoment."20Ofcourse,Morrow'sdecisionto describeNaziGermanyas"theevilempire"wasmostcertainlyadirectreferencetoReagan's earliercharacterizationoftheSovietUnion.Althoughtheextenttowhichthisarticleinfluenced theReaganspeechwritersisnotclear,itaccuratelypredictedhowReagan'sspeechesatPointe duHocandOmahaBeachwouldtapintothemythicheroismofD-Day. ReaganmadethreestopsinNormandyonJune6,1984—PointeduHoc,OmahaBeach, andUtahBeach—anddeliveredpreparedremarksatthefirsttwosites.Inowanalyzebothof thesespeechesinturnthrougharchivalsources,historicalaccounts,andclosetextualcriticism toilluminatehowReaganusedthisoccasiontohonorthesoldierswhofoughttoliberate FrancefromNazityrannyandcalluponhispresent-dayaudience"tocontinuetostandforthe idealsforwhichtheylivedanddied"(PointeduHoc26). ReaganatPointeduHoc AlthoughRonaldReaganwoulddelivertwoaddressesonthefortiethanniversaryofDDay,theWhiteHousesawPointeduHocasespeciallysignificant.21InaMay1984 memorandumtoReagan,SecretaryofStateGeorgeP.SchultzwroteofPointeduHoc: ItwashereonJune6,1944thattheUSArmyRangersscaledthecliffsunder heavyfireandsecuredtheareatoprotectthelandingsatOmahaandUtah Beaches…Hereyouwillmakeyourprincipalstatementoftheday--a15minute speechstressingthebraveryofthefallenandthesurvivorsofthisbattleand VoicesofDemocracy(2015):20-40 25 emphasizingthatNormandymarkedthebeginningofacontinuousU.S. commitmenttothesecurityofEurope.22 Inthismemo,SecretarySchultzstressedtheforeignpolicygoalsofReagan’saddress: memorializethedead,honortheliving,andshowhowtheeventsofD-Dayworkedto strengthenU.S.-Europeantiesinthefuture.AspeechdraftfromtheNationalSecurityCouncil commentedonthesymbolismofPointeduHoc:“TheCliffswhichfallawaytothisoftenrough seawitnessedextraordinaryheroism.Fortyyearsago—aspartofagreatAlliedeffort—brave AmericanRangersscaledtheseheightsunderfire.Thisceremonyandthisplacehonors them.”23ThepersuasivepowerofPointeduHocasplacecontinuedthroughoutsuccessive speechdraftsleadinguptoReagan’saddress.AhandwrittennoteonthetopofaMay21,1984 speechdraftsummarizedthespeech’soverarchingtheme:“PointeduHocasymbolofour selflesseffort—againstimpossibleoddsmenwillingtodogreatdeeds.”24Thisnotationhinted attheconnectionReaganwoulddrawbetweentheU.S.ArmyRangers’heroicactionin1944 andtheUnitedStates’ongoingcommitmenttodefendingdemocracyagainstSoviet expansion.25 WhiteHousespeechwriterPeggyNoonanwastaskedwithwritingReagan'sspeechat PointeduHoc.InhermemoirofheryearsattheWhiteHouse,shedescribedthechallengeof craftingaspeechthatwoulduse"big,emotionalwordsandimagesso[theWhiteHouseOffice of]advanceandMikeDeaverwouldbehappy"butalsoretellthestoryofD-Daysoanyone, youngorold,wouldunderstandwhatthedaysymbolizedfortheAlliesin1944andfreedomlovingnationsin1984."IthoughtthatifIcouldgetatwhatimpelledtheRangerstodowhat theydid,"shewrote,"Icoulduseittosuggestwhatimpelsuseachdayasweliveasanationin theworld.Thiswouldremindbothusandouralliesofwhatitisthatholdsustogether."26 Noonanwrotefortwoaudiences:theU.S.publicwatchingthespeechonthemorning news,andReagan'simmediateaudienceinFrance,particularlythesurvivingU.S.ArmyRangers whohadclimbedthecliffs.SheknewthatthespeechwouldbebroadcastliveintheUnited States,27andsheimaginedthe"kidswatchingTVathomeinthekitchenatbreakfast."By describingtheeventsofD-Day,Noonanwantedtoplace"itallintimeandspaceformyselfand, byextension,fortheaudience.Ifwereallylistentoandhearthesnapoftheflags,therealityof thatsound...willhelpusimaginewhatitsoundedlikeonD-Day.Andthatwouldhelpus imaginewhatD-Dayitselfwaslike....Historyisreal."28Byusingtheimagesofsightandsmell andsound,Noonansaidshe"wantedAmericanteenagerstostopchewingtheirRiceKrispies foraminuteandhearaboutthegreatnessofthosetoughkidswhoarenowtheirgrandfathers. ...Pause,sinkin,bringitbacktonow,historyisreal."29ThegoalwastohelptheU.S.audience, althoughfarremovedfromthesceneofbattle,toconnectpasthistorywiththepresent. AsimportantastheU.S.publicwas,Noonanstructuredthespeechsothepresident couldspeakdirectlytotheheroesofhisstory:thesurvivingU.S.ArmyRangerswhowereinthe audienceforthespeech.Inthemidstofherpreparations,theheadofReagan'sadvanceoffice toldNoonanthatthemenwhoscaledthecliffsofPointeduHocwouldbesittingrightinfront ofReaganashespoke.Noonanlaterrecalledhowthisinformationchangedherapproachto thespeech:"[T]heRangersweregoingtobesittingalltogetherinthefrontrows,sittingright therefivefeetfromthepresident....Wellthenheshouldreferdirectlytothem.Heshouldtalk tothem.Heshoulddescribewhattheydidandthensay—....'ThesearetheboysofPointedu VoicesofDemocracy(2015):20-40 26 Hoc.'"30Bytalking"directlytothem,"Reagancouldcelebratetheirheroicactionsandcallonhis audiencetoshowsimilarresolveandbraveryinthefightbetweendemocracyandcommunism. PresidentReaganspokewithhisbacktotheEnglishChannel,withthe"boysofPointe duHoc"seatedonbothsidesofhim.Thisstagingwasdeliberate.Amiscellaneousnote scratchedonthebackofaWhiteHousenotepaddescribedthesetup:"RRstandsinfrontof memorialdaggerw/Rangers,Mrs.Rudder&Mrs.Reaganseatedinfrontonsamelevel–In horseshoe–vetsdependents[,]otherveterans[,]VIP–militarybrass[,]official.RRwon'teven beannounced.Nooneelsespeaks."31Thisarrangementhadseveralimportanteffects. AlthoughU.S.presidentsmostoftenspeakfromanelevatedpodiumorplatformatsome distancefromtheaudience,Reagansituatedhimselfonthe"samelevel"astheU.S.Army Rangers.Thepresidentandthe"boysofPointeduHoc"werefeaturedtogetherontheelevated stage,withthelargeraudienceassembledaroundthestageina"horseshoe"formation.This allowedtworhetoricalexchangestooccursimultaneously.Inthefirst,Reaganspokedirectlyto anintimategroupofsixty-twoU.S.ArmyRangerswhohadfoughttosecuretheverygroundon whichtheysat.Inthesecond,theU.S.ArmyRangersworkedalongsideReaganassilent symbols,theirphysicalpresencetestifyingtothissacredoccasionandwhatD-Daymeantfor futuregenerations.Forthebroaderaudienceassembledaroundthestage,itwasimpossibleto lookatReaganwithoutseeingtheU.S.ArmyRangersoneitherside.Thesecondpartofthe noterevealsanunusualdeparturefromprotocol.Thepresidentwasneverannouncedtothe audience,butinsteadsimplywalkedupbehindthepodium(whichdidnotcontainthetypical presidentialseal)andbegantospeak.Thisdecisionworkedasasubtlereminderthatthe presidentwasnotthefeaturedheadlinerofthisevent.Instead,"theboysofPointeduHoc" werethemainattraction. Reaganbeganhisaddressbyrecallingwhatwasbeingcommemorated:"We'rehereto markthatdayinhistorywhentheAlliedarmiesjoinedinbattletoreclaimthiscontinentto liberty"(PointeduHoc,1).Inthisopeningpassage,Reaganinvitedtheaudiencetoimaginethe historicalcontextofJune6,1944."For4longyears,muchofEuropehadbeenunderaterrible shadow.Freenationshadfallen,Jewscriedoutinthecamps,millionscriedoutforliberation. Europewasenslaved,andtheworldprayedforitsrescue"(PointeduHoc,1).Thelackof conjunctionsunderscoredtherelationshipsamongtheseevents,andReagan'sdualuseof "cried"emphasizedthehorrorofNazioccupationandtheconcentrationcamps,asifthe sufferingcontinued,unbound,withnoendinsight.Thesestylisticdevicescreatedadistinct rhythmthatsetthetone—solemn,reverent,patriotic—fortherestofthespeech. Inaddition,Reaganusedwordsthatvividlyfusedthepresentmomentwiththepast actionsoftheheroicAlliedforces.Heshiftedabruptlyfromthepasttothepresenttodescribe theimmediatescene—“alonely,windsweptpointonthenorthernshoreofFrance"—andto contrastthatscenetothemayhemofbattlefortyyearsearlier(PointeduHoc,2).Althoughthe airwasnow"soft,"Reaganremindedhisaudiencethat"40yearsagoatthismoment,theair wasdensewithsmokeandthecriesofmen,andtheairwasfilledwiththecrackofriflefireand theroarofcannon"(PointeduHoc,2).Thesepowerfulmetaphorsofsight,sound,andsmell madetherealitiesofwarviscerallypresent.Boomingverbs,suchas"crack"and"roar," anchoredthesentence,causingittoflowrhythmicallyandheavily,almostlikethesharp poppingofartillery. VoicesofDemocracy(2015):20-40 27 Afterpositioningtheaudienceintimeandplace,Reaganreferredrepeatedlytothe physicalspaceasacatalystfortheU.S.ArmyRangers'actions. Atdawn,onthemorningofthe6thofJune,1944,225Rangersjumpedoffthe Britishlandingcraftandrantothebottomofthesecliffs.Theirmissionwasone ofthemostdifficultanddaringoftheinvasion:toclimbthesesheerand desolatecliffsandtakeouttheenemyguns.TheAllieshadbeentoldthatsome ofthemightiestofthesegunswerehereandtheywouldbetrainedonthe beachestostoptheAlliedadvance.TheRangerslookedupandsawtheenemy soldiers--theedgeofthecliffsshootingdownatthemwithmachinegunsand throwinggrenades.AndtheAmericanRangersbegantoclimb.Theyshotrope laddersoverthefaceofthesecliffsandbegantopullthemselvesup.Whenone Rangerfell,anotherwouldtakehisplace.Whenoneropewascut,aRanger wouldgrabanotherandbeginhisclimbagain.Theyclimbed,shotback,andheld theirfooting.Soon,onebyone,theRangerspulledthemselvesoverthetop,and inseizingthefirmlandatthetopofthesecliffs,theybegantoseizebackthe continentofEurope.(PointeduHoc,2-3) Inthispassage,Reaganreliedonwhatwasvisuallyevidentandphysicallypresent:the"sheer anddesolatecliffs,"thebeachheadatthe"bottomofthesecliffs,"andthehazardousclimbto the"topofthesecliffs."Throughhisrepeatedreferencesto"thesecliffs,"Reaganremindedhis audiencethattheyweresittingontopoftheverycliffswheretheU.S.ArmyRangershad foughtanddied.Insodoing,Reaganbroughtthepresentaudienceintothepast,invitingthem torespondkinestheticallytotheimageoftheRangersjumpingofflandingcraftandrunning towardthecliffsuponwhichtheywereseated.Itwouldbenearlyimpossibletolistento Reagan'snarrativeasamemberoftheimmediateaudienceandnotrealizethatonewasseated intheexactspotfromwhichtheGermansoldiersfireddownupontheRangers“with machinegunsand...grenades.”Inthatmomentofcommemoration,withflagsandhonor guardsandwell-dresseddignitaries,thecontrastbetweenpastandpresentwasstark.TheU.S. ArmyRangersscaledthecliffssothisaudience,manyofwhomwerebutchildrenonJune6, 1944,couldcommemoratetheirheroicsacrificefortyyearslater. Uptothispointinthespeech,ReaganhadbeendescribingtheAlliedadvanceonPointe duHocasaneventinthepast.Althoughthepresidenthadconnectedtheimmediatesceneof D-Daytothepresent("thesecliffs"werethesamein1944and1984),hecouldhavebeen referringtoaneventthattookplacetwohundredyearsearlier.However,afterrecountinghow theU.S.ArmyRangersclimbedtothetopofthesecliffsand,indoingso,"begantoseizeback thecontinentofEurope,"Reaganintroducedthehumanactorswholinkedthepastwiththe present. Twohundredandtwenty-fivecamehere.After2daysoffighting,only90could stillbeararms.BehindmeisamemorialthatsymbolizestheRangerdaggersthat werethrustintothetopofthesecliffs.Andbeforemearethemenwhoput themthere.ThesearetheboysofPointeduHoc.Thesearethemenwhotook thecliffs.Thesearethechampionswhohelpedfreeacontinent.Thesearethe VoicesofDemocracy(2015):20-40 28 heroeswhohelpedendawar.Gentlemen,IlookatyouandIthinkofthewords ofStephenSpender'spoem.Youaremenwhoinyour"livesfoughtforlife... andleftthevividairsignedwithyourhonor."(PointeduHoc,3-6) Inthispassage,ReaganreferredtotheU.S.ArmyRangersseatedbeforehim:"Thesearethe boysofPointeduHoc."Thepresidentusedthesameword,"these,"todescribeboth"these cliffs"and"these...boys....men....champions....[and]heroeswhohelpedendawar." ThiswordchoiceallowedReagantodrawtheaudience'sattentiontothejaggedrocksdirectly behindhimandtheelderlymeninfrontofhim.Afterrecountingthehistoricalnarrative,the presidentintroducedthemainactorsofhisstory:theboysofPointeduHoc.Inaclimax construction,Reaganredefinedhowthisstrugglehadchangedthesewarriors.Initially,they were"theboysofPointeduHoc."Thentheybecame"themenwhotookthecliffs....the championswhohelpedfreeacontinent."Nowtheywere"theheroeswhohelpedendawar." Throughthisconstruction,ReagandescribedtheU.S.ArmyRangers'climbasamovement towardmaturity;astheytookthecliffs,theyweretransformedfromboystochampions.Inthis way,theirbodiesshiftedthediscoursefromtheimaginarytotheimmediate.TheRangers becamepartofReagan'srhetoricaltext,alivingrepresentationofwhathadhappenedforty yearsago. ReaganthenlinkedthesebravementootherAlliedtroops,usingvignettesvividintheir specificitytodescribeothersoldiersandnationswhohadfoughtbesidetheU.S.ArmyRangers (PointeduHoc,7-10).ScottishsoldierBillMillinofthe51stHighlanderscheerfullyplayedhis bagpipesasheledagroupofreinforcementstorescueBritishsoldierstrappednearabridge, andLordLovatofScotlandapologizedforbeing"afewminuteslate"comingfrom"thebloody fightingonSwordBeach,whichheandhismenhadjusttaken"(PointeduHoc,7-8).There wereothers,too.Reaganpraisedthe"impossiblevalorofthePoleswhothrewthemselves betweentheenemyandtherestofEuropeastheinvasiontookhold,andtheunsurpassed courageoftheCanadianswhohadalreadyseenthehorrorsofwaronthiscoast.Theyknew whatawaitedthemthere,buttheywouldnotbedeterred"(PointeduHoc,9).Reagan enumerated"arollcallofhonor":theRoyalWinnipegRifles,Poland's24thLancers,theRoyal ScotsFusiliers,theScreamingEagles,theYeomenofEngland'sarmoreddivisions,theforcesof FreeFrance,andtheCoastGuard's"MatchboxFleet"(PointeduHoc,10).Byspecificallynaming thesegroups,thepresidentmadetheirsacrificespresenttotheassembledaudienceand emphasizedthattheU.S.Rangershadnotwonthebattlealone.Thislistingalsounderscored theneedforAlliedcooperationinthepresent-daystruggleagainstSovietcommunism. AfterrecognizingtheothernationsthatfoughttofreeEurope,Reaganreturnedtothe heroesofhisstory.HerecalledhowyoungtheRangerswereandfocusedhisaudience's attentionontheirmoralresolve: Fortysummershavepassedsincethebattlethatyoufoughthere.Youwere youngthedayyoutookthesecliffs;someofyouwerehardlymorethanboys, withthedeepestjoysoflifebeforeyou.Yet,youriskedeverythinghere.Why? Whydidyoudoit?Whatimpelledyoutoputasidetheinstinctforselfpreservationandriskyourlivestotakethesecliffs?Whatinspiredallthemenof VoicesofDemocracy(2015):20-40 29 thearmiesthatmethere?Welookatyou,andsomehowweknowtheanswer.It wasfaithandbelief.Itwasloyaltyandlove.(PointeduHoc,11) Thepresidentexplainedthatasheandtherestoftheaudiencelookedatthem,theycould understandwhytheyriskedeverythingtoseizethecliffsofPointeduHoc.Thesemen,although greyandfrail,werethelivingproofthattheAlliesunderstoodthe"profound,moraldifference betweentheuseofforceforliberationandtheuseofforceforconquest"(PointeduHoc,12). AsReagantranslatedtheheroicactionsofthemensittingbeforehim,heshiftedthe speechtotransformcommemorationintofutureresolveforthelargeraudience."Youallknew thatsomethingsareworthdyingfor.One'scountryisworthdyingfor,anddemocracyisworth dyingfor,becauseit'sthemostdeeplyhonorableformofgovernmenteverdevisedbyman" (PointeduHoc,13).Thisboldclaimpositioneddemocraticfreedomaboveallother governmentalstructures,inparticularthe"tyranny"themenofNormandycametofight:"Allof youwerewillingtofighttyranny,andyouknewthepeopleofyourcountrieswerebehindyou" (PointeduHoc,13).ReaganthenlinkedtheRangerstothoseathomewhosupportedthem, identifyingparticulargroupsofcitizensintheirspecificlocales.In"Georgiatheywerefillingthe churchesat4a.m.,inKansastheywerekneelingontheirporchesandpraying,andin PhiladelphiatheywereringingtheLibertyBell"(PointeduHoc,14).Healsoevokedtheir "rockhardbeliefthatProvidencewouldhaveagreathandintheeventsthatwouldunfoldhere; thatGodwasanallyinthisgreatcause"(PointeduHoc,15).Again,sharplydrawnexamples madethatpointintensely.HetoldofLt.Col.RobertLeeWolverton,commanderofthe101st AirborneDivisionoftheU.S.Army,whoaskedhisparachutetroopstokneelwithhiminprayer, butwhosaid:"Donotbowyourheads,butlookupsoyoucanseeGodandaskHisblessingin whatwe'reabouttodo"(PointeduHoc,15).HetoldofGeneralMatthewRidgway,whorelied forstrengthontheBible,"listeninginthedarknessforthepromiseGodmadetoJoshua:'Iwill notfailtheenorforsakethee'"(PointeduHoc,15).Reaganrecreatedthebattle,thefearsand hopesofthosewhofoughtthere,andinsodoingrecreatedintensepatrioticandreligious feelingsabouttherightnessofthecauseforwhichtheU.S.andAlliedforcesfoughtanddied. Inthesecondhalfofhisspeech,ReaganlinkedtheAlliedvictoryonD-Daytopresent andfutureactionbytheUnitedStatesanditsEuropeanallies.Thepresidentassumedhisrole ashistoricalnarrator,moralguide,andinterpreterofimportantevents."Whenthewarwas over,therewerelivestoberebuiltandgovernmentstobereturnedtothepeople.Therewere nationstobereborn.Aboveall,therewasanewpeacetobeassured.Thesewerehugeand dauntingtasks.ButtheAlliessummonedstrengthfromthefaith,belief,loyalty,andloveof thosewhofellhere"(PointeduHoc,17).ReagandescribedAlliedeffortstorebuildEurope, includingtheMarshallPlanandtheAtlanticAlliance.Butdespite"ourgreateffortsand successes...[s]omeliberatedcountrieswerelost.Thegreatsadnessofthislossechoesdown toourowntimeinthestreetsofWarsaw,Prague,andEastBerlin"(PointeduHoc,19).Once again,thepresidentmadetheselossestangibleandspecific.Thetragedywas,inhiswords,that "Soviettroops...didnotleavewhenpeacecame.They'restillthere,uninvited,unwanted, unyielding,almost40yearsafterthewar.Becauseofthis,alliedforcesstillstandonthis continent"(PointeduHoc,19).Thepresent-daySovietpresenceinEuropewasacontinuation oftheSecondWorldWar,implyingthattherewasstillmoretoaccomplishevenaftertheAllied victoryin1944. VoicesofDemocracy(2015):20-40 30 Inthefinalminutesofthespeech,Reaganofferedthemoraltothisstory,explaining whatwastobelearnedfromtheseevents: Itisbettertobeherereadytoprotectthepeace,thantotakeblindshelter acrossthesea,rushingtorespondonlyafterfreedomislost.We'velearnedthat isolationismneverwasandneverwillbeanacceptableresponsetotyrannical governmentswithanexpansionistintent.(PointeduHoc,20) Yetlearningwasnotenough;specificactionswerenecessary."[W]etryalwaystobeprepared forpeace;preparedtodeteraggression;preparedtonegotiatethereductionofarms;andyes, preparedtoreachoutagaininthespiritofreconciliation"(PointeduHoc,21).Therhythm underscoredtheimportanceofpreparingtorespondtopossibilitiesandrisks.Reaganstated thattheUnitedStateswelcomedreconciliationwiththeSovietUnionsothatbothcountries could"lessentherisksofwar,nowandforever"(PointeduHoc,21).Theshiftwassubtleand somewhatunexpected,thelanguagereflectingadesiretoreuniteinaneffortthatechoedtheir pastalliance. Thisspiritofreconciliationwasunderscoredbyhispublicrecognitionof"thegreat lossesalsosufferedbytheRussianpeopleduringWorldWarII:20millionperished,aterrible pricethattestifiestoalltheworldthenecessityofendingwar"(PointeduHoc,22).The NationalSecurityCouncilandStateDepartmenthadpushedthespeechwritingstafftoinclude thisline,notingthat"anadditionofashortparagraphalludingtoSovietlosses...willassistus inmaintainingthemoralhighgroundwehavesecuredinourpublicdiplomacystrugglewiththe Soviets."32ReaganusedthisinclusiontostressthattheUnitedStatesdidnotdesirewar,but wanted"towipefromthefaceoftheEarththeterribleweaponsthatmannowhasinhis hands"(PointeduHoc,22).However,ReaganplacedresponsibilityontheSovietUnion,stating thattheRussiansneededtodemonstratea"desireandloveforpeace,andthattheywillgive upthewaysofconquest"sothattheUnitedStatescould"turnourhopeintoaction"(Pointedu Hoc,22). Afterdescribinghisvisionforapost-ColdWarworld,Reaganreturnedtotheimmediate sceneandspokeinhisownvoiceasU.S.president.Hecalledonhisaudiencetorededicate themselvestothevaluesforwhichtheAlliesfoughtanddied.Atthisceremony commemoratingthefortiethanniversaryofD-Day,hestatedthatitwas"goodandfittingto renewourcommitmenttoeachother,toourfreedom,andtothealliancethatprotectsit" (PointeduHoc,23).Hethenconcluded: Weareboundtodaybywhatboundus40yearsago,thesameloyalties, traditions,andbeliefs.We'reboundbyreality.ThestrengthofAmerica'salliesis vitaltotheUnitedStates,andtheAmericansecurityguaranteeisessentialtothe continuedfreedomofEurope'sdemocracies.Wewerewithyouthen;weare withyounow.Yourhopesareourhopes,andyourdestinyisourdestiny.Here, inthisplacewheretheWestheldtogether,letusmakeavowtoourdead.Letus showthembyouractionsthatweunderstandwhattheydiedfor.... Strengthenedbytheircourageandheartenedbytheirvalue[valor],andborne VoicesofDemocracy(2015):20-40 31 bytheirmemory,letuscontinuetostandfortheidealsforwhichtheylivedand died.(PointeduHoc24-26) Inthisconclusion,ReagandirectedhisaudienceyetagaintotheU.S.ArmyRangersseated beforehimatPointeduHocandthoseburiedattheNormandyAmericanCemeterydownthe road.Thesemenweretheliving,enduringlinkbetweenthepastandpresent.Theyhadrisked andevengiventheirlives;howcouldtheAlliedcoalitionnothonortheirsacrifice?Here,inthis sacredplace,ReaganspokeasnationalpriestandcalledontheAlliestoconsecratethemselves tothetasksetbeforethem.This"lonely,windsweptpointonthenorthernshoreofFrance" was"theplacewheretheWestheldtogether"fortyyearsearlier(PointeduHoc,2;25).Now, withnuclearwarasaveryrealthreattohumanity,whatmightPointeduHocsymbolizefor relationsbetweentheSovietUnionandtheWesternallies?Inhisspeech,Reaganreconstituted theveryplaceforwhichmenfoughtanddiedtocallonWesternleaderstostandagainst communismwhileseekingpeacewithRussia.Althoughmanyintheimmediateaudiencewere notpresentatPointeduHocin1944,thepresidentinvitedthemtobecomefellowsoldiersfor thecauseofdemocraticfreedomanddemonstratetheirmoralresolveto"standfortheideals forwhich[theAlliedsoldiersin1944]livedanddied"(PointeduHoc,26). ReaganatOmahaBeach AfterdeliveringhisspeechatPointeduHoc,thepresidentgreetedthesurvivingU.S. ArmyRangersandthendepartedviahelicopterforOmahaBeachforajointceremonywith FrenchPresidentFrançoisMitterrand.WherethePointeduHoceventwas"strictlyanAmerican commemoration,"Reagan'sremarksatOmahaBeachwerepartofalargerAlliedceremony."At OmahaBeach,"explainedaSecretarySchultzinabriefingmemorandumtoReagan,"youwill bejoinedbyPresidentMitterrandandotherFrenchofficialsinpayingtributetotheAmerican commitmenttotheliberationofFrance....BothyouandPresidentMitterrandwillmakebrief remarksatthisevent.Yourswillstressthethemeofabroadenedwesternsolidarityevolving fromthewartimealliance."33Oneofficialscheduledescribedthisceremonyasa"Joint Ceremonywithbriefremarks,"34andanotherdocumentnotedthe"timeguidelines"of"3-5 minutes"forthepresident'sremarksatOmahaBeach.35Andalthoughthisceremonywasto stresstheU.S.-FrenchpartnershipduringtheSecondWorldWar,Reaganprovidedanother vividnarrativeofoneU.S.soldiertoencapsulatethestoryofD-Day. AnthonyDolanwasassignedtheOmahaBeachremarksandstructuredthespeech aroundoneparticularaccountfromLisaZanattaHenn,thedaughterofaD-Dayveteran.Ina letterdatedMarch15,1984,ZanattaHennwrotetoReaganaskingforhisassistancein attendingtheU.S.ceremonyatNormandyinJune."DearMr.President,"shewrote,"Myfather, PeterRobertZanatta,PFC,37thEngineerCombatBattalion,landedontheFirstWaveofOmaha BeachonDDay.Thiseventwasprobablythemostimportanteventofhislife.Healways plannedtogobacksomeday.Sinceheisnolongerliving—mymother,brothers,andIare planningtoattend.Wewouldliketoattendnotjustastouristsbutasrepresentativesofthe UnitedStates."36Inthisletter,ZanattaHennenclosedabriefbutmovingnarrativeshewrote aboutherfather,portionsofwhichReaganwouldreadaloudatOmahaBeach. VoicesofDemocracy(2015):20-40 32 ColonelM.P.Caulfield,DeputyDirectoroftheWhiteHouseMilitaryOffice,responded toLisaZanattaHenn'sletteronMay10,1984,stating,"[t]hePresidenthasrequestedthe SecretaryofDefensetoincludeyouandyourfamilyontheUnitedStatesInvitationListforthe OmahaBeachcommemorationonthe6thofJune."CaulfieldspecifiedthattheU.S.government wasunabletoprovidetravelarrangementstoZanattaHennandherfamily,buthedidstate thattheywould"begivenwhateverassistanceisrequiredonceyouarriveinFrance."37 Reagan'spersonalsecretary,Kathleen"Kathy"Osborne,sharedCaulfield'sresponsewiththe president,writing:"IranthisbyDickDarmanandhethoughtthatpage4ofthisletter[Zanatta Henn'snarrative]mightbeusefultospeechwritersforpossibleuseinEuropeorforradio speechfromEurope.Anyobjections?"Reagan'sresponse:"NOTATALL."Thepresidentthen added,"IfLisa'sproblemisinabilitytoaffordtransportationhowaboutapvt.[private]initiative toraisemoneyforsomepeoplelikethis?"38ItisunclearwhetherReagan'ssuggestionfora privatefundraisinginitiativeeveroccurred.However,wedoknowthatthePresidentandMrs. ReagandidmeetprivatelywithLisaZanattaHenn,hermother,andherthreebrothersforten minutespriortothepresident'sspeechatOmahaBeachonJune6,1984.39 DolanincorporatedZanattaHenn'sstoryintotheveryfirstdraftsofReagan'sremarksat OmahaBeach,buttheheavyfocusononesoldier'sexperienceconcernedsomeWhiteHouse staffmembers.AsRobertKimmitt,DeputyAssistanttothePresidentforNationalSecurity Affairs,explainedtoRichardDarman,theNationalSecurityCouncilwasconcernedthatDolan's draft"concentratedheavilyononepersonalexperience"andrecommendedthatthespeechbe refocused"towardabroadtributetothesacrificesoftheAmericanandAlliedSoldiers."40 Althoughsomeofthesechangeswereadopted,Reagan'sfinalversiondevoted494words— abouthalfofthespeech—toZanattaHenn'snarrative. Thepresidentbeganbyrootinghisaudienceinplaceandrecallingtheliveslostat OmahaBeach:"Mr.President,distinguishedguests,westandtodayataplaceofbattle,one that40yearsagosawandfelttheworstofwar.Menbledanddiedhereforafewfeetof–or inchesofsand,asbulletsandshellfirecutthroughtheirranks"(OmahaBeach,1).41Reagan thenunderscoredhisowninabilityto"adequatelyportraytheirsuffering,theirsacrifice,their heroism"byinvokingAbrahamLincoln:"PresidentLincolnonceremindedusthatthroughtheir deeds,thedeadofbattlehavespokenmoreeloquentlyforthemselvesthananyoftheliving evercould.Butwecanonlyhonorthembyrededicatingourselvestothecauseforwhichthey gavealastfullmeasureofdevotion"(OmahaBeach,2).Thiswasmorethananinference;here ReagandirectlyquotedfromtheGettysburgAddresswhenhestatedthatthosewhodiedgave a"lastfullmeasureofdevotion."42ReaganalsoappropriatedkeythemesfromLincoln's rhetoricalmasterpiece,particularlyhisadmonitionthatthelivingshouldhonorthedeadby rededicatingthemselvestovaluesandidealsforwhichtheydied."Todaywedorededicate ourselvestothatcause,"Reagansaid."Andatthisplaceofhonor,we'rehumbledbythe realizationofhowmuchsomanygavetothecauseoffreedomandtotheirfellowman" (OmahaBeach,3). ThepresidentthenintroducedthestoryofPrivateZanattathroughthewordsofhis daughter,Lisa. "Someday,Lis,I'llgoback,''saidPrivateFirstClassPeterRobertZanatta,ofthe 37thEngineerCombatBattalion,andfirstassaultwavetohitOmahaBeach."I'll VoicesofDemocracy(2015):20-40 33 goback,andI'llseeitallagain.I'llseethebeach,thebarricades,andthegraves.'' ThosewordsofPrivateZanattacometousfromhisdaughter,LisaZanattaHenn, inaheart-rendingstoryabouttheeventherfatherspokeofsooften."Inhis words,theNormandyinvasionwouldchangehislifeforever,''shesaid.Shetells someofhisstoriesofWorldWarIIbutsaysofherfather,"thestorytoendall storieswasD-day.''(OmahaBeach,5-6) TheinclusionofthisstorynotonlyprovidedReaganwiththeperspectiveofasoldierwho foughtatOmahaBeachfortyyearsago,butitalsoallowedhimtounderscorehisearlierpoint that"thedeadofbattlehavespokenmoreeloquentlyforthemselvesthananyofthelivingever could"(OmahaBeach2).ReagancontinuedtoreadaloudfromZanattaHenn'sletter: "Hemademefeelthefearofbeingonthatboatwaitingtoland.Icansmellthe oceanandfeeltheseasickness.Icanseethelooksonhisfellowsoldiers'faces– thefear,theanguish,theuncertaintyofwhatlayahead.Andwhentheylanded,I canfeelthestrengthandcourageofthemenwhotookthosefirststepsthrough thetidetowhatmusthavesurelylookedlikeinstantdeath.'"(OmahaBeach,7) ZanattaHenn'spersonalreflectiononherfather'sexperienceatOmahaBeachprovidedavivid narrativethatencompassedtheexperienceofnotjustonesoldier,butallthosewhocameto Normandy. AfteridentifyingPrivateZanattaasspecificexampleofsacrificeandU.S.patriotism, Reaganconnectedthesoldier'spersonalexperiencetothelargerstoryofD-Day: WhenmenlikePrivateZanattaandallouralliedforcesstormedthebeachesof Normandy40yearsagotheycamenotasconquerors,butasliberators.When thesetroopssweptacrosstheFrenchcountrysideandintotheforestsofBelgium andLuxembourgtheycamenottotake,buttoreturnwhathadbeenwrongly seized.WhenourforcesmarchedintoGermanytheycamenottopreyona braveanddefeatedpeople,buttonurturetheseedsofdemocracyamongthose whoyearnedtobefreeagain.(OmahaBeach,10) TheparallelbetweenZanettaandtherestoftheAlliedforcesalsoextendedintothepresent dayasReagannoddedtothecurrentpartnershipbetweentheUnitedStatesandother Europeandemocraciesfightingagainstthespreadofcommunism.Theimpliedmessagewas similartoReagan'smoreovertargumentatPointeduHoc:justastheAlliedforcescame "nurturetheseedsofdemocracyamongthosewhoyearnedtobefreeagain"duringWorld WarII,sotoowouldtheWesttakeactivestepstoencourage"seedsofdemocracy"tosprout andtakerooteveninthehostilesoilofSovietcommunism(OmahaBeach,10). AsReaganmovedtowardhisconclusion,heremindedhisaudienceofwhattheywere theretocelebrateandthelessonstobelearnedfromtheAlliedassaultfortyyearsearlier. "Today,intheirmemory,andforallwhofoughthere,wecelebratethetriumphofdemocracy.. ..Fromaterriblewarwelearnedthatunitymadeusinvincible;now,inpeace,thatsameunity makesussecure"(OmahaBeach,12-13).Thejuxtapositionofpastandpresenttense VoicesofDemocracy(2015):20-40 34 underscoredthemodern-dayrelevanceofthelessonsofhistory."Today"theassembled audiencehadgatheredto"celebratethetriumphofdemocracy"fortyyearsearlier."[A]terrible war"taughttheUnitedStatesanditsalliestheimportanceofaunifiedallianceagainst totalitarianism;today,"thatsameunity"madetheWest"secure." Thepresidentreemphasizedthisconnectionbetweenpastandpresentbyclosingwith anothermovingpassagefromZanattaHenn'sletter. LisaZanattaHennbeganherstorybyquotingherfather,whopromisedthathe wouldreturntoNormandy.Sheendedwithapromisetoherfather,whodied8 yearsagoofcancer:"I'mgoingthere,Dad,andI'llseethebeachesandthe barricadesandthemonuments.I'llseethegraves,andI'llputflowerstherejust likeyouwantedtodo.I'llfeelallthethingsyoumademefeelthroughyour storiesandyoureyes.I'llneverforgetwhatyouwentthrough,Dad,norwillIlet anyoneelseforget.And,Dad,I'llalwaysbeproud.''Throughthewordsofhis lovingdaughter,whoisherewithustoday,aD-dayveteranhasshownusthe meaningofthisdayfarbetterthananyPresidentcan.(OmahaBeach,15-16) HereReaganrepeatedhisearlierstatementthat"[n]ospeechcanadequatelyportraytheir suffering,theirsacrifice,theirheroism"(OmahaBeach,2).Throughthepersonalexperienceof PrivateZanatta(asrecountedbyhisdaughter),Reagandrewonthepatrioticthemesand mentalimagesofoneyoungsoldierstormingthebeachesfortyyearsearlier.Insodoing, PrivateZanattabecameametaphoricalrepresentationof"allthemenofhonorandcourage whofoughtbesidehimfourdecadesago"(OmahaBeach,16).Tothem—boththosewhodied onJune6,1944,andthosewhosurvivedtoattendtheceremoniesfortyyearslater—Reagan promisedthattheUnitedStatesandtherestoftheAlliednationswouldnotforgettheir sacrifice."Wewillalwaysremember.Wewillalwaysbeproud.Wewillalwaysbeprepared,so wemaybealwaysfree"(OmahaBeach,16). RememberingD-Day:ReaganandBeyond Thirtyyearslater,Reagan'stwospeechesatNormandycontinuetoreceivecritical acclaimandhavebecomeexemplarsofU.S.presidentialcommemoration.Indeed,Reaganisto NormandyasKennedyistoBerlin;allsuccessivepresidentialaddressesatNormandyare judgedbyReagan'sspeechesin1984.43ReflectingonReagan'sPointeduHocspeechin2004, WashingtonPostreporterandReaganbiographerLouCannondescribedtheaddressas "elegiac,"atermthatcapturesthecadenceorrepeatedrhythmsadoptedbyGreekpoetsto recitenationalhistoryandmemorializethedead.44AtNormandy,Reaganrecountedtheevents ofD-Dayandimmortalized"theboysofPointeduHoc"andPrivateFirstClassPeterRobert Zanattabysituatingtheirdaringactswithinthebroaderhistoricalcontextandthencomparing theAllieddefeatofNaziGermanytothepresentmoment(PointeduHoc,5).Inthisway, Reagan'srhetoricaccomplishedtwospecificrhetoricalpurposes:honoringtheheroesofWorld WarIIandusingtheiractionstoillustratethevaluesthatshouldguidepresentandfutureU.S. ColdWar. VoicesofDemocracy(2015):20-40 35 TheimmediatepresscoverageofReagan'sspeechesatPointeduHocandOmahaBeach stressedthelinkagesbetween1944and1984.InaspecialreportfortheNewYorkTimes, militarycorrespondentDrewMiddletonnotedthatReagan'sspeeches"touchedcommon themes,includingthebraveryoftheGermanenemyandsacrificesmadebytheSovietUnion duringWorldWarII."45TheLosAngelesTimesdescribedhowReagan"issuedacallto'wipe fromthefaceoftheearththeterribleweaponsmannowhasinhishands,'"andmadespecial mentionofthepresident'sreferenceto"the20millionSovietcitizenswholosttheirlivesinthe war."46AccordingtoBenjaminTaylor,awriterfortheBostonGlobe,"[t]henowpeaceful beachesofNormandyservedasadramaticbackdropyesterdayforaceremony commemoratingthe40thanniversaryofD-Day....Inremarkslacedwithemotionand patriotism,ReagancastigatedtheSovietUnionforitsmilitarydominationofEasternEurope evenashecontinuedtoextendtheolivebranchofreconciliationif'theywillgiveuptheirways ofconquest.'"47ThesereportshighlightedthecleardualmessageofReagan'sspeechesat Normandy:commemoratethepastAlliedtriumphoverNazityrannyandrededicatethe Westernalliancetodefending—andspreading—democracyduringtheColdWar. Ina2013interview,ReaganspeechwriterPeggyNoonancommentedonthesetwogoals asexpressedinReagan'sspeechatPointeduHoc: Thetextofthespeech—theostensiblethingthatwasbeingsaid—was,"Look,civilized nationsoftheWest,lookwhatyoudidfortyyearsagowhenyouheldtogether,joined together,youdefeatedaterribletyrannycalledHitler'sGermany."Sothat'swhatthe speechis.Underneaththat,Reaganwasreallysayingtoallthegatheredleadersofthe Westwhoweretherethatday,"Guys,lookwhatyourparentsandgrandparentsdid.If weholdtogetherastheydid,wearegoingtodefeattogetherthetyrannyofourtime— andthatisSovietcommunism."So,bylaudingtheWorldWarIIgeneration,Reaganwas alsotryingtoinspirethosewhonowstillhadtoholdtogether—theBerlinWallhadnot fallen—topushthatwallover.So,heveryconsciously...usedthatspeechtosay,"Look whatwedidlasttime.Wecanstilldoit!"48 Noonan'sreflectionunderscoreshowReaganusedhisspeechesatPointeduHocandOmaha Beachtoarguethatthemostappropriatewaytohonorthememoryofthemenwhofoughtat NormandywastostandagainstthepresentthreatofSovietcommunism. ThemediacoverageofReagan'sspeechesatPointeduHocandNormandyalso demonstratedthepotentialforcouplingspokentextswithvisualimagesforaparticularly memorableresult.KathleenHallJamiesonobservesthat"[t]elevisionenabledReaganto transportthenationalaudiencetothestagehehadsetinNormandy....Thedramatization wascompelling,thestagingunsurpassable,thevisualargumentpoliticallypotent."49The1984 Reagan-Bushcampaignamplifiedthisdramatizationwhentheyusedvideofootagefrom Reagan'sspeechesatNormandytoportrayReaganandthenationasstrong,determined,and confident.OnthefinaleveningoftheRepublicanNationalConventioninDallas,thecampaign airedaneighteen-minutevideotitled"ANewBeginning"thathighlightediconicmomentsand keyinitiativesofReagan'sfirstterminoffice.50 ThefilmfeaturedsnippetsofReagan'sspeechesatPointeduHocandOmahaBeach, includingsweepingpanoramicshotsofthecliffsatPointeduHoc,endlessrowsofwhitecrosses VoicesofDemocracy(2015):20-40 36 andStarsofDavidintheAmericanCemeteryatNormandy,andthelargeaudienceassembled forthejointceremonyatOmahaBeach.Themostpoignantaspectofthissegmentwashowthe filminterspersedReagan'sspeechesatPointeduHocandOmahabeachwithactualfootageof menstormingthebeachesonJune6,1944.Inaddition,thevideoalsocontainedcloseupshots ofthesixty-two"boysofPointeduHoc,”alongwithPrivatePeterZanatta'sdaughter,sons,and widow.AstheaudiencelistenedtoReagan'snarrativeoftheAlliedlandingsatNormandy,they watchedblackandwhitefootageofsoldiersstrugglingtoreachtheshore.WhenReagan recountedthecourageousclimboftheU.S.ArmyRangersfortyyearsearlier,thecamera zoomedinonthefacesoftheagedveterans.AndasthepresidentreadaloudfromLisaZanatta Henn'sletteratOmahaBeach,theaudiencewitnessedZanattaHenncryinginthefrontrow. Thisjuxtapositionoftextandimageprovidedastrikingtributenotjusttothemenwhofought atNormandy,butitalsoreinforcedReagan'simageasafocused,patrioticheadofstate dedicatedtoprotectingU.S.democracyathomeandpreventingthespreadofcommunism abroad. SinceReagan'sspeechesatPointeduHocandOmahaBeachonJune6,1984,three additionalpresidents—Clinton,GeorgeW.Bush,andObama—havetraveledtoNormandyto commemoratetheanniversaryofD-DayandrededicatetheUnitedStatestocauseforwhich theAlliedforcesfought,bled,anddied."Wecommitourselves,asyoudid,tokeep[freedom's] lampburningforthosewhowillfollow.Youcompletedyoumissionhere.Butthemissionof freedomgoeson;thebattlecontinues,"PresidentBillClintonsaidin1994.51Tenyearslater, PresidentGeorgeW.BushtoldthesurvivingveteransgatheredforthesixtiethanniversaryofDDay,"[Y]ouwillbehonoredeverandalwaysbythecountryyouservedandbythenationsyou freed."52In2009,PresidentBarackObamatoldhisaudience,"D-Daywasatimeandaplace wherethebraveryandselflessnessofafewwasabletochangethecourseofanentire century."53Andin2014,ontheseventiethanniversaryoftheNormandyinvasion,Obamanot onlyhonoredthosewhofoughtatNormandy,buthealsoacknowledgedseveralU.S.service memberswhohadservedinIraqandAfghanistansince9/11.Afterintroducingseveralofthese individualstotheaudience,hetoldtheWorldWarIIveterans:"[Y]ourlegacyisingoodhands.. ..this9/11generationofservicemembers—they,too,feltsomething.Theyansweredsome call;theysaid'Iwillgo.'They,too,chosetoserveacausethat'sgreaterthanself,manyeven aftertheyknewthey'dbesentintoharm'sway."54Inhisremarks,Obamadrewaparallel betweenthe"GreatestGeneration"andpresent-daymilitaryheroesfightinginIraqand Afghanistan.LikeReaganhaddonebeforehim,ObamausedthestoryofD-Daytoinspire patrioticsentimentandhumbleappreciationforthese"generationsofmenandwomenwho provedonceagainthattheUnitedStatesofAmericaisandwillremainthegreatestforcefor freedomtheworldhaseverknown."55 TheseexamplesofU.S.presidentialcommemorationsofD-Daydemonstratehow Reagan'sspeechesatPointeduHocandOmahaBeachinauguratedanimportanttraditionin U.S.politicalculture.As"interpreters-in-chief"ofoursharedhistory,U.S.presidentsremindus ofournationalidentityandsharedvalues,andoneoftheprimarywaystheydothisisthrough publicspeech.56WhenReagannarratedtheeventsofJune6,1984,tothenationandtheworld vialivetelevision,hetranslatedthestoryofD-Day—inallitshardshipandstruggleand triumph—intothecontemporarymoment.Toanationrecoveringfromeconomicinflationand alostsenseofself,theheroicactionsof"theboysofPointeduHoc"andPrivatePeterZanatta VoicesofDemocracy(2015):20-40 37 providedamorallessonthatwasjustasapplicablein1984asitwasonthat"longestday"forty yearsearlier.57 __________________________________ Author'sNote:AllisonPraschisadoctoralstudentattheUniversityofMinnesota.Portionsof thisessayoriginallyappearedin“ReaganatPointeduHoc:DeicticEpideicticandthePersuasive Powerof‘BringingBeforetheEyes,’”Rhetoric&PublicAffairs18(2015):247-276.Theauthoris gratefultoMartyMedhurstandMichiganStateUniversityPressforgraciouslyallowingthat materialtoappearinthisessay. ____________________________________________________ Notes 1 H.W.Brands,Reagan:TheLife(NewYork:Doubleday,2015),237. 2 AdamClymer,"TheCollapseofaCoalition,"NewYorkTimes,November5,1980. 3 PaulFessler,"RonaldReagan,AddresstotheNationalAssociationofEvangelicals("EvilEmpireSpeech") (8March1983),"VoicesofDemocracy2(2007):26. 4 RonaldReagan,"InauguralAddress,"January20,1981.ThePublicPapersofPresidentRonaldW.Reagan. RonaldReaganPresidentialLibrary.http://www.reagan.utexas.edu/archives/speeches/1981/12081a.htm (accessedOctober16,2015). 5 MartinJ.Medhurst,"WritingSpeechesforRonaldReagan:AnInterviewwithTonyDolan,"Rhetoric& PublicAffairs1,no.2(1998):247. 6 JohnLewisGaddis,TheColdWar:ANewHistory(NewYork:ThePenguinPress,2005),217. 7 EdwinMeeseIII,WithReagan:TheInsideStory(Washington,DC:RegneryGateway,1992),164. 8 RonaldReagan,"AddresstoMembersoftheBritishParliament,"June8,1982.ThePublicPapersof PresidentRonaldW.Reagan.RonaldReaganPresidentialLibrary. http://www.reagan.utexas.edu/archives/speeches/1982/60882a.htm(accessedOctober12,2015). 9 RonaldReagan,SpeakingMyMind(NewYork:SimonandSchuster,1989),107. 10 IntheirstudyofReagan'sWestminsterAddress,RobertC.RowlandandJohnM.Jonesexplainthat althoughthisspeechishailedbyneoconservatives"asthemomentwhenReaganandBritain'sPrimeMinister MargaretThatcherput'freedomontheoffensivewhereitbelonged[Thatcher'sassessment],'"Reagan'saddress "wasnotrecognizedasparticularlyimportantoreffectiveatthetime."Instead,RowlandandJonesarguethatthe speechofferedavisionforapost-ColdWarworldthatwasdifficulttoimaginein1982:"Atthetime,fewshared Reagan'soptimismaboutthecoldwar,andalmostnoonethoughtthatthesurvivaloftheSovietUnionwasin doubt....Aquarter-centurylater,Reagan'sclaimthatthecoldwarwasata'turningpoint'seemsclearlycorrect, butfewagreedwithhimin1982."SeeRobertC.RowlandandJohnM.Jones,ReaganatWestminster(College Station,TX:TexasA&MUniversityPress,2010),13-15. 11 RonaldReagan,"RemarksattheAnnualConferenceoftheNationalAssociationofEvangelicals,"March 8,1983.ThePublicPapersofPresidentRonaldW.Reagan.RonaldReaganPresidentialLibrary. http://www.reagan.utexas.edu/archives/speeches/1983/30883b.htm(accessedOctober12,2015). 12 Forananalysisofthisparticularspeech,seeFessler,"RonaldReagan,AddresstotheNational AssociationofEvangelicals." 13 Reagan,"AddresstoMembersoftheBritishParliament." 14 AllpassagesfromReagan'sJune6,1984,speechatPointeduHocarecitedwithreferencetoparagraph numbersintheauthenticatedtextontheVoicesofDemocracywebsite.TodifferentiatebetweenReagan'stwo speeches,"PointeduHoc"precedesallparagraphnumbers. VoicesofDemocracy(2015):20-40 38 15 RobertC.McFarlane,"PreservingPeaceandProsperity:ThePresident'sTriptoEurope,June1984 (PublicDiplomacyActionPlan),"2,folder"June1984EuropeanTrip(1),"RichardG.DarmanFilesBox3,Ronald ReaganLibrary. 16 “PreservingPeaceandProsperity:ThePresident’sTriptoEurope,June1984(PublicDiplomacyAction Plan,”2,folder"June1984EuropeanTrip(1),"RichardG.DarmanFilesBox3,RonaldReaganLibrary. 17 Memo,WilliamF.MartintoRobertC.McFarlane,April10,1984,folder"President'sTriptoNormandy (2),"Box161,WhiteHouseOfficeofSpeechwriting:ResearchOffice,1981-1989,RonaldReaganLibrary. 18 Memo,GeorgeP.SchultztoRonaldReagan,May14,1984,folder"ThePresident'sTriptoEurope: Ireland,UK,andNormandy,June1-10,1984–ThePresident(3of5),"RACBox4,ExecutiveSecretariat,NSC:Trip File,RonaldReaganLibrary. 19 Brinkley,TheBoysofPointeduHoc,144-145. 20 Brinkley,TheBoysofPointeduHoc,147. 21 Brinkleywritesthatofthetwospeeches—oneatPointeduHocandtheotheratOmahaBeach—the secondwasconsideredthemajorforeignpolicyspeech.“SomeintheWhiteHousesimplyreferredtoOmaha Beachas‘theSpeech’andPointeduHocas‘BriefRemarks.’”WhiteHouseprincipalspeechwriterTonyDolanwas assignedtheOmahaBeachspeech,and“PointeduHocwasconsideredasideshowonJune6,afeel-good,nonpolicy-basedmoment.Therefore,PeggyNoonanwastaskedwithpenningthe‘impressionistic’oration,while Dolan’s‘realist’policyspeechwouldbeheadlinedbyprominentU.S.newspapersonJune7”(163).Brinkley’s accountwaspublishedin2005,whenmultipledocumentsrelatedtothe“PointeduHoc”speechhadnotyetbeen declassified.DuringmyvisittotheReaganLibraryinJune2013,Iaccessedanumberofdocuments(allofwhich weredeclassifiedafter2005)thatshowthattheReaganWhiteHouseplannedfor“PointeduHoc”tobethe centerpieceofReagan’svisittoNormandy.SeetheNationalSecurityCouncil’sofficialbriefingbook,“The President’sTriptoEurope:Ireland,UKandNormandy,June1-10,1984,”RACBox4,ExecutiveSecretariat,NSC: TripFile,RonaldReaganLibrary. 22 Memo,GeorgeP.SchultztoRonaldReagan,May14,1984,folder“ThePresident’sTriptoEurope: Ireland,UK,andNormandy,June1-10,1984–ThePresident(3of5),”RACBox4,ExecutiveSecretariat,NSC:Trip File,RonaldReaganLibrary. 23 SpeechDraft,“DraftNo.4,ThePresident’sNormandySpeechJune6,1984,”April30,1984,folder “PointeduHocAddress,Normandy(4),”Box161,WhiteHouseOfficeofSpeechwriting:SpeechDrafts,1981-1989, RonaldReaganLibrary.Draftalsofoundinfolder“June1984EuropeanTrip(3),”Box3,RichardG.DarmanFiles, RonaldReaganLibrary. 24 SpeechDraft,“PresidentialAddress:PointeduHoc,Wednesday,June6,1984,(Noonan/BE),May21, 1984,3:30p.m.,”folder“President’sTriptoNormandy(8),”Box162,WhiteHouseOfficeofSpeechwriting: ResearchOffice,1981-1989,RonaldReaganLibrary. 25 SpecialAssistanttothePresidentWilliamF.MartinwrotethatthePointeduHocAddresswastobe “emotional,stirring,andpersonal.Thethemesincludereconciliationofformeradversaries,howpostwar cooperationhaskeptthepeaceforthelongestperiodinmodernEuropeanhistory,Alliancesolidarity,andthe strengthoftheAmericancommitmenttoEurope.”SeeMemo,WilliamF.MartintoRobertC.McFarlane,April10, 1984,folder“President’sTriptoNormandy(2),”Box161,WhiteHouseOfficeofSpeechwriting:ResearchOffice, 1981-1989,RonaldReaganLibrary. 26 PeggyNoonan,WhatISawattheRevolution(NewYork:RandomHouseTradePaperbacks,1990),85, 83-84. 27 TheWhiteHousetimedthe"PointeduHoc"speechsoitcouldbebroadcastliveonU.S.networksover themorningnews.The"DraftNotionalSchedule–TripofthePresidenttoEurope"datedMay7,1984,specified thatReaganwouldarriveatthePointeduHoclandingzoneat8:20amEDT(2:20pmlocaltime),tourtheRanger MemorialfortenminuteswithtwosurvivorsofthePointeduHoclanding,andbeginhis"Remarkstoassembled VeteransandunveilingofplaquecommemoratingPoint[sic]duHoc"at8:40amEDT(2:40pmlocaltime.SeeDraft NotionalSchedule,TripofthePresidenttoEurope,"May7,1984,folder"President'sTriptoNormandy(2),"Box 161,WhiteHouseOfficeofSpeechwriting:ResearchOffice,1981-1989,RonaldReaganLibrary. VoicesofDemocracy(2015):20-40 39 27 DraftNotionalSchedule,TripofthePresidenttoEurope,"May7,1984,page7,folder"President'sTrip toNormandy(2),"Box161,WhiteHouseOfficeofSpeechwriting:ResearchOffice,1981-1989,RonaldReagan Library. 28 Noonan,WhatISawattheRevolution,85. 29 Noonan,WhatISawattheRevolution,86. 30 NoonanexplainedthatthislinecameeasilybecauseshehadjustreadRogerKahn'smemoirofthe BrooklynDodgers,TheBoysofSummer.SeeNoonan,WhatISawattheRevolution,87. 31 MiscellaneousNote,nodate,folder"President'sTriptoNormandy(4),"Box161,WhiteHouseOfficeof Speechwriting:ResearchOffice,1981-1989,RonaldReaganLibrary. 32 Memorandum,RobertM.KimmitttoRichardG.Darman,June1,1984,folder"President'sTripto Normandy(11),"Box162,WhiteHouseOfficeofSpeechwriting:ResearchOffice,1981-1989,RonaldReagan Library. 33 Memo,GeorgeP.SchultztoRonaldReagan,May14,1984,folder“ThePresident’sTriptoEurope: Ireland,UK,andNormandy,June1-10,1984–ThePresident(3of5),”RACBox4,ExecutiveSecretariat,NSC:Trip File,RonaldReaganLibrary. 34 DraftNotionalSchedule,TripofthePresidenttoEurope,"May7,1984,page7,folder"President'sTrip toNormandy(2),"Box161,WhiteHouseOfficeofSpeechwriting:ResearchOffice,1981-1989,RonaldReagan Library. 35 Memo,RobertM.KimmitttoBenElliott,May31,1984,folder"OmahaBeachMemorialRemarks (Dolan)(White),"Box160,WhiteHouseOfficeofSpeechwriting:SpeechDrafts,1981-1989,RonaldReaganLibrary. 36 LisaZanattaHenntoRonaldReagan,March15,1984,folder"President'sTriptoNormandy(9),"Box 162,WhiteHouseOfficeofSpeechwriting:ResearchOffice,1981-1989,RonaldReaganLibrary. 37 M.P.CaulfieldtoLisaZanattaHenn,May10,1984,folder"President'sTriptoNormandy(9),"Box162, WhiteHouseOfficeofSpeechwriting:ResearchOffice,1981-1989,RonaldReaganLibrary. 38 Memo,Kathy[nolastname]toRonaldReagan,nodate,folder"President'sTriptoNormandy(9),"Box 162,WhiteHouseOfficeofSpeechwriting:ResearchOffice,1981-1989,RonaldReaganLibrary. 39 "TripofthePresidenttoNormandy,France,Wednesday,June6,1984,PersonalSchedule,"folder "Europe,"Box17,OfficeofPresidentialAdvance,Records,SeriesII:G7Summits,OA17071,RonaldReaganLibrary. 40 Memo,RobertM.KimmitttoRichardDarman,May28,1984,ID#215027,SP891,WHORM:Subject File,Box222,RonaldReaganLibrary. 41 AllpassagesfromReagan'sJune6,1984,speechatOmahaBeacharecitedwithreferencetoparagraph numbersintheprintedtextthataccompaniesthisessay.TodifferentiatebetweenReagan'stwospeeches, "OmahaBeach"precedesallparagraphnumbers. 42 AbrahamLincoln,"GettysburgAddress,"November19,1863. http://www.americanrhetoric.com/speeches/gettysburgaddress.htm(accessedOctober17,2015). 43 SeeR.W.Apple,Jr.,"ClintoninNormandy:HandsAcrossaGeneration,"NewYorkTimes,June8,1994, A16;JillAbramson,"BushSpeaksofHeroismandSacrificeatCemeteryatNormandy,"NewYorkTimes,May28, 2002,A10;RichardW.Stevenson,"InD-DayRite,BushPraisesVeteransofNormandy,"NewYorkTimes,June7, 2004,A10;MaryL.KahlandMichaelLeff,"TheRhetoricofWarandRemembrance:AnAnalysisofPresidentBill Clinton's1994D-DayDiscourses,QualitativeResearchReportsinCommunication7(2006):15-21;JohnMcCormick, "FamilyTapestryPartofObama'sEuropeTrip,"ChicagoTribune,June4,2009,1.12;ChristinaBellantoni,"Obama PaysHomagetoD-DayVeterans,"WashingtonTimes,June7,2009,A1;JohnIbbitson,"BarackObamaisNoRonald Reagan–Yet,"TheGlobeandMail,June10,2009,A15;"ReaganSettheToneforD-DayObservances,"Daily Herald,June6,2014,2;"LostOpportunities."DailyTimes,Jun12,2014. 44 LouCannon,"At40thD-DayTribute,ReaganTooktheOccasionbyStorm,"WashingtonPost,June7, 2004,A06. 45 DrewMiddleton,"ReaganHonorsD-Day;CallsforSpiritofPeace,"NewYorkTimes,June7,1984,p.A1. 46 "D-DayRemembered:AlliedLeadersHonorHeroesofNormandy,"LosAngelesTimes,June6,1984,p.2. 47 BenjaminTaylor,"ReaganLaudsMenWhoDiedonD-Day,"BostonGlobe,June7,1984,p.1. VoicesofDemocracy(2015):20-40 40 48 PeggyNoonan,"PeggyNoonanonReagan'sD-DaySpeech,"TheKellyFile,December4,2013.Retrieved fromhttp://video.foxnews.com/v/2893720031001/peggy-noonan-on-reagans-d-day-speech(accessedMay5, 2014). 49 KathleenHallJamieson,EloquenceintheElectronicAge(NewYork:OxfordUniversityPress,1988),162163. 50 Forafullrecordofhowthecampaignvideoworkedwithinthesequenceofeventsthatfinaldayofthe campaign,see"August23,1984,RepublicanNationalConvention,Day4,"C-SPAN.http://www.cspan.org/video/?124909-1/republican-national-convention-day-4(accessedOctober21,2015).Forananalysisof thefilmitself,seeJoanneMorreale,ANewBeginning:ATextualFrameAnalysisofthePoliticalCampaignFilm (Albany,NY:StateUniversityofNewYorkPress,1991). 51 WilliamJ.Clinton,"Remarksonthe50thAnniversaryofD-DayatPointeduHocinNormandy,France," June6,1994,onlinebyGerhardPetersandJohnT.Wooley,TheAmericanPresidencyProject http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/index.php?pid=50297(accessedOctober22,2015). 52 GeorgeW.Bush,"Remarksonthe60thAnniversaryofD-DayinColleville-sur-Mer,France,"June6, 2004,onlinebyGerhardPetersandJohnT.Woolley,TheAmericanPresidencyProject http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/?pid=72648(accessedOctober22,2015). 53 BarackObama,"Remarksonthe65thAnniversaryofD-DayinNormandy,France,"June6,2009,online byGerhardPetersandJohnT.Woolley,TheAmericanPresidencyProject http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/?pid=86253(accessedOctober22,2015). 54 BarackObama,"Remarksonthe70thAnniversaryofD-DayinNormandy,France,"June6,2014,online byGerhardPetersandJohnT.Woolley,TheAmericanPresidencyProject http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/index.php?pid=105250(accessedOctober22,2015). 55 th Obama,"Remarksonthe70 AnniversaryofD-Day." 56 MaryE.Stuckey,ThePresidentasInterpreter-In-Chief(Chatham,NJ:ChathamHousePublishers,Inc., 1991).SeealsoKarlynKohrsCampbellandKathleenHallJamieson,PresidentsCreatingthePresidency:DeedsDone inWords(Chicago,IL:UniversityofChicagoPress,2008). 57 CorneliusRyan,TheLongestDay:June6,1944(NewYork:SimonandSchuster,1959).