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On the morning of June 28, 1919, the Deutsche Zeitung, German News, promised
that Germany would regain its position in the world, “Today in Versailles the disgraceful
Treaty is being signed. Do not forget it! The German people will, with unceasing labour,
press forward to reconquer the place among the nations to which we are entitled!”1 After
Germany was defeated in World War One, the country lost its status as a world power
and was in desperate need of a powerful leader as the war and the Treaty of Versailles
signed at the end of the war in 1919 left the German economy in ruins, took away lots of
its territory, stripped the German people of their pride and left them to live under horrible
conditions. It would take a influential and authoritative leader to rebuild Germany and
restore its position as a European superpower. Adolf Hitler, an Austrian was
democratically elected as Chancellor of Germany in 1933. In 1934 he declared himself
Fuhrer, leader, of Germany and he promised to rebuild Germany and form a German
empire that would last 1000 years. Adolf Hitler may have been a powerful leader but he
is remembered for his evil as he is credited with starting World War Two, carrying out
the Holocaust, and leaving Germany in ruins after the Third Reich, Third German Empire
which was Germany under Hitler’s rule, lasted only twelve years instead of the promised
1000 years. It is generally accepted that Hitler committed morally reprehensible acts
especially against people of the Jewish faith, but an objective examination of Hitler
would not be complete without acknowledging his successes in transforming Germany
into the most powerful country in Europe within a few years. Between 1933 and 1941,
Hitler had many great achievements and succeeded in rebuilding Germany, but the
recognition of his successes as a leader have been ignored due to his anti-Semitic actions
1
J. B. Cruxton and W. Wilson. Spotlight Canada. (Don Mills, Ontario: Oxford UP, 2000). p214.
1
and initiation of WWII. But, did Adolf Hitler fail as a leader to Germany? Adolf Hitler
was not a complete failure as a leader because he made significant contributions in
rebuilding Germany which included expanding territory, strengthening nationalism, and
revitalizing the economy.
Hitler’s quest for the expansion of German territory was rooted in world
domination and superiority over other racial groups. Hitler’s political objectives included
uniting people with German blood whom he believed were part of a master race. The
unification of German-blooded people provided him with a reason for territorial
expansion into many parts of Europe. John Hiden, a professor of modern European
history at the University of Bradford wrote, “He justifies the unification of Germany and
Austria, even if it proved to be economically disadvantageous, on the grounds that people
of common blood should form one political unit.”2 Hitler’s motives for uniting the people
of the German master race were so powerful that he risked economic problems such as an
overextension of resources within the Third Reich in order to incorporate Austria into the
German empire. In addition to risking more economic hardships, Hitler threatened the
security of the German people by his desire for world domination. In his book, Mein
Kampf published in 1925, Hitler outlined that Germany’s first step in becoming the world
superpower should be acquisition of Lebensraum, living space, which was essential in
achieving the final step of contesting for world domination against the United States of
America or the Soviet Union.3 Hiden also stated, “…he was bent on world domination,
for which Lebensraum in Eastern Europe was nothing more than an essential
2
3
John Hiden. Explaining Hitler’s Germany. (New Jersey: Barnes & Noble, 1983). p115.
Catherine and John Bradley. Germany: The Reunification of a Nation. (New York: Gloucester Press,
1991). p15.
2
prerequisite.”4 Lebensraum was not for the German people but it was a step in Hitler’s
plan for world domination and his ulterior motives for gaining territory made him a
failure as a leader.
Although Hitler did not use explicit violence and bloodshed to expand into
Austria and Czechoslovakia, he made severe threats which allowed him to take the
territories with very little resistance. Hitler threatened the Chancellor of Austria before he
moved to annex the nation and incorporate it into the German Reich. In a conversation
with the Austrian Chancellor Kurt von Schuschnigg in February 1938, Hitler warned,
“Listen, you don’t really think you can move a single stone in Austria without my hearing
about it the next day, do you?...I have only to give an order, and in one single night all
your ridiculous defense mechanisms will be blown to bits.”5 Hitler’s “peaceful”
annexation of Austria was the result of threats of military force against the sovereign
nation. Hitler ignored the sovereignty of the nation and the opposition of its government,
while utilizing threats to unite the people of the “master race”. Hitler’s threats did not end
with Austria as he appeared to peacefully take Czechoslovakia. William S. Shirer,
American journalist and author who lived and worked in the Third Reich wrote,
Czechoslovakia, said Hitler, had been saved from
catastrophe by “Germany’s moderation.” Nevertheless,
unless the Czechs showed a different spirit, he would
“annihilate” them. They must forget their “history”, which
was “schoolboy nonsense” and do what the Germans bade.6
Hitler issued severe threats to Czechoslovakia, threatening to annihilate the Czechs which
left them with little choice but to stand by and let Hitler take their country especially
since Britain and France did not come to their aid. Expansions into Austria and
4
John Hiden. Explaining Hitler’s Germany. (New Jersey: Barnes & Noble, 1983). p143.
William L. Shirer. The Rise and Fall of the Third Reich. (New York: Simon and Shuster Inc., 1990). p326.
6
William L. Shirer. The Rise and Fall of the Third Reich. (New York: Simon and Shuster Inc., 1990). p439.
5
3
Czechoslovakia were not entirely peaceful because they were the results of serious threats
against the sovereign nations. Hitler’s territorial expansions not only involved threats but
were violations of binding agreements.
As the leader of Germany, it was Hitler’s responsibility to uphold the agreements
that the nation had signed which he abandoned by acquiring territory. Because Hitler
believed that Germany was forced to sign the Treaty of Versailles in 1919, he concluded
that his remilitarization of the Rhineland was not a violation of a binding agreement. The
Treaty of Versailles was not the only treaty that Hitler broke by remilitarizing the
Rhineland. Shirir noted,
At 10am, Neurath, the compliant Foreign Minister, called
in the ambassadors of France, Britain, and Italy, apprised
them of the news from the Rhineland and handed them a
formal note denouncing the Locarno Treaty, which Hitler
had just broke – and proposing new plans for peace.7
By remilitarizing the Rhineland, Hitler broke the Treaty of Versailles which he did not
recognize as well as the Treaty of Locarno, a treaty which Hitler acknowledged that
Germany willingly signed. As Hitler broke peace treaties and agreements, he claimed that
he sought peace and continued to make peace proposals. Francois Poncet, French
Ambassador to Berlin in the 1930s said, “Hitler struck his adversary in the face and as he
did so declared: ‘I bring you proposals for peace!’”8 In addition to breaking the Treaty of
Versailles and the Treaty of Locaro, Hitler broke the Munich Agreement signed by Prime
Minister Neville Chamberlain of Britain and Premier Edouard Daladier of France in 1938
by taking all of Czechoslovakia, instead of the appeased Sudetenland.9 In August 1939
7
William L. Shirer. The Rise and Fall of the Third Reich. (New York: Simon and Shuster Inc., 1990). p291.
William L. Shirer. The Rise and Fall of the Third Reich. (New York: Simon and Shuster Inc., 1990). p291.
9
J. B. Cruxton, and W. Wilson. Spotlight Canada. (Don Mills, Ontario: Oxford UP, 2000). p222.
8
4
Hitler signed the Non-Aggression Pact with the Soviet Union, promising not to fight each
other in the event of war but Hitler broke that treaty as well by attacking the Soviet Union
in 1941.10 Hitler’s failure as a leader was revealed by the numerous broken peace treaties
while claiming he wanted peace, which was proven otherwise.
Hitler’s territorial expansions resulted in the harsh treatments of people in the
conquered territories. People from sovereign nations were not necessarily glad to see the
Germans march in and occupy their land. A news report from Bavaria in March 1938
stated, “The entry of German troops into Austria stirred all feelings…In summation, one
can say that the mood of the people was one of deep depression.”11 Some citizens of
Austria were not happy about being incorporated into the Reich, but Hitler selfishly
decided to march into Austria to unite the people with German blood despite their
feelings of “deep depression”. The depressed mood of the Austrians was due to the
behaviour of the Vienna Nazis. Shirer acknowledged that, “Disillusionment among the
Austrians was inevitable. For the first few weeks the behaviour of Vienna Nazis was
worse than anything I had seen in Germany. There was an orgy of sadism.”12 The Nazis
were aggressive and violent in Austria, threatening and endangering the lives of the
German blooded people whom they sought to incorporate into the Third Reich. Hitler and
the Nazis showed total disregard for the feelings and the security of the Austrians.
However, the Nazis treatment of the Polish was far worse. According to historian and
writer Michael Burleigh,
10
“World War 2 Two in Europe Timeline.” The History Place.
http://www.historyplace.com/worldwar2/timeline/ww2time.htm (13 May 05).
11
Dieter Kuntz and Benjamin Sax. Inside Hitler’s Germany. (Lexington, Massachusetts: D.C. Health and
Company, 1992). p350.
12
William L. Shirer. The Rise and Fall of the Third Reich. (New York: Simon and Shuster Inc., 1990).
p350.
5
Poles were not allowed to use their own language in
dealings with an officialdom which spoke German….They
received significantly lower wages and had to pay
supplementary taxes ranging from 20 to 30 per cent of their
gross income….From 1942/3 Poles were not entitled to
holidays. They were debarred from cinemas, concerts,
exhibitions, libraries, museums, and theatres. Subject to
curfew restrictions, Poles also needed special permission to
travel by bus, tram, or train. They were prohibited from
owning bicycles, cameras, radios, boots, leather briefcases,
musical instruments, gramophones and telephones.13
Hitler took away basic rights from the people in the nations he conquered and they were
subject to harsh restrictions. In addition to the six million Jews who died in the Holocaust,
millions of others deemed racially inferior like the Poles were also killed. Hitler’s quest
for world domination, threats to sovereign nations and mistreatment of people in
conquered territories do not take away from the fact that he was able to expand and
acquire territory to unite the German people as well as return their pride and power.
The acquisition of territory by Hitler illustrated that he was not a complete failure
as a leader since it contributed to rebuilding Germany. Territorial expansion was
important for Germany because it had lost a vast amount of territory at the end of World
War One. In total, Germany lost over one millions square miles of land and 6 million
subjects.14 The confiscation of land resulted in the loss of resources in German territories
handed over at Versailles, which included 14.6% of its arable land, 74.5 % of its iron ore,
68.1% of its zinc ore, 26% of its coal production as well as potash mines and textile
industries.15 Hitler’s aims when it came to expanding territory were to take back the land
that belonged to Germany and to unite all people of common German blood. Alan
Bullock, historian and author, noted, “His aim was to extend the frontiers of Germany to
13
Michael Burleigh. The Third Reich: A New History. (New York: Hill and Wang, 2000). p451.
“Impact of the Treaty of Versailles.” School’s History.org.uk.
http://www.schoolshistory.org.uk/ASLevel_History/week4_versailles.htm (13 May 06).
15
Hiden, John. Germany and Europe 1919 – 1939. (New York: Longman Publishing, 1993). p29-39.
14
6
include those people of German race and speech who, even in 1914, had lived outside the
Reich, the Germans of Austria, the Sudeten Germans of Czechoslovakia.”16 Austria was a
nation of eight million German speaking people, many of whom wanted to be part of
Germany.17 In the Sudetenland, the richest part of Czechoslovakia, there were three
million people who spoke German and were part of the Austrian Empire until 1919 when
they were made part of the new country Czechoslovakia.18 Hitler found it unbearable that
German people were living in separate nations, often where they were suffering. In a
speech on February 20, 1936, Hitler made his opposition to the disunity of German
people clear:
Over ten million Germans live in two of the states
adjoining our frontiers…It is unbearable for a world power
to know there are racial comrades at its side who are
constantly being afflicted with severest suffering for their
sympathy or unity for the whole nation, its destiny....19
It was important for Hitler to unite all the German people because as an Austrian, he felt
that people of common blood had to be united. Bullock also stated, “The union of Austria
with Germany was the fulfillment of a German dream older than the Treaty of Versailles,
which forbade it, or even the unification of Germany, from which Bismarck had excluded
Austria.”20 Hitler was able to make this German dream come true, bringing him success
as a leader since many Austrians were living in horrible conditions and wanted to be
incorporated into the German Reich. After touring Austria in 1934, the President of the
British Board of Deputies, Neville Laski, said:
16
Alan Bullock. Hitler: A Study in Tyranny. (New York: Harper Collins Publishers, Inc., 1962). p2314.
Catherine and John Bradley. Germany: The Reunification of a Nation. (New York: Gloucester Press,
1991). p15.
18
Catherine and John Bradley. Germany: The Reunification of a Nation. (New York: Gloucester Press,
1991). p15.
19
William L. Shirer. The Rise and Fall of the Third Reich. (New York: Simon and Shuster Inc., 1990).
p322.
20
Alan Bullock. Hitler: A Study in Tyranny. (New York: Harper Collins Publishers, Inc., 1962). p435.
17
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The Austrian people are poor. The Austrian professional
classes are very depressed….I asked…what Austrian Nazis
stood for apart from the question of pan-Germanism. I was
told…that things could not be worse than they were and
that as so many Austrians anticipated some sort of eventual
union with Germany…21
Conditions in Austria were frustrating before Hitler annexed the nation. Austrians were
hoping for a union with Germany because they were living in poor conditions and
separated from the common-blooded Germans in Third Reich. Germans were also
separated because of the Polish Danziq Corrider which Hitler sought to acquire because it
cut Germany into two, and many Germans were left under Polish rule.22 Hitler’s
territorial expansions not only united the German people in Europe but they were
supported by the people of Germany and those of German blood united by Hitler in the
Third Reich.
The territorial expansions initiated by Hitler were welcomed by many German
people, living inside and outside Germany. Hitler’s expansion and remilitarization of the
Rhineland was tremendously supported by the people of Germany. On March 7, 1936,
after dissolving the Reichstag, (the German government) Hitler called for a new election
and referendum on his move into the Rhineland. According to official figures of the
moving held on March 29, 1936, some 99% of the 45,453,91 registered voters went to the
polls, and 98.8% of them approved Hitler’s actions.23 Hitler held the referendum to
ensure that he had the support and approval of the German people. An election was also
held in Austria in 1938, to determine both German and Austrian support for the
annexation of Austria. Shirer provided a description of the German union with Austria:
21
Michael Burleigh. The Third Reich: A New History. (New York: Hill and Wang, 2000). p319.
Catherine and John Bradley. Germany: The Reunification of a Nation. (New York: Gloucester Press,
1991). p15.
23
William L. Shirer. The Rise and Fall of the Third Reich. (New York: Simon and Shuster Inc., 1990).
p294.
22
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Many of them sincerely believed that an ultimate union
with any kind of Germany, even a Nazi Germany, was a
desirable and inevitable end, that Austria…could not in the
long run exist decently by itself, that it could only survive
as part of the German Reich.24
The results of the elections indicated support for the union. In Greater Germany 99.08%
voted Ja, yes, and 99.75% Ja in Austria.25 The Austrian people realized that their country
could not successfully exist independent of the German Reich and they supported the
union of Germany and Austria. The people of Germany also supported expansions into
other countries to unite Germans. An interview with Rolf Herber, who was born in 1927
and grew up in Freithal, a midsize city in Saxony near Dresden revealed first hand
German reactions to the expansions.
What did the people think about Germany taking over other
countries?
…the Sudetenland was brought ‘home’ into the Reich…the
people were ecstatic over this…Three or four weeks after
that, we heard on the radio that the Germans had marched
into Czechoslovakia and the people were all for it. There
was nobody who said this was wrong.26
This first hand account of the positive German reactions to the expansion into
Czechoslovakia reveals that the people of Germany supported their leader who was
acting to restore the pride, position, and power of Germany. Germany’s power was
proven by the acquisition of land which was initially accomplished without serious
violence or bloodshed.
24
William L. Shirer. The Rise and Fall of the Third Reich. (New York: Simon and Shuster Inc., 1990.
p350).
25
William L Shirer.. The Rise and Fall of the Third Reich. New York: Simon and Shuster Inc., 1990. p350.
26
Eric A. Johnson and Karl-Heniz Reuband. What We Knew: Terror, Mass Murder, and Everyday Life in
Nazi Germany. (Cambridge: Basic Books, 2005). p157.
9
Hitler’s acquisition of territory demonstrated the growing power of Germany as
difficult expansions were achieved and restrictions were broken without consequences.
The annexation of Austria was difficult for Germany to achieve because of the
restrictions of the Treaty of Versailles and its lack of economic and military power.
Bullock wrote,
But in 1933-4, in the first year or two after Hitler had come
to power, the prospects accomplishing the annexation of
Austria…remained remote. Germany was politically
isolated. Economically, she was only beginning to recover
from the worst slump in her history. Her army, limited to
the hundred thousand men permitted by the Treaty, was
easily outnumbered by that of France alone. A move in any
direction – in the west against Austria, Czechoslovakia, or
Poland – appeared certain to run into the network of
alliances with which France sought to strengthen her
security.27
Hitler was able to remilitarize the Rhineland and expand into Austria and Czechoslovakia
without violence and bloodshed or opposition from other European powers even though
Germany was still experiencing economic and military hardships. Hitler’s acquisition of
territory involved numerous risks, especially by violating the Treaty of Versailles, but
that did not stop Hitler from taking back the land that rightfully belonged to Germany.
Gerhard Rempel, a professor of history at Western New England College wrote:
Hitler had risked a highly dangerous move: on March 7,
1936 German troops marched into the Rhineland, designed
as a demilitarized zone by the Treaty of Versailles. Hitler
justified this new breach of the treaty by arguing that he
had to protect Germany from the effect of the FrancoSoviet Pact, which had been ratified by the French
Chamber on February 27, and which was incompatible with
the Locarno Treaty.28
27
28
Alan Bullcok. Hitler: A Study in Tyranny. New York: Harper Collins Publishers, Inc., 1962. p320.
Gerhard Rempel. “Diplomacy of the Third Reich.” Lectures for the History of Hitler’s Germany.
http://mars.acnet.wnec.edu/~grempel/courses/hitler/lectures.html (1 Apr 05).
10
Hitler violated the treaties because he thought it was his responsibility to protect the
Germans from the Franco-Soviet Pact as well as realizing that German people needed and
deserved territory. The territory would unite the German people while returning the land
that was unjustly taken from them by the Treaty of Versailles. German prestige and
power was restored after the annexation of Austria. At 7:30pm on March 13, 1938, the
Austrian government dissolved the Austrian state and declared Austria to be an integral
part of Germany.29 The union, Anschluss, made Germany the largest state in Europe in
area and population, apart from the Soviet Union.30 As Germany became the second
largest state in Europe, its status as a European superpower was reinforced. It had vast
territory and population and such an achievement was credited to Hitler. By acquiring
territory, Hitler not only restored the land that once belonged to Germany and united the
German people but he also reestablished the power of the nation displaying that he was
not a complete failure as a leader.
The aggressive nationalism of Hitler and the Nazis resulted in horrific conditions
for many people in Germany and the rest of Europe. The Nazis used fear to strengthen
nationalism and that fear would often result in an aggressive nationalism with total
disregard for others. Victor Klemperer, who was a professor at the University of Dresden
when the Nazis came into power, wrote in his diary, “But everyone, literally everyone
cringes with fear. No letter, no telephone conversation, no word on the street is safe
anymore. Everyone fears the next person maybe an informer.”31 The Nazis used fear as a
response to opposition and since everyone lived in fear, they were manipulated into
supporting the Nazis which increased nationalist sentiment. The Nazis established the
29
Adrian Webb. Central and Eastern Europe since 1919. (London: Pearson Education Limited, 2002). p25.
Adrian Webb. Central and Eastern Europe since 1919. (London: Pearson Education Limited, 2002). p25.
31
Michael Burleigh. The Third Reich: A New History. (New York: Hill and Wang, 2000). p303.
30
11
Secret State Police, Geheime Stattspolizei or Gestapo for short, in order to inspire fear
inside Germany. An interview with Anna Rudolf, who was born in Bavaria in 1923 and
lived and worked in Berlin during the Second World War, revealed the fear inspired by
the Gestapo:
Earlier you said that there were all kinds of rumors going
around in Berlin? Did you have a lot of fear of the Gestapo?
Well, yes...We were always somewhat reserved and
cautious because one basically had fear that one would be
the next.32
The people of Germany were so afraid of the Gestapo to the point where they lived in
constant fear. People like Anne were afraid that they would be taken way by the Gestapo,
often without a valid reason. The fear instilled by the Nazis was linked to new definitions
and ideas of crime.
The Nazis had new definitions and ideas of crime which resulted in both a
heightened sense of fear and nationalism. The Nazis had changed the definition of a
crime. A Nazi slogan which was popularized in the press read, “Then: [that is, before
1933] No punishment without a law. Now: No crime without a punishment.”33 The
intensification of fear and punishment was used to strengthen nationalism as people were
afraid of opposing and upsetting the government. Werner Best, the legal expert at
Gestapo Headquarters, believed that, “The preventative police mission of a political
police is to search out the enemies of the state, to watch them and at the right moment to
destroy them. In order to advance this mission the political police must be free to use
every means required to achieve the necessary goal.”34 The police were allowed to use
32
Johnson, Eric A. and Reuband, Karl-Heniz. What We Knew: Terror, Mass Murder, and Everyday Life in
Nazi Germany. (Cambridge: Basic Books, 2005). p170.
33
Elaine Halleck. Living in Nazi Germany. (Farrington Hills: Greenhaven Press, 2004). p27.
34
Elaine Halleck. Living in Nazi Germany. (Farrington Hills: Greenhaven Press, 2004). p30.
12
any means possible to penalize “criminals” and this led to lots of discrimination, fear, and
punishment in Germany. Fear and punishment were utilized to reinforce nationalism
since people were left with no choice but to support the Nazis or risk punishment. The
law was used to punish people based on their race. Burleigh noted that,
Notions of equality before the law were replaced by a
system of legal apartheid. Racial aliens did not belong, and
nor did those whose criminal ‘parasitism’ on the body of
the nation resulted in temporary or permanent outlawry,
one of several revivals of barbaric custom. For crime was
constructed as an act of betrayal of the ‘national
community’, hence all crime and all deviant attitudes and
behaviour were potentially political. A burglar in the
blackout became a ‘plunderer’; a Jew or Pole who had
sexual congress with an ‘Aryan’ woman was guilty of
‘racial defilement’. In further departure from civilized
norms, words became crimes.35
The brutality and racial discrimination policies of the Nazis were demonstrated by their
extreme changes to the definition of crime and their treatment of Jews and other
minorities. One of the most significant changes to the law was the passing of the
Nuremberg Laws in 1935. These laws took away the citizenship and civil rights of all
Jews in Germany. It became illegal for a Jew to marry a non-Jew and by 1936 most Jews
in Germany found it almost impossible to earn a living.36 Following the Nuremberg Laws,
life for Jews in Germany became even worse. In 1938, after a German embassy official in
Paris was shot by a Polish-Jewish youth, the attack on German Jews intensified as seven
thousand Jewish shops were looted and 20,000 Jews were arrested and many were
beaten.37 This attack became known as Kristallnacht, meaning “Night of Broken Glass”.
The Jews were not the only victims of discrimination, violence, and aggressive
German nationalism. Police rounded up thousands of political opponents, including
35
Michael Burleigh. The Third Reich: A New History. (New York: Hill and Wang, 2000). p165.
J. B. Cruxton, and W. Wilson. Spotlight Canada. (Don Mills, Ontario: Oxford UP, 2000). p319.
37
J. B. Cruxton, and W. Wilson. Spotlight Canada. (Don Mills, Ontario: Oxford UP, 2000). p319.
36
13
liberals, socialists, Communists, trade unionists, and intellectual dissidents, detaining
them without trial in concentration camps.38 Aggressive German nationalism led to the
destruction of people’s rights and their lives. However, before the outbreak of World War
Two fear and the mistreatment of people were not common aspects of nationalism.
Nationalism was dominated by a resurgence in German confidence and pride.
The restoration of Germany’s standing as one of the most powerful nations in the
world was made possible by Hitler’s efforts in strengthening German nationalism proving
that he was not a complete failure as the leader of Germany. Hitler and the Nazis used
propaganda to strengthen nationalism. R.J. Overy, a professor of modern history at
King’s College in London wrote:
The propaganda of the regime was highly effective in
creating nationalist support among the population in
1939…“Trust in the Fuhrer”, ran one report, “and pride in
German policy among the population is boundless.”39
German pride was reestablished by propaganda which led to a rise in nationalism as well
as support for the Nazis. The 1936 Berlin Olympics was also significant in reaffirming
German pride. Forty-nine teams from around the world competed in the Berlin Games,
more than in any previous Olympics.40 German athletes captured the most medals overall,
and German hospitality and organization won the praises of visitors.41 According to
Shirer:
The visitors, especially those from England and America,
were greatly impressed by what they saw: apparently a
happy, healthy, friendly people united under Hitler – a far
38
“Germany: 1933-1936.” United States Holocaust Memorial Museum.
http://www.ushmm.org/museum/exhibit/online/olympics/zch003.htm (20 May 05).
39
R.J. Overy. War and Econony in the Third Reich. (Oxford: Claredon Press, 1994). p201.
40
“World Responses.” The United States Holocaust Memorial Museum.
http://www.ushmm.org/museum/exhibit/online/olympics/zcc043.htm (20 May 05).
41
“World Responses.” The United States Holocaust Memorial Museum.
http://www.ushmm.org/museum/exhibit/online/olympics/zcc043.htm (20 May 05).
14
different picture, they said, than they had got from reading
the newspaper dispatches from Berlin.42
People from all over the world were impressed by the Berlin Olympics which restored
German pride and prestige. Propaganda and the 1936 Berlin Olympics were essential to
the rise of nationalism in Germany.
Germany’s pride and confidence was reinforced by nationalism. Hitler allowed
Germans to feel proud of their nation and have their position among the most powerful
countries of the world at the time. Bullock stated,
Hitler recognized this mood when he told the German
people to hold up their heads and rediscover their old pride
and self-confidence. Germany, united and strong, would
end the crippling divisions which had held her back, and
recover the place that was her due in the world.43
Hitler was able to return the pride and confidence of the German people which were torn
apart at the end of World War One. Hitler not only raised German power and prestige
abroad but he gave the German people faith in themselves. According to Bullock,
It was an impressive record to which Hitler was able to
point, not only in the raising of German prestige abroad,
but in economic improvement and the recovery of national
confidence at home. It is pointless to deny that Hitler
succeeded in releasing in the German people a great store
of energy and faith in themselves.44
Nationalism played a significant role in restoring the pride, power, and faith of the
German people. The rise in nationalism resulted in Hitler gaining tremendous support
from the German people. Elie Weisel, Professor of Humanities at Boston University and
Noble Peace laureate wrote, “German society had rallied behind him: the judicial, the
42
William L Shirer.. The Rise and Fall of the Third Reich. (New York: Simon and Shuster Inc., 1990).
p325.
43
Alan Bullock. Hitler: A Study in Tyranny. (New York: Harper Collins Publishers, Inc., 1962). p278.
44
Alan Bullock. Hitler: A Study in Tyranny. (New York: Harper Collins Publishers, Inc., 1962). p356.
15
educational, the industrial, and the economic establishments gave him their support.”45
The support of people from different social backgrounds showed that that Hitler’s ideas
were appealing to many Germans. The lives of most Germans improved as Hitler came
into power despite the authoritarian government. Shirer noted,
Yet the Nazi terror in the early years affected the lives of
relatively few Germans and a newly arrived observer was
somewhat surprised to see that the people of this country
did not seem to feel that they were cowed and held down
by an unscrupulous and brutal dictatorship. On the contrary,
they supported it with genuine enthusiasm. Somehow it
imbued them with a hope and a new confidence and an
astonishing faith in the future of their country.46
Although there is evidence of the Nazis terrorizing the lives of many Germans, in reality
the majority of Germans did not feel as though the Nazis were a brutal dictatorship. Most
people lived their lives happily without fear or punishment. An interview with Hubert
Lutz, born in 1928 in Cologne, Germany whose father was a midlevel Nazi Party
functionary and he himself was part of the Hitler Youth from age seven to seventeen,
went as follows:
Was there a great climate of fear for ordinary people during
the Nazi years in which people were constantly afraid of
being arrested by the Gestapo or the regular police?
No, absolutely not. In the apartment we lived in between
1937 and 1943, we even had a Gestapo officer living in the
house, Hubert Nordstern….In my ten years in the Hitler
Youth, I never heard anybody suggest that you spy on your
parents or that you spy on anybody else. 47
Life in the Third Reich did not include constant fear of the Nazis for most people, while
being afraid and spying on everyone were not aspects of life in Germany for the majority.
45
Elie Weisel. “Leaders and Revolutionaries: Adolph Hitler.” Time Magazine. 13 April 1998.
William L. Shirer. The Rise and Fall of the Third Reich. (New York: Simon and Shuster Inc., 1990).
p231.
47
Eric A. Johnson and Karl-Heniz Reuband. What We Knew: Terror, Mass Murder, and Everyday Life in
Nazi Germany. (Cambridge: Basic Books, 2005). p141.
46
16
Surveys conduct in the mid 1990s by Eric A. Johnson, a professor of history, and KarlHeniz Reuban, a professor of sociology, revealed that 76% to 83% of the respondents
who lived in four different cities in Germany during the rule of the Nazis answered
explicitly that they had never feared being arrested by the Gestapo for any reason.48
Strengthening nationalism made significant changes to German society.
Increased nationalism decreased crime rates as well as increased assistance
between German people. Nationalism resulted in a decline in crime rates in Germany.
Johnson and Reuban noted:
Another one of the regime’s important achievements was
the reduction of criminality…The fact is that acts of
violence and street battles between different political
groups, which had been a nearly constant feature of the
Weimar Republic, suddenly stopped with the establishment
of the Nazi regime…49
Violence and crime was visibly reduced with under the rule of the Nazis, which was an
important result of nationalism. Nationalism also led to increased aid in Germany. The
Winter Relief Organization was founded around 1934 and it consisted of organized local
collections, where clothes and food were collected or donated, by those who had more
than they needed.50 Germans were becoming less individualistic and more focused on
helping each other and building a successful and unified society. Strengthening
nationalism was significant to Germany’s rise as a world superpower in the 1930s and it
was one of Hitler’s greatest achievements.
48
Eric A. Johnson and Karl-Heniz Reuband. What We Knew: Terror, Mass Murder, and Everyday Life in
Nazi Germany. (Cambridge: Basic Books, 2005). p345.
49
Eric A. Johnson and Karl-Heniz Reuband. What We Knew: Terror, Mass Murder, and Everyday Life in
Nazi Germany. (Cambridge: Basic Books, 2005). p342.
50
Eric A. Johnson and Karl-Heniz Reuband. What We Knew: Terror, Mass Murder, and Everyday Life in
Nazi Germany. (Cambridge: Basic Books, 2005). p141.
17
The means by which Hitler contributed to the economy of Germany involved
exploitation as well as war and by end of the war the economy was left in shambles.
Jews, communists, political exiles, and other criminals were forced to work in labour
camps to help the German economy. Shirer noted, “Each day consisted of grueling work,
breaking stone, cutting peat, making bricks or carrying rocks, or deliberately pointless
physical ‘sports’…”51 Labour camps served as contributions to the economy and it was
an exploitation of people who were held as well as worked against their will. The
conditions at the labour camps were horrible but the labourers were still forced to work.
Polish Doctor Zygmunt Klukowski wrote in 1940, “The conditions at the labour camp are
terrifying…The work there is digging deep trenches. The trenches are part of a system to
dry out existing swamps and prepare the land for future cultivation.”52 The preparation of
land for cultivation by camp labourers was an indirect contribution to the economy.
Forced labour at the labour camps illustrated Hitler’s exploitation of people making him a
complete failure as a leader.
Hitler and the Nazis also exploited the Jews by stealing from them. Hermann
Goering, a Nazi political leader and chief of the Luftwaffe, said in 1939 after the Jewish
pogrom, “The Jew shall get the refund from the insurance company but the refund will be
confiscated.”53 The Nazis forcibly took money from the Jewish people and used it for
their economic gains. The Jewish contribution to the economy went as far as labour
camps and having all belongs and businesses confiscated before going to concentration
camps. At the concentration camps valuables such as watches, bracelets, and rings were
51
Michael Burleigh. The Third Reich: A New History. (New York: Hill and Wang, 2000). p204.
Michael Burleigh. The Third Reich: A New History. (New York: Hill and Wang, 2000). p584.
53
William L. Shirer. The Rise and Fall of the Third Reich. (New York: Simon and Shuster Inc., 1990).
p443.
52
18
taken from the prisoners and deposited in secret bank vaults.54 Hitler’s mistreatment and
exploitation of the Jewish people was further proof of his failure as Germany’s leader.
German economic recovery was not as glorious as it was made out to be as people
had no choice but to work and economic recovery was unstable. Michael Burleigh,
historian and writer stated, “The unemployed who refused to work on the motorways had
their benefits terminated, or were threatened with being sent to concentration camps.”55
One of the indicators of Germany’s economic recovery was its decreasing unemployment
rate which may have dropped so significantly because people had no choice but to work
because they were threatened. In addition to rebuilding the German economy with threats,
the economic recovery was not stable. Burleigh noted, “Economic recovery was
regionally and sectorally patchy, with unemployment in consumer industries and mining
lingering for several years. Wages in emergency employment schemes were
indistinguishable from welfare, while the average real earnings did not recover their 1929
level until 1941.”56 Unemployment and the economy did not experience stable recovery
or growth until World War Two. Germany’s economic recovery may have been more
influenced by the war than Hitler’s contributions. Hitler’s contributions to the economy
were simply motivated by war and world domination. John Hiden, Professor of Modern
European History at the University of Bradford wrote, “Hitler’s decisive intervention in
the economic field in the summer of 1936…ensured that autarchy would not be employed
to protect the living standards in Germany but simply to serve the Nazis’ imperialist
ambitions.”57 Hitler’s economic recovery program was not implemented to improve the
lives of the German people for whom he was responsible, but to fulfill his plans of
54
J. B. Cruxton, and W. Wilson. Spotlight Canada. (Don Mills, Ontario: Oxford UP, 2000). p247.
Michael Burleigh. The Third Reich: A New History. (New York: Hill and Wang, 2000). p241.
56
Michael Burleigh. The Third Reich: A New History. (New York: Hill and Wang, 2000). p251.
57
John Hiden. Germany and Europe 1919 – 1939. (New York: Longman Publishing, 1993). p54.
55
19
conquering territory and world domination. This made Hitler a complete failure as a
German leader.
Hitler’s complete failure as a leader was once again demonstrated in the area of
economy when the German economy was left in ruins after the Second World War in
1945. After World War II the German economy lay in shambles. The war, along with
Hitler's destructive policies had destroyed 20 percent of all housing.58 Food production
per capita in 1947 was only 51 percent of its level in 1938, and the official food ration
varied between 1,040 and 1,550 calories per day.59 Industrial output in 1947 was only
one-third its 1938 level. Most importantly, a large percentage of Germany's working-age
men were dead.60 The German economy was shattered at the end of the war with the
destruction of housing, the decrease in food production and consumption, a decline in
industrial output, and most importantly, a large portion of working age men were dead as
a result of the war. Hitler caused the destruction of the German economy and by the end
of the war the economy as well as the people were devastated, showing that Hitler was a
complete failure as a leader. However, the Jewish contributions and labour had
insignificant impacts on the economy and there were several factors involved in the
destruction of the economy by the end of the war. It is crucial to note the German
economy was in a steady process of revitalization and modernization prior to World War
Two.
58
David R. Henderson. “Germany’s Economic Miracle.” Concise Encyclopedia of Economics.
http://www.econlib.org/library/Enc/GermanEconomicMiracle.html (20 May 05).
59
David R. Henderson. “Germany’s Economic Miracle.” Concise Encyclopedia of Economics.
http://www.econlib.org/library/Enc/GermanEconomicMiracle.html (20 May 05).
60
David R. Henderson. “Germany’s Economic Miracle.” Concise Encyclopedia of Economics.
http://www.econlib.org/library/Enc/GermanEconomicMiracle.html (20 May 05).
20
Revitalizing the German economy was one of Hitler’s greatest achievements
which restored Germany’s position in Europe and illustrated that Hitler was not a
complete failure as the leader to Germany. Once Hitler became Chancellor of Germany in
1933, he implemented an economy recovery program that would rebuild Germany’s
economy. The program was successful as Germany had one of the highest national
incomes by 1938. The total national income of Germany rose from 41,000,000,000 Reich
marks to 56,000,000,000 Reich marks in just four years from 1933 to 1936.61 By 1938,
the national income of Germany was $33,347,000,000 in total or $487.36 per capita
while United States’ national income was $67,600,000,000 in total or $520.70 per
capita.62 Germany’s national income per capita was only $33.34 less than that of the
United States, which had the largest economy in the world. By 1938, Germany had the
second largest national income in the world, behind the United States of America.
Germany’s economic growth was astounding. The consumer market had expanded
insofar as the country’s gross national product doubled to 139 billion Reich marks in
1939.63 The doubling of the country’s gross national product from 67 billion Reich marks
in 1934 to 130 billion Reich marks in 1939 illustrates Germany’s continued economic
revitalization which was significant even before the outbreak of World War 2. The
dramatic revitalization of the German economy undoubtedly occurred between 1933 and
1939. Income from capital and business increased from 17.4% of the national income to
26.6%.64 Because of much greater employment, the total income from wages and salaries
grew from twenty-five billion marks to forty-two billion marks, an increase of 66% and
61
Elaine Halleck. Living in Nazi Germany. (Farrington Hills: Greenhaven Press, 2004). p114.
John Hiden. Germany and Europe 1919 – 1939. (New York: Longman Publishing, 1993). p212.
63
Elaine Halleck. Living in Nazi Germany. (Farrington Hills: Greenhaven Press, 2004). p136.
64
William L. Shirer. The Rise and Fall of the Third Reich. (New York: Simon and Shuster Inc., 1990).
p264.
62
21
income from capitalist business rose much more steeply, by 146%.65 Almost all aspects
and sectors of the economy were booming and the economy of the nation as a whole was
increasingly powerful. The economic revitalization of Germany was greatly influenced
by the increasing employment.
Work creation and employment contributed significantly to the rebuilding of the
German economy. Between January 1933 and June 1934 there were 2,212,509 new jobs
created in Germany.66 Unemployment in Germany was 6 million in 1932, half of
Germany’s labour force but by 1938 it was decreased to only 1 million.67 The automotive
industry played a crucial role in decreasing unemployment and creating jobs. By 1938,
the motor sector of the economy employed 1.5 million people, representing one out of
every twelve jobs.68 Hitler was a major player in the automotive sector as he designed the
Volkswagon, meaning the “people’s car”, and it was the contributions of the automotive
sector that employed many people and helped revitalize the economy. Hitler recognized
that the German people needed an affordable automobile and his contribution to the
industry was amazing as motor-vehicle production rose almost 1.9 times from 180,000
vehicles in 1933 to 340,000 in 1938.69 German car production in 1938 was only behind
the United States and the United Kingdom. According to Hiden, “Road-building, both
ordinary roads and the new Autobahn, contributed to the recovery of the construction
industry, and absorbed a good deal of casual, unskilled labour which was the hardest
unemployment to relieve.”70 The Autobahn which was a series of highways and the
65
William L. Shirer. The Rise and Fall of the Third Reich. (New York: Simon and Shuster Inc., 1990).
p264.
66
R.J. Overy. War and Econony in the Third Reich. (Oxford: Claredon Press, 1994). p53.
67
Elaine Halleck. Living in Nazi Germany. (Farrington Hills: Greenhaven Press, 2004). p136.
68
Elaine Halleck. Living in Nazi Germany. (Farrington Hills: Greenhaven Press, 2004). p136.
69
R.J. Overy. War and Econony in the Third Reich. Oxford: Claredon Press, 1994. p71.
70
R.J. Overy. War and Econony in the Third Reich. Oxford: Claredon Press, 1994. p6.
22
building of other roads made essential contributions to several sectors of the economy.
The automotive and highway industries were major contributors to the German economy
as it increased employment and national income as well as put Germany in the same
automotive production league as the superpowers, the U.S. and the U.K. The growth of
the German economy was significant to the nation making it one of Hitler’s greatest
achievements and indicates that he was not a complete failure as a leader.
Germany’s economic resurgence was significant as it restored the pride of the
German people and brought power to the nation. Although living standards for most
Germans were low, they were happy to have job and to know that the economy was
recovering. Overy wrote, “Wages and the standard of living remained relatively low for
Germans, but the aim of the government was not public consumption but increased
industrial production of non-consumer goods. Unemployment was falling, and business
optimism returned.”71 Economic recovery was achieved so rapidly because people were
ready and willing to work and with the job creation of Hitler’s economic program, the
unemployment rate fell while Germans did not mind the low living standards. Historian
Frank E. Smitha stated, “But more importantly, many workers and others were saying
that Hitler had saved them from starvation. And they were grateful to Hitler for having
brought economic recovery – more than the common U.S. citizen was grateful to
Roosevelt.”72 Hitler’s economic development was significant to the German people who
went from having nothing to having jobs as well as an income. In return they gave Hitler
their support and were grateful to him. In his interview, Rolf Herber stated,
One has to remember that in 1923 we had the
inflation….By the end, the mark had inflated a trillion
71
72
R.J. Overy. War and Econony in the Third Reich. (Oxford: Claredon Press, 1994). p33.
Frank E. Smitha. “Hitler and Ecnomic Recovery.” 1901 – World War II.
http://www.fsmitha.com/h2/ch16.htm (24 Mar 05).
23
times. That was crazy, but that’s the way it was. Everybody
as unhappy….Before the Nazis came to power, all kinds of
people had taken their own life. Then Adolf came to power
with his new idea. For most that was indeed better. People
who hadn’t had a job for year had a job. And then the
people were all for the system….You have to understand
the people. They were from another time than today. First
they experienced unemployment. Nobody had anything.
Everything was expensive. Then suddenly everything was
different. The sun was shining for everybody.73
Although the sun was not shining for “everybody”, especially the Jews, Hitler coming
into power changed the lives of many Germans dramatically in the area of the economy
and jobs. People had jobs and were happy about it and it was the people’s happiness
which clearly demonstrates that Hitler as a leader was not a complete failure.
Rebuilding Germany’s economy was important to the power of the nation. Adolf Hitler
said,
Like the military and political rearmament or mobilization
of our people, there must be also an economic mobilization,
and it must indeed proceed with the same tempo, with the
same determination….There is only one point of view, and
that is that Germany must be brought to a position of
political and economic self-sufficiency.”74
Economic self sufficiency was crucial to the restoration of Germany’s power and Hitler’s
growing economy worked alongside military and political advancements at the time.
Hitler had helped build such a strong economy that it took many countries and a world
war to bring it down. Hiden noted:
“By December 1940 Britain was almost bankrupt, entirely
dependent on United States finance and war production to
keep going. The economy and political system of the Third
Reich was only brought to collapse by the combined efforts
73
Eric A. Johnson and Karl-Heniz Reuband. What We Knew: Terror, Mass Murder, and Everyday Life in
Nazi Germany. (Cambridge: Basic Books, 2005). p156.
74
Dieter Kuntz and Benjamin Sax. Inside Hitler’s Germany. (Lexington, Massachusetts: D.C. Health and
Company, 1992). p292.
24
of the United States, the Soviet Union, and Britain after
four years of total war.”75
It would take three superpower nations and total war to destroy the powerful economy of
Germany. Hitler managed to successfully rebuild the economy of Germany, restoring
Germany’s power and position in Europe while proving that as the leader of Germany he
was not a complete failure.
Hitler was successfully able to unite people of German blood, return the territory
that once belonged to Germany, demonstrate to the rest of the world the power and
prestige of Germany, decrease crime rates and promote unselfishness, provide jobs for
millions of unemployed Germans, and transform the economy of Germany into one of the
most powerful in the world. The re-establishment of Germany’s status as a European
superpower was a result of overlapping developments in territory, nationalism, and the
economy. Each factor was dependent on the others, meaning that Hitler had to effectively
utilize one factor to achieve the other for the success of Germany. The rise in national
sentiment and a growing economy allowed for territorial gains, the growing economy as
well as the expanding territory contributed to the rise of nationalism, and territorial
expansion and nationalism were crucial to rebuilding the economy. By acquiring territory,
reaffirming nationalism, and reconstructing the economy, Adolf Hitler made several
important contributions to Germany proving that he was not a complete failure as the
leader of the nation. History involves looking at situations and figures objectively. As a
result of Hitler’s failures in World War Two, he is remembered as an evil dictator who
only caused problems for the world. To objectively examine history and Hitler as a
historical figure, it is essential to acknowledge that Hitler did have his successes. In his
75
R.J. Overy. War and Econony in the Third Reich. Oxford: Claredon Press, 1994. p232.
25
inaugural address in 1961, former American President John F. Kennedy stated, “Ask not
what your country can do for you; ask what you can do for your country.” 76 Hitler
inspired most Germans to believe these words, which restored country’s position in the
world from the time he came in power in 1933 until 1941. Hitler’s impact on Germany
has its successes as well as its failures and both should be acknowledged.
76
“John Fitzgerald Kennedy Quotes.” Thinkquest. http://en.thinkexist.com/quotes/john_fitzgerald_kennedy
(25 March 05).
26
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