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“Little Iron Men”
A History of
The Bravery, Dedication
And Honor of the Japanese-Americans
Of the Famous 100 th Battalion/442nd Regimental Combat
Team and Military Intelligence Service
By:
Terrence Lee Krips
“The Principle on which this country
was founded and by which it has always
been governed is that Americanism is a
matter of the mind and heart;
Americanism is not, and never was, a
matter of race or ancestry”
………..President Franklin D. Roosevelt………
1943
At approximately 07:55 A.M. on the morning of December 7th , 1941, America’s
sensibilities were shattered by the surprise attack on Pearl Harbor by air and naval forces
from the Empire of Japan. As a result, the United States was thrust into a World War it
had neither wanted nor was totally prepared for. Just like many other men and women
who were of age to serve the military at the time, Japanese-Americans rushed down to the
nearest Recruiting Station to enlist to fight, only to be told that they were not wanted.
Their status had been changed to “4-C,” or “enemy alien.” For many of these JapaneseAmericans the experience of being rejected was a shock. In an atmosphere full of fear,
mistrust, prejudice and racism many Japanese-Americans on Hawaii and on the mainland
found themselves treated as if they were the enemy. On the heels of this action, President
Roosevelt signed Executive Order 9066 that authorized the government to designate
special “military areas” from which the free movements of any person could be excluded,
and the right of any person to enter or leave was at the discretion of the military
authorities. It is from this turmoil and rejection that some of the most incredible stories
of courage, sacrifice, honor and patriotism begins. This is the story of how one minority
overcame incredible odds both on the battlefield and on the home front to achieve
amazing results. Whether as a member of the elite 100th Battalion/ 442nd Regimental
Combat Team fighting in Europe, or as a member of the Military Intelligence Service
serving in the Pacific, second generation Japanese-Americans played a significant role in
helping the United States defeat its enemies. Using a combination of information
researched from a long list of secondary source material, after-action combat reports and
one-on-one oral interviews from surviving veterans of the 100th /442nd and MIS, this paper
will attempt to uncover some of the mysteries of why these men fought so hard while
their families languished in the Relocation Centers out West.
In order to fully understand the incredible contributions made by second generation
Japanese-American citizen soldiers during World War II, it is first necessary to examine
the Asian-Pacific American experience and our relations with the Empire of Japan prior
to December 7, 1941. During the late 1930’s, war fever had been growing between the
United States and Japan over incidents relating to the conflict in China and Southeast
Asia. In 1940, President Franklin D. Roosevelt declared an embargo on most food
products going to Japan, increasing tensions even more. Also that same year in 1940,
U.S. Congress established the National Draft Act, which had a dramatic impact on the
nation as a whole, and on the population of Hawaii in particular. 1 In October of 1940, the
Hawaiian National Guard, comprised of the 298th and 299th Infantry Regiments, became
part of the regular Army. 2 According to a report done that summer, the Regiments had a
combined strength of 110 officers and 1,741 enlisted men. 3 The enlisted men, who were
classified according to “race origins” had the following make-up: Hawaiians and partHawaiians numbered 732; Caucasians, 524: Chinese, 217; Puerto Ricans, 84; Filipinos,
52; Koreans, 52; Japanese, 40; colored, 2; and other, 38. Of the officers, 76 were
Caucasians, 28 Hawaiian or part Hawaiian, and 6 were Chinese. 4 At the time of the
1
Thelma Chang, I Can Never Forget-Men of 100th/442 (Honolulu: Sigi Productions, 1991), 76.
Thomas D. Murphy, Ambassadors in Arms-Taken from the Annual Report of the Governor of Hawaii to
the Secretary of the Interior for the Fiscal Year Ending June 30,1940 (Honolulu: University of Hawaii
Press, 1955), 41.
3
Ibid, 41.
4
Ibid, 41.
2
attack on Pearl Harbor, the 298th and 299th had become federalized as part of the 21st and
22nd Brigades of the Army’s Hawaiian Division with training commands at Schofield
Barracks on Oahu.
5
Even as early as December 1940, when selective service boards were established in
the Territory of Hawaii, the Japanese-American recruits exemplified themselves through
their actions and dedication to duty. In the 12 months that followed December 1940,
over 3,000 Nisei were inducted into the service including a number of JapaneseAmerican students from various ROTC units at Oahu high schools and the University of
Hawaii who made- up the Hawaiian Territorial Guard; their skill and proficiency in
military manners became quickly apparent. 6 The Army commander in Hawaii, Maj. Gen.
Charles D. Herron, testified that: “In the training camp they were remarkably diligent and
obedient to orders. When 4 o’clock came, after a long hard day, and others turned to rest
or recreation, the Japanese kept right on at drill or study. There were no malingers
among them and they were quick to learn.”7 At a public rally sponsored by the Oahu
Citizens Committee for Home Defense held in June, 1941, a representative of General
Herron’s staff commented that, “no group of selectees is doing its work with more
intelligence, enthusiasm, and efficiency than the young men of Japanese ancestry.”8 In
October, the State Department wrote:
Due to the preponderance of Japanese in the population of the Islands, a much greater proportion of
Japanese have been called to the draft than on the mainland. As on the mainland they are inclined to
enlist before being drafted. The Army is extremely high in its praise of them as recruits. The Japanese
seem to be chiefly afraid that their boys will not be given the same chance of promotion as whites.
Frankly, at first this discrimination existed. A Japanese still had to be better than a white to gain
promotion. The Army is gradually eliminating even this discrimination. They have been giving them a
chance at becoming officers. Recently they picked out the very best of these and put them in charge of
white troops. The Army officers confessed that they held their breath. Much to their surprise and relief
there was absolutely no reaction from the white troops and they liked these officers very well. Of
course, these were especially good officers, the Army is going to try more. This has been a great thing in
strengthening the loyalty of the Japanese in the islands. They are beginning to feel that they are going to
get a square deal and some of them are almost pathetically exuberant.9
5
Ibid, 42.
Thelma Chang, I Can Never Forget-Men of the 100th /442 (Honolulu: Sigi Productions, 1991), 77.
7
Quoted in Thomas D. Murphy, Ambassadors in Arms (Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1955), 43.
8
Ibid, 43
9
Ibid, 44
6
But for the Japanese-Americans of Hawaii, whether they were civilians, members of the
federalized Hawaiian National Guard, or the replacement ROTC and University of
Hawaii cadets of the Hawaiian Territorial Guard, the events of December 7, 1941 would
forever change their lives. The attack by the Japanese on that fateful Sunday morning
awakened a new sense of purpose, dedication and meaning for many Japanese-Americans
towards their country of birth. 10
Soon after the Japanese attack planes had completed their devastating mission,
Japanese-American soldiers and citizens did what they could to fight back or help. The
1st Battalion of the 298th Infantry moved by truck convoy to secure beach areas along the
North Shore. By the end of December, 1941, the entire Hawaiian National Guard was
placed under Army control with a total of 89 officers and 1,254 enlisted men ordered to
secure and patrol over 150 posts in and near Honolulu including public buildings,
utilities, newspaper plants, radio stations, warehouses and reservoirs.
11
During the
confusion and chaos of the attack, Japanese-American soldiers scrambled as best they
could to their duty stations. Ted Tsukiyama, a University of Hawaii ROTC student who
would later serve in the Military Intelligence School in the China-Burma-India Theater,
was ordered to help guard the Iolani Palace and surrounding electric, water, and
communication installations. He had this to say about his experience as member of the
Hawaiian Territorial Guard:
I jumped into my ROTC uniform and rushed up to the university campus. There were reports that
Japanese paratroopers had landed. Our orders were to deploy and meet the enemy, and delay their
advance into the city. With pounding hearts, we moved to the south end of campus and scanned for the
enemy. To put it bluntly, we were scared! But not for long. As we thought of the sneak attack that
morning, a wave of fury and anger swept over us. There was no doubt or decision as we advanced. It
was going to be ‘either them or us.’ We were assigned to the Iwilei industrial area to guard the
waterfront, the port, the fuel tanks, the cannery, the gas storage and vital installations in that area. I can
still picture the silhouettes of our boys standing on those gas tanks or peering out over the harbor waters,
with only a Springfield’ 03 in hand…we were proud to be in uniform. We were serving our country in
its direct hour of need.12
10
Lyn Crost, Honor by Fire-Japanese Americans at War in Europe and the Pacific (Novato: Presidio
Press, 1994), 9.
11
Thomas D. Murphy, Ambassadors in Arms (Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1955), 52.
12
Lyn Crost, Honor by Fire-Japanese Americans at War in Europe and the Pacific (Novato: Presidio
Press, 1994), 10.
Troops guarding the Hawaiian coast following attack on Pearl Harbor
(Photo provided by the archives at the Center for Military History website)
For all intents and purposes, the islands of Hawaii essentially became an enclosed fortress
under martial law after December 7, 1941. Oahu became an armed camp surrounded
everywhere by machine gun emplacements, anti-aircraft weapons, barbed wire, and
sandbags. Many civilian operations and freedoms were restricted as a result of the new
regulations, especially those of Japanese ancestry. Fishing fleets were impounded,
Buddhist groups were put under surveillance, and travel restrictions were imposed on
anyone who even resembled a Jap. 13 In prewar planning to deal with the possible
Japanese problem on Hawaii, the United State’s military and the FBI used two different
tactics to maintain order. Similar to what had been done on the mainland, the FBI had
put together a list of possible alien dissidents who might be disloyal in wartime. 14 In
addition, the FBI established a program in the summer of 1941 to notify all Japanese and
Japanese-Americans on the island of Hawaii that if they remained loyal, they would
receive favorable treatment. 15 Despite this official proclamation by the United States
government offering fair treatment, there was still a strong prejudicial reaction among
some influential businesses that urged the removal of all Japanese to camps on the
13
Thelma Chang, I Can Never Forget-Men of the 100th /442 (Honolulu: Sigi Productions, 1991), 84.
Stetson Conn, Rose C. Engleman and Byron Fairchild, Guarding the United States and its OutpostsCenter for Military History (Washington D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1962), 137.
15
Ibid, 137.
14
mainland. Prejudicial and racist attitudes towards Japanese on the Hawaiian Islands were
prevalent throughout the 1930’s and before, both among members of the civilian
community and the military. For example, in 1937 a journalist recorded two comments
from high-ranking officers that illustrated the U.S. Navy’s attitude towards Japanese on
the island. On the topic of loyalty, one naval officer commented that, “Every Japanese,
born under our flag or not, is always a Japanese. No matter how much he professes to be
an American he is always thinking his Japanese thoughts, hoping secretly for Japanese
victory.”16 When the reporter asked another officer in the recruiting branch why the
Navy accepted no Nisei enlistments, the reply was, “Because a Jap is always a Jap.”17
These same words would echo throughout the nation once more on April 13, 1942.
General John DeWitt, the officer in charge of enforcing president Roosevelt’s Executive
Order 9066 testified before the House Naval Affairs Subcommittee in San Francisco
saying: “A Jap is a Jap. You can’t change him by giving him a piece of paper.”18
Despite the contributions made by Japanese-Americans in the days following the
attack on Pearl Harbor, politics, war hysteria and poor leadership won out. Most of the
Nisei soldiers serving in the Hawaiian National Guard were restricted to quarters underguard at Schofield Barracks until further notice, while many were shipped to the outlying
islands of Hawaii and Maui. 19 Because of restrictions outlined in the National Draft Act,
these Nisei soldiers could not be released, only reassigned. Many swapped rifles for
shovels and were put to work digging ditches, entrenchments and other labor-intensive
tasks. Although Washington desired to move all the Japanese from the island, General
Delos Emmons, commander of the Army after replacing General Short, refused to
comply. 20 To evacuate the thousands of Japanese from Hawaii would have severely
reduced the Territory’s ability to survive economically. Japanese made-up approximately
35% of the island’s workforce and was the Territory’s largest white ethnic group. 21
16
Pearl Harbor Attack, Hearings, part 23, pp. 858-862; Part 28, pp. 1556, 1557; Part 39, p. 13.
Ibid, 13.
18
Lyn Crost, Honor by Fire-Japanese Americans at War in Europe and the Pacific (Novato: Presidio
Press, 1994), 65. Taken from Americans of Japanese Ancestry and the U.S. Constitution (San Francisco:
National Japanese American Historical Society, 1987), 54
19
Lyn Crost, Honor by Fire-Japanese Americans at War in Europe and the Pacific (Novato: Presidio
Press, 1994), 11.
20
Thelma Chang, I Can Never Forget-Men of the 100th /442 (Honolulu: Sigi Productions, 1991), 85.
21
Lyn Crost, Honor by Fire-Japanese Americans at War in Europe and the Pacific (Novato: Presidio
Press, 1994), 13.
17
Those that were rounded-up included about 1,500 select community leaders, including
Shinto and Buddhist priests, schoolteachers, and businessmen, most of who were
incarcerated on Sand Island near Honolulu. By the evening of December 8, more than
480 persons were “interned” by the FBI, including 370 of Japanese descent. 22 Don Seki,
a construction worker employed on the island of Hawaii and a future member of the
442nd RCT, remembered what it was like shortly after the Japanese attack:
On December 6th I was playing poker at a teacher’s house. We would help him with his house and
landscaping work so he would feed us. As we started shooting craps…just about 8 AM, dawn, we heard
that Pearl Harbor was being attacked. We couldn’t see Pearl Harbor because we were in a valley, but we
could certainly hear it. We though it was just a maneuver. We all went home. There was massive
confusion and chaos…martial law…curfews…black-outs. The FBI came over to my friend’s house and
found a small radio in his house. They took a sledge hammer and destroyed it. Just smashed it to bits.23
Tets Asato, a veteran of Company “G” of the 442nd RCT, was a 16- year high school
student living in El Monte, California when the Japanese attacked Pearl Harbor:
The FBI took my father right after the Pearl Harbor attack. The FBI turned our house upside
down looking for whatever they could that would be harmful to my father. They confiscated a number
of items of minor interest. My father was taken to a stockade that was barricaded with sentries. There
were Japanese-Americans from all over the West Coast in this stockade. Why? My father wanted me to
learn the Japanese language, so every Saturday he would take me over to this special school to learn the
language. Since my father was connected to the school, the FBI took him away. My father was later
returned to New Mexico an innocent man. We lost everything on the farm. Crops, car, everything!24
Despite both the public and FBI’s hysteria over sabotage, no Japanese-Americans were
ever indicted during the war. On the other- hand, from 1942 to 1944, 18 Caucasians were
charged with spying for Japan, and at least 10 were convicted. 25
Although there would be no large-scale evacuation of Japanese in Hawaii, that was
not the case on the West Coast of the U.S. mainland. Because of intense political
pressure applied by numerous Congressmen, and the massive war hysteria caused by the
fear of a Japanese invasion, president Roosevelt signed Executive Order 9066 on
February 19, 1942 forcing some 120,000 West Coast residents of Japanese descent to
22
Thomas D. Murphy, Ambassador in Arms (Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1955), 50.
Don Seki, interviewed by author, phone tape recording, Knoxville, TN to Long Beach, CA., June 30,
2002
24
Tets Asato, interviewed by author, phone tape recording, Knoxville, TN to Torrance, CA., June 17, 2002
25
Thelma Chang, I Can Never Forget-Men of the 100th /442 (Honolulu: Sigi Productions, 1991), 85.
23
leave their home regardless of their background or previous military service to this
country. 26 Before he was shipped off to an internment camp, future MIS veteran Peter
Okada worked as an employee of the Los Angeles City Public Park Service. Shortly after
the attack on Pearl Harbor, his life changed dramatically:
When I was working the park, I got called in to the superior’s office in Los Angeles City Hall. Three
of us were called in, and a guy named Mr. Scott, he was the Superintendent of Parks for all of LA. He
said,’ Fellows, your country of origin is at war with our country. This is a pretty serious thing. You’re
being paid by tax dollars. We don’t want you to be hurt because of your high visibility, so we want you to
take a leave of absence.’ I told Mr. Scott that I couldn’t because I had a family to support. I have to work.
He said, “Peter, if you don’t sign this agreement, I’ll make it so you never work for the city of Los Angeles
again. So I signed. Several days later, posters were posted for Executive Order 9066. 27
Executive Order 9066 authorized the Secretary of War and military commanders to
prescribe military areas from which any or all persons could be excluded because of,
what General DeWitt called, “military necessity.”28 As a result of the order, numerous
temporary relocation centers were established all along the West Coast, later replaced by
10 Relocation Centers in the states of California, Arizona, Colorado, Wyoming, Utah,
Idaho, and Arkansas administered by the civilian controlled War Relocation Authority. 29
With only what they could carry in their arms, thousands of Japanese and JapaneseAmericans quietly left ho mes, farms, businesses and personal possessions behind to live
under tar-paper barracks in compounds surrounded by barbed-wire, machine guns and
dogs. CSM Atsushi Kiuchi, who was drafted into the Army in 1950 and served 13
months in Europe, was just a small boy when he and his family were sent to Camp
Harmony at the Western Washington Fairgrounds in Puyallup, Washington. His
comments reflect the harsh conditions and reality he and his family of seven, along with
many other Japanese and Japanese-Americans, had to endure:
Camp Harmony was a concentration camp, American style, complete with high barbed wire fences
and armed guards. At night, through the only window in the single room occupied by our seven—
member family, we watched the crisscrossing searchlights from the guard towers swoop and pierce the
26
Lyn Crost, Honor by Fire-Japanese Americans at War in Europe and the Pacific (Novato: Presidio
Press, 1994), 13.
27
Peter Okada, interviewed by author, phone tape recording from Knoxville, TN to Kirkland, WA. June
10,2002
28
Stuart Portner, “The Japanese-American Combat Team,” Military Affairs, Volume 7, Issue 3 (Autumn,
1943): 159
29
Ibid, 159.
darkness enveloping the camp. Camp life was measured in the length and number of waiting lines to
fulfill basic needs. The Asian culture, stressing patience and respect for others, was tested. From May
through August 1942, we learned to live with a modicum of privacy, crammed into makeshift
quarters.” 30
This dehumanizing experience had a profound effect on the future enlistees of the 100th
Battalion/ 442nd Regimental Combat Team and Military Intelligence Service.
By February of 1942, the War Department reclassified all Japanese-Americans,
including those still in the service, as “4C” (enemy aliens) and forbade them to enlist in
the armed forces. 31 But as mentioned before, because of the National Draft Act, the
military had to retain those who had already been drafted. Loyal Japanese-Americans
swarmed to the recruiting stations on the mainland to join- up with the military to fight
America’s new enemy, but their reception was less then cordial. As a student at
Compton Junior College in Southern California, Lawson Sakai was busy doing
homework when his thoughts were suddenly shattered by the news of the attack on Pearl
Harbor:
I didn’t know where Pearl Harbor was. I didn’t have a strong knowledge of Pearl Harbor and the
Pacific. When my parents came out to hear the news, I kind of jumped my father and said…’What the
hell is your country doing!” I was very upset. Shortly afterwards, myself and 3 of my friends
(Caucasian) who served in the Submarine Service during World War I went to the Recruiting Station to
enlist. Of course, the other 3 were taken, I was not. We decided that if I couldn’t go, no one would go.
At that time I realized there was a difference. I didn’t know what ‘4C’ meant. Apparently I just became
an “enemy alien” at the time. The recruiter took one look at me and my name and said you’re not
wanted here.32
Not all Japanese-Americans serving in the military before Pearl Harbor were allowed to
stay. Joe Ichiuji, whose parents were both from Japan, was drafted into the Army in
September of 1941. He was sent to Camp Roberts, California for Basic Training and
Field Artillery School. Ichiuji would later put his skills as an artilleryman to good use as
a member of “A” Battery of the 522nd Field Artillery Battalion attached to the
100th /442nd RCT. His experiences following the attack at Pearl Harbor illustrate how
most Japanese-American felt, and they also surprisingly reflect what type of prejudicial
or racist attitudes prevailed at the time:
30
Atsushi Kiuchi, “A Special Hero,” Army 49 (January 1991), 28.
Lyn Crost, Honor by Fire-Japanese Americans at War in Europe and the Pacific (Novato: Presidio
Press, 1994), 14.
32
Lawson Sakai, interviewed by author at the Air National Guard TEC, Knoxville, TN., May 22, 2002
31
My company was in basic training and on furlough in San Francisco at the time of the attack on Pearl
Harbor. I notice what had happened through newspaper headlines. We all felt badly of the whole thing,
especially since my parents came from Japan. We turned on the car radio and heard more about the
bombing. We also heard that we were to report to duty immediately! I was apprehensive about
returning to my base because I wasn’t sure how my friends would take it. I had no problems on base.
The soldiers in my company didn’t blame me. They said I had nothing to do with the attack. We were
all slated to go to Fort Warren, Wyoming before the attack. After the attack though, we were directed
instead to go to Ft. Booth, Washington and join-up with the 188th Field Artillery Battalion of the 41st
Division. There we went through maneuvers on the West Coast and constructed gun emplacements.
There was speculation that the Japanese would attack the West Coast. We were there about 45 days. I
was later pulled out of the field and sent back to an office position at Ft. Lewis. My First Sergeant told
me I was being discharged at the convenience of the government. Why? Orders! I had to say goodbye
to most of my buddies from North Dakota and Minnesota who were ironically of German descent.33
For Joe Ichiuji and other Japanese-Americans, the act of being discharged or rejected
from military service was a difficult situation to handle. Even more difficult was the fact
that so many of these loyal Japanese-American citizens had to accept the incarceration of
their entire families in the Relocation Camps with quiet dignity. Tets Asado and his
family eventually ended up at the Heart Mountain Relocation Camp in Wyoming, where
freezing temperatures got down to as low as 30 below. “We were kids, we tried to do our
best. The Japanese have a saying ‘we can’t help what’s happening so do the best with
what you have.’”34 Not every state in the Union had the same feelings towards JapaneseAmericans. For example the Governor of Colorado, Ralph Carr, openly welcomed
Japanese-Americans to relocate to his state despite the damage it would do to his political
career. 35 Many Japanese-American families, like that of Lawson Sakai’s, benefited from
Governor Carr’s bravery. “My parents contacted a church in Colorado of 7th Day
Adventists and arranged to have a place to stay. We packed-up our car, told our friends
goodbye and figured we’d be back in less then 6 months. When we got to Delta,
Colorado, a family was there waiting for us.”36 The city of St. Louis was also more
tolerable of the Japanese-American presence, mainly because of its large population of
German-Americans who remembered what it was like during World War I. 37 While the
33
Joe Ichiuji, interviewed by author, phone tape recording from Knoxville, TN to Rockville, MA. June 18,
2002.
34
Tets Asato, interviewed by author, phone tape recording from Knoxville, TN to Torrance, CA., June 17,
2002.
35
Thelma Chang, I Can Never Forget-Men of the 100th /442 (Honolulu: Sigi Productions, 1991), 96.
36
Lawson Sakai, interview by author at Air National Guard TEC, Knoxville, TN., May 22, 2002.
37
Thelma Chang, I Can Never Forget-Men of the 100th /442 (Honolulu: Sigi Productions, 1991), 96.
war escalated in both the Pacific and in Europe, there began a growing movement by the
summer and fall of 1942 to persuade the U.S. government and military to allow JapaneseAmericans to enlist. 38
The growing movement to enlist Japanese-American was particularly helped by the
efforts of the Japanese-American Citizen’s League, or JACL. The JACL lobbied hard in
both Washington D.C., and in its official publications like the Pacific Citizen, to change
the minds of those in charge at the War Department and Congress. “In the American
Japanese soldiers,” declared the Pacific Citzen, “the U.S. Army has a propaganda
medium worth fleets of bombers.”39 One particularly strong spokesperson for the JACL
was Mike Musaoka, who later volunteered for the 442nd RCT along with his two brothers.
According to Lawson Sakai, veteran of Company “E” of the 442nd RCT, “Mike would
visit Washington D.C. on a regular basis. He would make statements like, ‘hey, allow us
(the Japanese-Americans) to form combat suicide squads but just let us serve and we’ll
go. This was his way of getting the attention of the U.S. politicians in Washington.”40
While these efforts were underway to slowly pave the way for the future enlistment of
Japanese-Americans, events in the Pacific forced a much quicker change in policy. By
the end of May 1942, it was believed that the Empire of Japan was preparing to launch
yet another round of attacks on or near Hawaii. Questions were starting to be asked
about how loyal resident Japanese-Americans would be if the island was once again
attacked, this time by invading ground troops. To answer these questions, it was decided
that it would be necessary to take a chance. On June 5, as Japanese forces were being
repulsed at Midway, the Hawaiian National Guard was put on the liner SS Maui and
shipped to the mainland in preparation for more intensive training. 41 As the news of the
U.S. Pacific Fleet’s incredible victory at Midway was announced, this special group of
38
Stuart Portner, “The Japanese-American Combat Team,” Military Affairs, Volume 7, Issue 3 (Autumn,
1943): 159.
39
Stuart Portner, “The Japanese-American Combat Team,” Military Affairs, Volume 7, Issue 3 (Autumn,
1943): 160
40
Lawson Sakai, interviewed by author at the TEC Air National Guard Base in Knoxville, TN., May
22,2002.
41
Lyn Crost, Honor by Fire-Japanese Americans at War in Europe and the Pacific (Novato: Presidio
Press, 1994), 14.
Nisei soldiers of the “Hawaiian Provisional Infantry Battalion” sailed into Oakland to
begin their new adventure as the 100th Infantry Battalion (Separate). 42
After their arrival in Oakland, it was decided that the 100th Battalion would be
officially assigned to the Central Defense Command in order to be fully reorganized,
equipped and trained as an infantry combat team no later than September 30, 1942. 43
By June 13, 1942, the 100th Battalion, known affectionately as the “One Puka, Puka” in
honor of the Hawaiian word for “hole,” found a new home at Camp McCoy in
Wisconsin. Initially under the command of Lt. Colonel Farrant L. Turner and Captain
James W. Lovell, the men of the 100th Battalion (Separate) wasted little time in changing
a few things. For the most part, many of the soldiers of the 100th Battalion did not like to
be referred to as “Japanese-Americans.” They preferred to be called “Americans of
Japanese Ancestry, ” or AJA for short. The unsuspecting individuals who called them a
“Jap” usually found themselves in a fistfight.44 As it turned out, this was not to be a
major problem in the Midwest communities surrounding Camp McCoy. The locals
embraced the strange looking Nisei like long lost friends. For example, the townspeople
of Sparta, Wisconsin invited both Turner and Lovell to a number of civilian luncheons
featuring local reporters and newspapers. 45 While at these events, both commanders
made it a point to tell the local town folk how patriotic the men of the 100th Battalion
were, and that they had complete confidence in their abilities to fight. As a result, the
papers wrote friendly articles about the unit while civic leaders and organizations like the
Chamber of Commerce and Knights of Columbus pledged their total cooperation and
support. 46 By August of 1942, the organization of the 100th Battalion expanded with the
addition of new rifle companies, medical personnel, transportation crews and service
support people. 47 With this expansion in size came the need for more officers, so Lt.
Colonel Turner brought in a number of former regular Army noncoms from Hawaii who
had recently attended Officer Candidate School on the mainland. Of course, most of
these new officers were either Caucasian or haole (whites), and some were certainly a
42
Ibid, 15.
Thomas D. Murphy, Ambassadors in Arms (Honolulu: University of Hawaii, 1955), 73.
44
Lyn Crost, Honor by Fire-Japanese Americans at War in Europe and the Pacific (Novato: Presidio
Press, 1994), 19.
45
Thomas D. Murphy, Ambassadors in Arms (Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1955), 82.
46
Ibid, 82.
47
Ibid, 75.
43
little worried about their new assignments. After Turner briefed one particular officer,
his response was: “My God, I didn’t know what I was getting in to.”48 Despite their
early anxieties about these new Nisei warriors, the new officers quickly grew to respect
the men of the 100th Battalion. One veteran of 21 years Army service commented: “I’d
rather have a hundred of these men behind me than a hundred of any others I’ve ever
been with.”49
In Washington, and throughout the country, news articles about individual JapaneseAmericans serving in specific combat roles for the U.S. military started showing up
everywhere. From the late summer of 1942 to early January of 1943, stories of
individual bravery and service appeared in newspapers such as the Pacific Citizen, the
Daily Tulean Dispatch and the Outpost that further fueled the momentum for allowing
Japanese-Americans to enlist. 50 As the 100th Battalion was relocated to warmer environs
at Camp Shelby, Mississippi in the autumn of 1942, high-ranking officials began noticing
the potential benefits of changing the restrictions. One of the strongest advocates for
allowing Japanese-Americans to enlist was the Secretary of the Office of War
Information, Elmer Davis, who in a letter written to president Roosevelt in October of
1942, stated that, “Loyal American citizens of Japanese descent should be permitted,
after individual test, to enlist in the Army and Navy. It would hardly be fa ir to evacuate
people and then impose normal draft procedures, but voluntary enlistment would help out
a lot.”51 Efforts to allow enlistment of Japanese-Americans in the U.S. military finally
came to fruition after a plan for a proposed AJA combat unit was approved by army chief
of staff, George C. Marshall, on January 1, 1943. Weeks later the final plan was
endorsed by the War Department and a call for volunteers went out-1500 from Hawaii
and 3,000 from the mainland. These numbers would total the amount needed to form a
typical regiment in the U.S. Army during World War II. 52 A few days later, in a letter
partially written by Davis and forwarded to Secretary of War, Henry L. Stimson,
48
Quoted in Thomas D. Murphy, Ambassador in Arms (Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1955), 75.
Ibid, 76.
50
Stuart Portner, “The Japanese-American Combat Team,” Military Affairs, Volume 7, Issue 3 (Autumn,
1943): 160.
51
Report of the Commission on Wartime Relocation and Internment of Civilians, Personal Justice Denied
(Washington, D.C: Government Printing Office, 1982), 189.
52
Lyn Crost, Honor by Fire-Japanese Americans at War in Europe and the Pacific (Novato: Presidio
Press, 1994), 62.
49
president Roosevelt approved the new plan with an apparent controversial reversal of his
endorsement of Executive Order 9066: “The principle on which this country was founded
and by which it has always been governed is that Americanism is a matter of the mind
and heart; Americanism is not, and never was, a matter of race or ancestry.”53
In accordance with the new plan, the 442nd Regimental Combat Team was activated
on February 1, 1943, by General Orders, Headquarters Third Army with Colonel Charles
W. Pence at the command. 54 The 442nd RCT was composed of the 442nd Infantry
Regiment with Lt. Colonel Keith K. Tatom commanding the 1st Battalion, Lt. Colonel
James M. Hanley the 2nd Battalion, and Lt. Colonel Sherwood Dixon the 3rd Battalion. In
addition to the infantry sections, the 442nd received additional support elements including
the 522nd Field Artillery Battalion under Lt. Colonel Baya M. Harrison, and the 232nd
Combat Engineers commanded by Captain Pershing Nakada. 55 To fill the needs of the
new combat regiment, recruiters visited a number of Relocation Camps throughout the
West to find volunteers. While in incarnation at Heart Mountain, Wyoming, Tets Asato
of Company “G” of the 442nd was approached by one such recruiter. Despite a
willingness to volunteer, Tets, as well as many other incarcerated Nisei still had to end ure
an atmosphere of mistrust:
We received a questionnaire from the recruiters while at Heart Mountain that had about 30 questions
on it. Question #27 asked us if we would be loyal to the United States during the war. Question #28
asked us if we were willing to serve in the military of the United States. You either answered “yes/yes”
or “no/no.” At this time my father was returned by the FBI from New Mexico innocent of any
allegations of spying. He said, “Tets, you need to forget about Japan.” He told to me to make -up my
mind and join. I said “yes” to both questions. Quite a few said “no/no”. These individuals ended-up
serving time in prison in Washington.56
Tets was still in basic training at Camp Shelby, Mississippi when the first elements of the
442nd RCT joined the 100th Battalion (Separate) after the Battle of Monte Cassino in early
1944. Another “G” Company veteran of the 442nd, Jim Makino, had a similar experience
at the Manzanar Relocation Camp:
53
Bill Hossokawa, Nisei: The Quiet Americans (New York: William Morrow, 1969), 365-366.
Orville C. Shirey, Americans-The Story of the 442nd Combat Team (Washington, D.C.: Infantry Journal
Press, 1946), 19.
55
Ibid, 19.
56
Tets Asato, interviewed by author, phone tape recording from Knoxville, TN to Torrance, CA., June 17,
2002.
54
The recruiters showed-up late 43 or early 44 in two stages. The first groups of recruiters were
looking for skilled Japanese-Americans as candidates for the Military Intelligence Service Language
School. The next group of recruiters came looking for volunteers for the 442nd . Some resisted. When
the draft was later re-instated for all Japanese-Americans, some resisted and were thrown in jail at Fort
Leavenworth. The recruiters released a questionnaire that asked us if we would remain loyal to the U.S.
by cutting all ties with the Japanese Empire. Responses varied, but I answered “yes/yes.” Although the
height requirement to join the military was 5 foot 4 inches, many of the volunteers were about 4 foot
something. Also, the regulations called for 18 year olds…many of the same volunteers were 17! 57
In an attempt to sell its new program of establishing a wholly independent JapaneseAmerican combat team, the Army told perspective volunteers, “If your strength were
diffused through the Army of the United States-as has already been done with many other
Americans of your blood-relatively little account would be taken of your action. You
would be important only as manpower-nothing more. But united and working together,
you would become a symbol of something greater than your individual selves, and the
effect would be felt both in the United States and abroad.”58 Despite having been
rejected and discharged from the service, Joe Ichiuji of the 522nd FAB decided he had
something to prove when he re-joined the Army in January of 1943:
I knew I was kicked-out of the Army, reclassified as an “enemy alien,” and incarcerated in a camp,
but I felt that I was born and raised in America…so I volunteered to join the 442nd to show I was a loyal
American. I wanted to prove that I wanted to fight for my country during wartime. I also felt that by
showing people outside that we were loyal Americans, that would get my family and friends out of the
camp earlier. That was the reason I volunteered.59
Although thousands of Nisei from Hawaii and the mainland responded to the call,
eventually 3,000 were chosen from the Pacific island, while the mainland contributed
1500.60
When the new recruits from Hawaii and the mainland were finally brought together at
Camp Shelby, Mississippi, there was almost immediate friction between the two groups.
Right from the start the mainlanders from the West Coast had communication problems
with the isla nders because of the unique “pidgin” English slang the Hawaiian boys would
57
Jim Makino, interviewed by author, phone tape recording from Knoxville, TN to San Gabriel, CA., June
30, 2002.
58
Stuart Portner, “The Japanese-American Combat Team,” Military Affairs, Volume 7, Issue 3 (Autumn,
1943), 161.
59
Joe Ichiuji, interviewed by author, phone tape recording from Knoxville, TN to Rockville, MA. June 18,
2002.
60
Thelma Chang, I Can Never Forget-Men of the 100th /442 (Honolulu: Sigi Productions, 1991), 104.
use. According to Lawson Sakai from Company “E” of the 442nd RCT, “the Hawaiians
would use phrases like ‘peel the light, buddy.’ All the mainlanders like myself would
look around and wonder what the heck that meant. It meant ‘turn of the light.’ What did
we know. We couldn’t understand them. They would sing a song in perfect English, but
speak ‘pidgin.’”61 On the other-hand, the Hawaiians thought the mainlanders were acting
too much like the haole, or whites. Both sides had disparaging nicknames for each other.
The mainlanders would refer to the islanders as “buddaheads,” in reference to the
Japanese word “buta” for pig. 62 The islanders called the mainlanders “Kotonks” derived
from the supposed sound a mainlander’s head would make when it hit the barracks
floor. 63 In many ways, the mainlanders resented the islanders for their fun- loving, beerdrinking, rowdy ways. The boys from Hawaii were very popular because of all the
money orders they would receive from the island sent in blue cards. Fistfights were
always breaking out between the two sides. Another point of friction between the two
sides dealt with the new chain of command that was put in place once the men from the
100th Battalion and the new 442nd were grouped together. Since they had more
experience, the men of the 100th Battalion thought they would serve as the marquee
component the 442nd would develop around. That was not the case. The Army decided
to place haole officers from the mainland in charge, along with a cadre of veteran
noncommissioned officers from the West Coast. 64 This did not sit well with the either the
Nisei of the 100th Battalion or the new volunteer islanders of the 442nd.
Tensions between each other weren’t the only things the Japanese-American soldiers
of the 100th Battalion and 442nd RCT had to deal with. Regardless of where they came
from, the Nisei soldiers had to confront the Deep South and continued prejudice and
racism. In the small town of Hattiesburg outside Camp Shelby, evidence of “Jim Crow”
laws were prevalent everywhere. These laws separated practically everything, from
bathroom toilet stales to drinking fountains. It was a sight that many of the Nisei had
never seen. “I didn’t know true discrimination until I saw how the black man was treated
61
Lawson Sakai, interview by author at Air National Guard TEC, Knoxville, TN., May 22, 2002.
Lyn Crost, Honor by Fire-Japanese Americans at War in Europe and the Pacific (Novato: Presidio
Press, 1994), 67.
63
Ibid, 67.
64
Thomas D. Murphy, Ambassadors in Arms (Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1955), 113.
62
in this town. They called them ‘niggers,” said Lawson Sakai of the 442nd. 65 What was
very strange to many of the Nisei was that they were no longer the main-target for
discrimination; the black soldiers were worse off then they were. While the men of the
100th /442nd felt sympathy for the Negroes of Mississippi, they realized that they could not
change things without damaging the image of their own cause, so they resolved to go
on. 66 But there were still some problems between the Nisei and the white soldiers at the
Camp. Don Seki of the 442nd reported that, “Some of the white soldiers tried to take
advantage of us, but we fought back. At the service club we would dance with the local
Caucasian women and the white soldiers would get real jealous. Eventually all hell
would breakout! When the men of the 10th Mountain Division came in, their commander
told them not to mess with us. We drank beer together.”67 Eventually the mainlanders
and the islanders settled down and got to the business of training for war.
While at Camp Shelby, the Nisei soldiers were exposed to a variety of challenges that
would help shape them into one of the most effective combat teams in American history.
Not unlike the modern day soldier of today, the Nisei troops worked constantly on all the
necessary training required of a front- line combat soldier. Hours were spent on military
courtesy, close-order drill and the manual of arms. 68 In addition, the new soldiers had to
familiarize themselves with practically every type of weapon used by the typical combat
infantry soldier of World War II. These weapons included the Girand M1 rifle, the M1
carbine, the Browning Automatic Rifle (BAR), light machine guns and grenades. The
troops also did a number of intensive maneuvers under trying conditions. One of the
biggest fears among the men of the 100th /442nd was the sight of snakes. “On one
occasion they sent us out on a night problem,” reported Don Seki of Company “G” of the
442nd. “They sent us out about 25 miles out from camp and we had to come back to the
camp by compass azimuth reading. We had to go through all of these swamps! And the
water moccasins, oh my! We were more afraid of snakes then anything else. And those
65
Lawson Sakai, interview by author at Air National Guard TEC, Knoxville, TN., May 22, 2002.
Thomas D. Murphy, Ambassadors in Arms (Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1955), 113.
67
Don Seki, interviewed by author, phone tape recording, Knoxville, TN to Long Beach, CA., June 30,
2002. It should be noted that Senator Bob Dole was a member of the 10th Mountain Division.
66
68
Orville C. Shirey, Americans-The Story of the 442nd Combat Team (Washington, D.C.: Infantry Journal
Press, 1946), 19.
snakes would ‘swoosh’ on by. Man was I scared.”69 After coming back from maneuvers
with the 85th Division in Louisiana, the boys of the 100th Battalion had a much deeper
appreciation for the huge water moccasins and deadly coral snakes that inhabited the area
around Camp Shelby. 70 Along with the snakes, the Nisei had to fight the incredibly hot
weather, bugs, poison ivy and chiggers as well. While the infantry soldiers were learning
their skills, the other elements of the combat team plied their expertise as well. In the
522nd FAB, the gun crews spent many hours getting familiar with their 105 howitzers.
Meanwhile, the engineers of the 232d Engineers practiced building roads, blowing-up
bridges and operating large equipment. 71
Members of the 100th Battalion training at Camp Shelby, Mississippi. Photos courtesy of U.S. Army
After months of intensive training, the men of the 100th /442nd were ready for action,
anywhere. Finally, the 100th Battalion got the orders they were waiting for. Although
rejected by General Eisenhower, Lt. General Mark Clark, Commander of the U.S. 5th
Army fighting in the Mediterranean welcomed the fresh soldiers of the 100th Battalion
with open arms. For the men of the original “One Puka, Puka,” their appointment with
destiny was about to begin.
On the sweltering afternoon of August 21, 1943, ships, troop and equipment transports
of all types dotted the harbor area around Staten Island, New York bound for the war torn
European-Africa Theater. In that mass of military build-up were the men of the 100th
Battalion, patiently watching from the rails of the banana boat, the USS James Parker.72
By September 2, 1943, the convoy reached Oran, North Africa, where the 100th Battalion
69
Don Seki, interviewed by author, phone tape recording, Knoxville, TN to Long Beach, CA., June 30,
2002.
70
Lyn Crost, Honor by Fire-Japanese Americans at War in Europe and the Pacific (Novato: Presidio
Press, 1994), 67.
71
Orville C. Shirey, Americans-The Story of the 442nd Combat Team (Washington, D.C.: Infantry Journal
Press, 1946), 19.
72
U.S. Army, Official History of the 100th Battalion, Department of the Army -The Adjutant General’s
Office, Department Records Branch-Historical Section, (Washington D.C.: October 1945, 1.
disembarked. That night for the very first time, the men of the 100th Battalion had their
very first taste of being bivouacked in an area other then Camp Shelby. 73 Shortly
afterwards, the 100th Battalion received their assignment orders. They were attached to
the 34th Infantry Division in the Bou Tlelis region of Algeria as per General Order,
Number 35, Headquarters, 34th Division. 74 The 34th Division was an old National Guard
component with a proud history dating back to the American Civil War, and had fought
in more then 20 major battles. 75 Under the command of Major General Charles W. Ryder
from West Point, the 34th Division had racked-up an impressive battle record in North
Africa by the time the Nisei of the 100th Battalion joined them. With their Division
slogan, “Attack, Attack, Attack,” the Red Bulls of the 34th fought bravely at Kasserine
Pass and Hill 609 during the battle for Tunis. 76 After joining the 34th Division, the 100th
Battalion was subsequently attached to the 133rd Infantry Regiment to replace the unit’s
2nd Battalion, which had departed to become Eisenhower’s personal security guard. 77 As
the 100th Battalion settled- in to their new assignment, General Ryder made it a point to
meet all the officers and non-commissioned officers from the Nisei unit in order to
welcome them. According to General Ryder, the men of the 100th Battalion were not to
be called “Japs” under any circumstances. Likewise, the commanding officer of the
133rd, Colonel Ray C. Fountain, echoed the same sentiments as the Japanese-American
soldiers came into the bivouac area. “They are not Japanese,” he said, “but Americans
born in Hawaii. They don’t ask any special considerations and we won’t give them
anything that isn’t given to all other units. The Battalion (100th ) will be fighting with the
rest of us taking its regular turn.”78 That first night, as the 34th Division’s band played in
the background, the Red Bulls and the “One Puka, Puka” began a mutual friendship that
would only intensify on the battlefields of Italy.
73
Ibid, 1.
Ibid, 2.
75
John H. Hougen, History of the Famous 34th Division (Nashville: Battery Press, 1949), unknown.
76
U.S. Army, Official History of the 100th Battalion, Department of the Army -The Adjutant General’s
Office, Department Records Branch-Historical Section, (Washington D.C.: October 1945), 2.
77
Lyn Crost, Honor by Fire-Japanese Americans at War in Europe and the Pacific (Novato: Presidio
Press, 1994), 70.
74
78
U.S. Army, Official History of the 100th Battalion, Department of the Army -The Adjutant General’s
Office, Department Records Branch-Historical Section, (Washington D.C.: October 1945), 3.
On September 9th , following Italy’s surrender to the United Nations and preliminary
attacks by the British 8th Army across the Straits of Messina, General Mark Clark’s U.S.
5th Army hit the beaches at Salerno with two Corps, the U.S. VI and British X. 79 In
response, the Germans sent 5 Divisions south to reinforce the 16th Panzer Division
outside of Salerno. These additional Divisions joined the German 10th Army under the
overall command of Field Marshall Albert Kesselring. Despite heavy German
counterattacks, the Allied forces were successful in establishing a beachhead that allowed
fresh troops and supplies to pour in. As a result of this early success, General
Eisenhower, commander of Allied forces in the Mediterranean, gave the order to continue
the Allied offensive north towards Rome. Although the German forces around Salerno
fought hard, overwhelming Allied firepower and numbers forced them to gradually
retreat north across the entire line of the Volturno River approaching Rome. Original
plans called for the 34th Division to join-up with the 5th U.S. Army 21 days into the fight,
but the fierce German resistance around Salerno and Naples caused serious delays. The
100th Battalion, aboard the S.S. Frederick Funston, arrived in Salerno with the rest of
133rd Infantry on September 19th , 1943.80
A few days after landing, the 133rd Infantry received orders to join the rest of the 34th
Division in its chase of the Germans north towards the Volturno River. The 133rd, along
with the 100th Battalion, were trucked twenty-five miles south to Montecorvino Rovella
where they would become part of a special combat team under the command of Assistant
Division Commander, Brigadier General Caffey. 81 As the 133rd moved into position with
other elements of the American VI Corps commanded by Major General John P. Lucas,
the following order was issued to all commands: “There recently arrived in the theater a
battalion of American soldiers of Japanese ancestry. The troops take particular pride in
their American origin. Your command should be so informed in order that during the
stress and confusion of combat, causes of mistaken identity may be avoided.”82 While at
Montecorvino, the 133rd was ordered to move to the vicinity of Oliveto Citra to hook-up
79
John Keegan, The Second World War (New York: Penguin Books, 1989), 352.
Thomas D. Murphy, Ambassadors in Arms (Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1955), 125.
81
U.S. Army, Official History of the 100th Battalion, Department of the Army -The Adjutant General’s
Office, Department Records Branch-Historical Section, (Washington D.C.: October 1945), 5.
82
Lyn Crost, Honor by Fire-Japanese Americans at War in Europe and the Pacific (Novato: Presidio
Press, 1994), 76.
80
with the 45th Division covering the right flank of the U.S. 5th Army. 83 From there, the
133rd was to proceed north and west to cut-off the German retreat towards the Volturno
River along the Montemarano-Avellion roadway. 84 The 100th Battalion finally headed
into combat on September 26 to begin the ir fight against the Germans through some of
the worst terrain conceivable.
On September 28th , the 100th Battalion met the German Wehrmacht for the very first
time near a small farmhouse in the vicinity of Montemarano. 85 It was at this location that
the 100th would capture its first POW and sustain its first casualty of war. Reacting to a
report given by a local villager that there was a lone German soldier who wanted to
surrender, Company “B” of the 100th Battalion moved into the village. After
apprehending the German soldier, the soldier’s luger was given to Major Lovell, the
100th ’s Executive Officer. In reaction to the faces around him, the German soldier asked
if the Nisei soldiers were Chinese, but he was quickly corrected. 86 Still confused, the
German soldier was marched off with a strong belief that Japan had switched sides and
was fighting for the Allies. On this, as in other occasions, the Nisei soldiers usually took
the opportunity to let the German POWs guess at their nationality-at times convincing the
Germans that they were Japanese soldiers from the Empire of Japan. 87 Once a German
POW realized the prank, he would normally respond with a sigh, “Ach, diese
Amerikaner.”88 As mentioned, the 100th suffered its first casualty that same day when
Sgt. Conrad C. Tsukayama, squad leader in Company “D’s” Mortar Platoon suffered a
wound in the face from flying shrapnel blown in the air by a passing jeep that hit a
landmine. 89 Showing the spirit and dedication that was so common among the Nisei
soldiers, Tsukayama quickly returned to action by performing a reverse “AWOL” from
the local field hospital. 90 On September 29, in an action that would be repeated over and
83
U.S. Army, Official History of the 100th Battalion, Department of the Army -The Adjutant General’s
Office, Department Records Branch-Historical Section, (Washington D.C.: October 1945), 6.
84
Thomas D. Murphy, Ambassadors in Arms (Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1955), 127.
85
Homer R. Ankrum, Dogfaces Who Smiled Through Tears (Lake Mills, Iowa: Graphic Publishing
Company, 1987), 321.
86
Ibid, 321.
87
Thomas D. Murphy, Ambassadors in Arms (Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1955), 137.
88
Ibid, 137.
89
Ibid, 321
90
U.S. Army, Official History of the 100th Battalion, Department of the Army -The Adjutant General’s
Office, Department Records Branch-Historical Section, (Washington D.C.: October 1945), 8.
over again throughout the war, the 100th earned its first battle medal near the town of
Castlevere. While heading- up the Chiusana road towards the town, the 3rd Platoon under
Lt. Paul Froning was pinned down by enemy machine gun fire. Knowing that enemy
artillery would soon blast the area, Sgt. Shigeo J. Takata volunteered to take-out the gun.
With a small squad of men, Takata was able to gradually surround the machine gun,
forcing the Germans to pullback. In the continuing pursuit, Takata advanced alone while
firing short bursts from his Tommy gun. Before he could overcome the enemy machine
gun nest, a shell from a German artillery piece fatally wounded him. Before he died, he
was able to pass on vital information about the location of the German guns. Takata’s
actions earned him the Distinguished Service Cross. 91
After this action, the 100th Battalion moved to participate with the U.S. 5th Army in
crossing the Volturno River near Limatola. On October 12-13, the 5th Army began its allout assault of the Volturno River over a 40- mile front by means of rafts, small boats, foot
power and swimming. 92 On October 18-19, a second crossing of the Volturno was
ordered to help solidify the hard-won positions already taken from the Germans, and to
provide a base from which to attack the German 10th Army in the hills above. While the
100th Battalion struggled to cross the river, the Germans fired down from the high ground
with terrible accuracy. Once across the river, the 100th moved towards the ancient towns
of Alife and San Angelo d’Alife, where the crack German 3rd Panzer Grenadier Division
had positioned one of their regiments in opposition along a ridge in the Matese
Mountains. 93 As soon as the 133rd Infantry advanced over open ground, the Germans
caught the 100th Battalion in the flats near Alife with a barrage of rifle, machine gun,
artillery and Nebelwerfer fire from above. 94 The panic and confusion caused by the
terrifying sound of the Nebelwerfer rockets, or “screaming meemies” as the American
soldiers referred them to, scattered the Battalion in all directions and forced the advance
to a halt. 95 Despite such setbacks, the men of 100th Battalion performed heroically
91
Homer R. Ankrum, Dogfaces Who Smiled Through Tears (Lake Mills, Iowa: Graphic Publishing
Company, 1987), 321.
92
Lyn Crost, Honor by Fire-Japanese Americans at War in Europe and the Pacific (Novato: Presidio
Press, 1994), 80.
93
Ibid, 81.
94
Fisher, Ernest F., Cassino to the Alps U.S. Army in World War II (Washington D.C.: Government
Printing Office, 1977), 213.
95
Ibid, 213.
throughout the battle for Alife. PFC Thomas I. Yamanage, BAR man of a lead rifle
squad that was pinned-down by enemy artillery, silenced an enemy machine gun before
being mortally wounded. He was posthumously awarded the Distinguished Service Cross
for his actions. 96 Technician 5th Grade Satoshi W. Kadota moved into an open area to
administer aid to 12 wounded soldiers. While under heavy fire, Kadota evacuated a large
number of casualties, earning himself the Silver Star. 97 At the same time, Private Ted S.
Shikiya, despite being severely wounded, dragged a fellow comrade to safety from a
heavily shelled area. By his actions, Shikiya received a mortal wound and was later
rewarded the Silver Star posthumously. 98 Forty-Eight hours after the attack began, the
100th Battalion seized the town of Alife, but the Germans continued to hold the high
ground on Hill 529-known as “Castle Hill.”99 Executing a number of brilliant flanking
movements, the 100th Battalion succeeded in pushing the German 8th Panzer Grenadier
Regiment off Hill 529. 100 In the final tally, the fight for Alife and San Angelo d’Alife
cost the 100th Battalion 21 killed and 66 wounded, including Major Lovell. These
casualty numbers would only increase as the Battle of Monte Cassino, Rome, Southern
France and the Po Valley loomed in the future.
In November of 1943, the 100th Battalion received orders to hold and seize a series of
roads and road junctions beyond the Volturno River near Venafro. The purpose of the
mission was to protect the left flank of the Division against tank attacks. 101 It is during
this action that the 100th participated in the first American bayonet attack in Italy. 102
After crossing the Voltur no River further to the north near Alife, the 100th Battalion ran
into a heavy concentration of mines and booby traps. Company “B” was ordered forward
to take a road junction when it was racked by heavy German machine gun fire at point
blank range. 103 Almost as soon as the Germans opened fire, the Nisei soldiers responded
with a fusillade of small arms fire, surprising the Battalion command group in the rear.
96
U.S. Army, Official History of the 100th Battalion, Department of the Army -The Adjutant General’s
Office, Department Records Branch-Historical Section, (Washington D.C.: October 1945), 15.
97
Ibid, 15.
98
Ibid, 15.
99
Ibid, 15.
100
Ibid, 15.
101
Lt.Colonel James J. Gillespie and Captain Lauren McBride. “The 100th Battalion Against the Germans.”
Infantry Journal (December, 1944), 8.
102
Ibid, 10.
103
Ibid, 10.
Shortly afterwards, there was screaming heard everywhere. The Battalion command
group couldn’t believe how fast the Nisei soldiers reacted. The commander of Company
“B” later explained that his soldiers merely got behind a stone wall and advanced under
cover while firing above the ramparts towards the enemy machine guns. 104 While the
attack continued, it was learned that a lieutenant of one of the platoons in Company “B”
was missing. As word got around, the non-commissioned officers of one of the Nisei
platoons gave the order to fix bayonets. Upon his command, the platoon, followed by the
entire Company, swarmed over the hill and quickly overran the German gun positions.
The missing lieutenant was found, and all German resistance in the area stopped. This
action illustrates the close loyalty and esprit de corps that existed in the 100th Battalion. 105
From November through the bitter cold months of December, the 100th Battalion
continued to drive the Germans north at the expense of horrific casualties. On December
30th , 1943, the 100th moved-out to relieve the 36th “Texas” Division to make continued
attempts to break the German winter line. Finally, on January 15th , the Germans pulled
back further to an even more formidable defensive position known as the Gustav Line.
The key to breaking this German defense was Monte Cassino. 106
Since 1943, the Germans had methodically put resources, men and equipment to work
in building one of the most incredible fortresses ever known. Under the direction of the
Todt Organization, Germany’s supreme military engineering company, an amazing mass
of heavily constructed pillboxes, machine gun emplacements, artillery emplacements and
troop positions had been constructed. Mines were placed in every path, along with
interlocking machine guns aimed downward to sweep the rocky ledges leading to the top.
To make matters even worse, the Germans had flooded the low- lying farmlands by
damming the Rapido River. 107 As the Allies increased their attacks around the area of
Monte Cassino, the following orders were issued to all German soldiers: “The Fuhrer
orders that the Gustav position be held at all costs, bearing in mind that a completely
successful defense will have political repercussions. The Fuhrer expects every yard of
104
Ibid, 10.
Ibid, 11.
106
Lyn Crost, Honor by Fire-Japanese Americans at War in Europe and the Pacific (Novato: Presidio
Press, 1994), 95-99.
105
107
Ibid, 107.
ground to be bitterly defended.”108 As the Red Bull Division prepared to cross the
Rapido River and attack Cassino, Allied forces launched an amphibious attack and
landing at Anzio on the west coast of Italy. On January 24, the 100th Battalion launched
their first of a series of costly attacks against the German positions all along the German
line. As the 100th advanced, Nisei soldiers in separate ammunition and pioneer platoons
helped clear paths through the minefields buried under floodwaters. 109 Once again, the
brave and dedicated actions of individual soldiers in the 100th Battalion made the
difference between success and failure. For their work in neutralizing mines, removing
barbed-wire entanglements and administering first aid to wounded soldier, Silver Stars
were awarded to Sgt. Calvin Shimogaki, Sgt. Takeshi Miyagawa, Technical Sergeant
Gary Hisaoka and PFC Masanori Aoki.
On February 8, 1944, the 133rd Infantry (including the 100th ) was ordered to attack
Castle Hill on the outskirts of Monte Cassino. 110 Just day’s prior, the 100th rejoiced in the
return of Major Lovell after his recuperation in a North Africa hospital. 111 During the
attack on Castle Hill, Captain Young Kim of the 100th recalled an incident involving
Major Lovell that truly illustrates the type of commander he was:
We were under the cover of smoke shots. I was the point at the time. As I approached towards the
castle, I saw a silhouette of a soldier in front of me. I thought, “What the heck? Who’s this soldier in
front of me? There’s not supposed to be anybody in front of me except for the enemy.” As I approached
him, it was Major Lovell…and he was our battalion commander! What army in the world would you
find the battalion commander in front of the point man in the attack? Let me tell you, you won’t find
anything like that in any other outfit, where you’ll find the battalion commander out front like that,
worrying about his men. 112
As the battle continued, German machine guns and artillery pummeled the 100th
unmercifully from the front while enemy tanks appeared in the rear. One enemy tank in
particular, sporting a 75 mm gun, began blasting the 100th within just a few yards of
Company “C.”113 Within minutes Nisei soldiers were scrambling everywhere shouting.
“Awakuni! Awakuni! Awakuni!” Private Awakuni, affectionately known as “Tank
Buster” among his comrades, was an ace when it came to handling a bazooka. After
108
John Ellis, Cassino: The Hallow Victory (New York: McGraw Hill, 1984), 52.
Thomas D. Murphy, Ambassadors in Arms (Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1955), 169.
110
Lyn Crost, Honor by Fire-Japanese Americans at War in Europe and the Pacific (Novato: Presidio
Press, 1994), 107.
111
Ibid, 107.
112
Ibid, 108.
113
U.S. Army, Official History of the 100th Battalion, Department of the Army -The Adjutant General’s
Office, Department Records Branch-Historical Section, (Washington D.C.: October 1945), 43.
109
grapping his weapon, Awakuni raced to within 30 yards of the German armor and fired
his first shell. The initial shot hit the tank’s treads, partially disabling it. 114 Despite
having given away his position, Awakuni continued to fire shell after shell into the tank
until it finally exploded in a ball of flames, killing the entire crew. As the tank
smoldered, Awakuni remained pinned down by enemy sniper fire until some 10 hours
later. As he was running back towards friendly lines, he was hit by a machine gun bullet
and wounded in the arm. As a result of his actions, Awakuni was awarded the
Distinguished Service Cross. 115
In a last ditch effort to break through the Gustav Line at Monte Cassino and open the
road to Rome, it was decided by higher headquarters to launch a massive aerial
bombardment. The plan was to drop as many as 750 tons of bombs on Monte Cassino in
the shortest possible time, thus providing both the firepower and surprise needed to blast
through the German positions. 116 Wave after wave of bombers would attack the German
pillboxes and concrete emplacements using time fused 1,000 pound bombs designed to
penetrate to basement level before exploding. 117 Between the bombing waves, artillery
would continue to pummel the Germans while Allied ground troops crept forward slowly.
On the morning of March 15, 1944 between the hours of 0830 and 1200, a total of 435
aircraft including B-17’s, B-25’s, B-26’s and B-24’s, along with P-40 fighters from the
13th Mediterranean Air Force dropped more than 2,000 bombs on the Cassino area. 118
Despite the unprecedented attack, the Germans continued to hold the town and
surrounding positions. On the 22nd of September, the 100th Battalion left their battered
and scared position in the hands of the 6th New Zealand Brigade and headed back to Alife
for rest and reorganization. 119 Casualties for the battle of Casino and the operations
preceding it were very heavy for the 100th Battalion. When the 100th landed at Salerno in
September of 1943, the unit had a total strength of 1,300 men. By the time the smoke
114
Ibid, 43.
Ibid, 43.
116
Fisher, Ernest F., Cassino to the Alps U.S. Army in World War II (Washington D.C.: Government
Printing Office, 1977), 439.
117
Ibid, 439.
118
Ibid, 441.
119
U.S. Army, Official History of the 100th Battalion, Department of the Army -The Adjutant General’s
Office, Department Records Branch-Historical Section, (Washington D.C.: October 1945), 45.
115
settled over Cassino, the unit could only muster 521 effectives. 120 Back in the states, the
unit was known as the “Purple Heart Battalion” in ho nor of its terrible losses. Shortly
after heading to the rear, the “little iron men” of the 100th received a much- needed boost
as the first group of reinforcements arrived from the 442nd Regimental Combat Team: 10
officers and 151 enlisted men. 121 From that moment on, the 442nd would begin to play a
major role in the future of the Original 100th Battalion as the war shifted towards Rome.
What few survivors remained of the Original 100th Battalion after the battle for Monte
Cassino proceeded by landing ships to the Anzio beachhead further north. Fortunately
for the Battalion, and the rest of the convoy for that matter, the Germans decided not to
attack with their aircraft or pound the area with “Anzio Annie,” a 270 mm rail gun that
fired daily into town. 122 The tactical plans for the Allied attack on Anzio called for the
5th U.S. Army to land two divisions on the beachhead and drive vigoursly inland towards
Rome to cut-off the enemy’s supply and communication lines. 123 Stiff German
resistance, both at Monte Cassino and at Anzio, forced the Allied troops into a long and
costly stalemate that lasted months. Finally, on May 23, 1944, 150,000 troops in 7 Allied
divisions blasted their way through the German lines at Anzio and raced down Route 7
towards Rome. As the U.S. 5th Army slugged its way closer and closer to Rome, it was
halted by stiff German resistance near the town of Lanuvio on the outskirts of the Eternal
City. 124 General Ryder of the 34th Division received orders to “crack this Lanuvio. It’s
holding up the whole thing.”125 After two failed attempts by the 135th Infantry, the 100th
got the call once more to complete a tough mission. After a careful reconnaissance, an
attack was launched by the 100th that succeeded in smashing over a dozen enemy
machine guns. Unfortunately for the men of the 100th , no one in the rear anticipated such
a powerful drive. As the 100th smashed into the German lines, they were mistaken for
120
Lyn Crost, Honor by Fire-Japanese Americans at War in Europe and the Pacific (Novato: Presidio
Press, 1994), 115.
121
Ibid, 115.
122
U.S. Army, Officia l History of the 100th Battalion, Department of the Army -The Adjutant General’s
Office, Department Records Branch-Historical Section, (Washington D.C.: October 1945), 48.
123
Campaigns of World War II Commerative Series 40 Brochures (Washington D.C.: Government Printing
Office, 1945), 3.
124
Lyn Crost, Honor by Fire-Japanese Americans at War in Europe and the Pacific (Novato: Presidio
Press, 1994), 143.
125
Fisher, Ernest F., Cassino to the Alps U.S. Army in World War II (Washington D.C.: Government
Printing Office, 1977), 179.
enemy soldiers and received friendly fire that inflicted a heavy cost in casualties,
including 15 killed and 63 wounded. 126 During this battle for the last enemy stronghold
before the gates of Rome, the Nisei of the 100th Battalion were awarded six DSCs, a
Silver Star and three Bronze Stars. 127 PFC Robert Yasutake wiped out two enemy
machine guns, killing six and wounding seven. 128 He received a DSC. Private Shinyei
Nakamine, Sgt. Yeiki Kobashigawa, Sgt. Yukio Yokota, PFC. Thomas Ono, and PFC
Haruto Kuroda destroyed eight German machine gun emplacements and five machinepistol nests while killing or wounding over 25 enemy soldiers. 129 They all received
DSCs. First Lieutenant Bert Tanaka received a Silver Star after he led a small squad to
rescue his pinned-down platoon from enemy artillery fire. 130 Unbelievably there is no
mention of this heroic action by the 100th in the official U.S. Army history, but the
following statement made in a letter by a Caucasian officer printed in the Auburn Journal
after the battle illustrates that those who fought alongside the brave Nisei didn’t forget:
We had been sitting and living in foxholes at Anzio some 63 days. Then the big push out and the
capture of Rome. They (100th Battalion) wiped out the last heavy German resistance we meet some 12
miles south of Rome and then it was practically a walk into the city.131
And the soldiers of the 100th Battalion wanted to be the first ones to walk into the city
of Rome, but that did not happen. Much to the disappointment and chagrin of the Nisei,
other elements of the U.S. 5th Army were allowed to pass by them. At that time there was
some speculation and rumor that the 100th was halted before entering Rome because of
racial prejudice. This may or may not have been true, but the feelings and memories
surrounding that incident have not faded. According to Don Seki of Company “L” of the
442nd, racial prejudice was evident the day Rome was liberated: “They (the 100th ) were
just outside Rome. They stopped the 100th Battalion and let the white troops go in to get
the glory. The members of the 100th were fighting made because they had fought all the
way from Salerno to Cassino. They were just about to enter Rome and they were
126
U.S. Army, Official History of the 100th Battalion, Department of the Army -The Adjutant General’s
Office, Department Records Branch-Historical Section, (Washington D.C.: October 1945), 54.
127
Lyn Crost, Honor by Fire-Japanese Americans at War in Europe and the Pacific (Novato: Presidio
Press, 1994), 144.
128
Ibid, 144.
129
Ibid, 144.
130
Ibid, 144.
131
Ibid, 144.
stopped.”132 A few days after the fall of Rome, on August 11, the 100th Battalion
officially became part of the 442nd RCT. Because of their impressive record, the 100th
Battalion was allowed to keep its original designation as the new 1st Battalion of the
442nd. Officially the combined unit would be known as the 100th /442nd Regimental
Combat Team.
From the start, tensions ran high among the veterans of the 100th and the new soldiers
from the 442nd. Upon hearing the news that they had been absorbed by the 442nd RCT,
some members of the Original 100th spoke out. “The original boys from the 100th really
detest it!” wrote one soldier, “All the boys are so proud of the 100th that they prefer to
remain a separate battalion.”133 Some men of the 442nd were somewhat surprised and
upset to learn that many of the members of the 442nd who left Camp Shelby as early
replacements for the 100th had transferred their loyalty to the older battalion. In defiance,
a large percentage of veterans from the 100th wore the Red Bull patch instead of the “Go
For Broke” insignia on their shoulders. 134 The conflict between the two sides finally
boiled over during the battle of Belevedere on June 26, 1944 when the 2nd and 3rd
Battalions of the 442nd were stopped in their tracks by heavy German artillery from the
adjoining high ground by a crack SS motorized battalion. 135 Frustrated by the lack of
results by the 442nd, General Ryder ordered the 100th Battalion in to remove the German
presence on the flank. 136 The mission the 100th came up with was simple but effective.
First, the Nisei had to infiltrate the Nazi positions, then close off the ent rance and exit to
the town of Belevedere. Once the Germans were surrounded, the 100th would attack up
the main hill where the enemy artillery was located. 137 The plan worked to perfection. In
a matter of just a few hours, the 100th destroyed the entire SS battalion, killing 178
132
Don Seki, interviewed by author, phone tape recording, Knoxville, TN to Long Beach, CA., June 30,
2002.
133
Quoted from Thomas D. Murphy, Ambassadors in Arms (Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1955),
222.
134
Lyn Crost, Honor by Fire-Japanese Americans at War in Europe and the Pacific (Novato: Presidio
Press, 1994), 148.
135
James P. O’Neill, Sgt. “The Battle of Belevedere” Yank (25 August, 1944): 2-4.
Lyn Crost, Honor by Fire-Japanese Americans at War in Europe and the Pacific (Novato: Presidio
Press, 1994), 148.
137
James P. O’Neill, Sgt. “The Battle of Belevedere” Yank (25 August, 1944): 2-4.
136
Germans, wounding 20 and capturing 73. 138 In the end, the Germans lost 13 motorcycles,
19 jeeps, 7 trucks, 2 half- tracks, 1 Panzer IV tank, 1 self-propelled gun, 2 anti-tank guns,
4-155mms, 1 radio CP and 1 battalion CP with 20 phone s. 139 The 100th only lost one
man and had eight wounded. 140 As a result of it actions at the battle of Belevedere, the
100th Battalion received a Presidential Unit Citation, the first of three it would receive.
The 100th Infantry Battalion (Separate)
Cited in War Department General Orders 66, 15 August 1944:
The 100th Infantry Battalion (separate) is cited for outstanding performance of duty in action on 26 and 27
June 1944 in the vicinity of Belevedere and Sassetta, Italy. The 100th Infantry Battalion was assigned the
mission of neutralizing a strongly defended German center of resistance at Belevedere, Italy. With
insufficient time for proper physical reconnaissance but with a determined desire to fulfill its mission, the
battalion quickly formulated its plan and launched the operation. All three companies went into action,
boldly facing murderous fire from all types of weapons and tanks fighting and at times fighting without
artillery support. Doggedly the members of the 100th Infantry Battalion fought their way into the strongly
defended positions. The stubborn desire of the men to close with a numerically superior enemy and the
rapidity with which they fought enabled the 100th Infantry Battalion to destroy completely the right flank
positions of the German army, killing at least 178 Germans, wounding approximately 20, capturing 73, and
forcing the remainder of a completely disrupted battalion to surrender approximately 10 kilometers of
ground. In addition, large quantities of enemy weapons, vehicles, and equipment were either captured or
destroyed, while the American infantry division operating in the sector was able to continue its advance.
The fortitude and intrepidity displayed by the officers and men of the 100th Infantry Battalion reflect the
finest traditions of the Army of the United States.141
Due to the scope of this paper, it would be difficult to continue with a detailed
description of the entire history of the 100th /442nd and MIS without increasing the size of
the essay to voluminous proportions. That being said, only a brief mention will now be
made about the more important battles the 100th /442nd fought between July of 1944 until
the end of the war, with an emphasis on the first hand accounts provided by oral history
interviews done with surviving members of the 442nd and Military Intelligence Service
from June through July 2002.
After the battle for Belevedere, the 100th /442nd moved-up the west coast of Italy
towards the important seaport of Livorno, or “Leghorn” as it was it called. On the way
138
Ibid, 2-4.
Ibid, 2-4.
140
Ibid, 2-4.
141
Center for Military History, http://www2.army.mil/cmh -pg/topics/apam/puc.htm
139
the unit became locked in a struggle for survival on Hill 140 with German troops in
hilltop observation posts. The men of the 100th /442nd referred to this action as the “Battle
of Little Cassino” because of its fierceness and duration. 142 “We were on the other side
of this ridge when the Germans started shelling us,” recalls Don Seki of Company “L” of
the 442nd. “When we were there at night on the first night of the fight for Hill 140, all
hell broke loose. We were just firing away. My Lieutenant of my platoon got killed that
night, the poor guy.”143 As a member of “G” Company of the 442nd, Sgt. Jim Makino
recalls his experiences during the battle:
Hill 140, “Little Cassino,” north of Belevedere, as we called it, was a five-day battle. Man, we got our
buts kicked! Three guys on my right received a Medal of Honor in this action. Otani, Ono, Nakamura and
Moto.* I remember them. My squadron was the last one up the hill, and as we left, we got up to a point
where we heard nothing but machine gun fire…2 or 3 guns traversing. I think this is where Nakamura got
killed. Down in front of me one of my good buddies was all torn up, as well as the platoon leader. At the
bottom of Hill 140 we came to a halt. My good buddy was all shot-up, and next to him was Lt. Torahashi.
My buddy’s left arm was all gone, so we did the best we could. I remember putting him on a stretcher,
wrapping a tourniquet on his wound with sulfur. There was a gapping hole just under his ear and a small
hole in the back. The bullet must have ricocheted upwards through the back of his head. On the other side,
Torahashi had a big hole where his dog tags were. I don’t know why, but I snatched off his dog tags and
bars and put them in my pocket. This was a big no no. Over the 536 radio I heard yelling, “I’m underneath
machine gun fire, we need help!” By the time we got back next morning the Battalion had us missing in
action. I ended up in the hospital on July 4th after being hit by mortar shrapnel. Later, after being sent
home, I met up with a buddy of mine in Chicago who was chased by a German 88 on Hill 140. This guy
had the address of Torahashi’s widow. I went to see her. While I was with her, I gave her the dog tags and
bars.144
After the battle for Hill 140, the 100th /442nd was notified that they would be pulled
from the offensive against the Gothic Line to be part of Operation Dragoon, the invasion
of Southern France. On September 27, 1944, the 100/442nd sailed for Marseilles, France
to join the 36th “Texas” Division attached to the U.S. 7th Army. It was during this
operation that the men of the 100th /442nd would prove their worthiness once more during
the battle of Bruyeres. 145
142
Lyn Crost, Honor by Fire-Japanese Americans at War in Europe and the Pacific (Novato: Presidio
Press, 1994), 151.
143
Don Seki, interviewed by author, phone tape recording, Knoxville, TN to Long Beach, CA., June 30,
2002.
144
Jim Makino, interviewed by author, phone tape recording from Knoxville, TN to San Gabriel, CA., June
30, 2002. *Note: Kazuo Otani, Frank Ono, William Nakamura and Kaoru Moto were originally awarded
Distinguished Service Crosses for their actions. These awards were upgraded to a Medal of Honor in 2000.
145
Lyn Crost, Honor by Fire-Japanese Americans at War in Europe and the Pacific (Novato: Presidio
Press, 1994), 175.
On October 14, 1944, the 100th /442nd moved into position to attack the important road
center of Bruyeres, France with the 100th Battalion on the left, the 2nd Battalion on the
right. 146 The main objective of the attack was to sweep the Germans off the various hills
surrounding the town, using the 1st and 2nd Battalions in a two-pronged attack with the 3rd
Battalion in reserve. 147 During the subsequent attacks for the hills around Bruyeres, the
entire 36th Division was subjected to a number of obstacles, some deadly. As thick
underbrush, cold rain and overcast skies lowered the morale of the fighting men, a deadly
combination of German artillery, S-mines, booby traps, mortars and machine guns made
every advance by the American infantry slow and treacherous. 148 “The Germans were
fearful fighters,” recalled Joe Ichiuji of Battery “A” of the 522nd Field Artillery Battalion.
“The Germans were always on the highest ground looking down at us with those 88
howitzers. What a fearful gun! One night we had a full moon when we had to move, but
we couldn’t because we would be bombed. The Germans also had these anti-personnel
mines that would pop- up and explode in mid-air.”149 From October 14 to October 21,
1944, the battle for the hills surrounding Bruyeres raged back and forth with relentless
fury, testing even the most battled-hardened veterans. For new replacements coming online, this fierce combat was a startling and frightful experience. “Until the blood gets
flying, you really don’t know what combat is like,” exclaimed Lawson Sakai, veteran of
Company “E”, 2nd Battalion, of the 442nd. “Combat is a horrible experience. I guess
you’re numb to everything around you. You just react. You know the enemy is there
and you know what you have to do.”150 One of the most fearful weapons in the German
arsenal at Bruyeres was their infamous “88” field artillery/anti-aircraft/tank gun. “When
the Germans moved their self-propelled “88s” on to a ridge, they would pre- zero in the
weapon on suspected areas were American troops would advance. Out of no place,
artillery barrages would come in, hundreds of rounds all at once! The sound the German
“88” made was very shrill; something Hollywood has never been able to duplicate. The
146
Orville C. Shirey, Americans-The Story of the 442 nd Combat Team (Washington, D.C.: Infantry Journal
Press, 1946), 51.
147
Ibid, 51.
148
Franz Steidl, Lost Battalions (Novato: Presidio Press, 1997), 27.
149
Joe Ichiuji, interviewed by author, phone tape recording from Knoxville, TN to Rockville, MA. June 18,
2002.
150
Lawson Sakai, interview by author at Air National Guard TEC, Knoxville, TN., May 22, 2002.
high velocity shell would go by kicking- up pebbles, and literally pull you out of your
uniform. They’d shoot the “88” like a smalls arms M-1 rifle targeting individual soldiers
on the ridges, chasing them from one spot to another!”151 The German “88” though was
not the only German weapon feared by the American troops in Italy or the European
Theater of Operations. “The German machine guns were fast things,” recalled Don Seki
of “L” Company. “Their machine guns made a ripping noise, ours went pop, pop, pop..it
was demoralizing. The only advantage for us was the fact the Germans had to change out
their machine gun barrels because of the over-heating caused by firing so fast. When
they interchanged their barrels, this gave us time to maneuver. The toughest thing we
faced were the motor and artillery shells that were fired to burst in the tress above our
heads. These shells would explode at tree top level, blasting shrapnel and tree blisters
downward with terrible results.”152 A tree burst was how Lawson Sakai earned his
Purple Heart. “Not long after the fight for the “Lost Battalion” I was patrolling through a
wooded area when a tree burst got me. This hot piece of medal somehow hit a rib and
glanced all the way to my front chest. Ah man, the pain was so intense I blacked out. I
really thought I was a goner”. 153
On October 19, the last German resistance around the town of Bruyeres was silenced,
except for some gunfire to the north. 154 Scattered pockets of German opposition were
successfully repulsed and defeated in a series of brilliant counter-attacks by a special
Task Force under the command of Major Emmet L. O’Connor, 3rd Battalion executive
officer. 155 The combat actions carried out by this special force of infantry, wire, radio
and minesweeping squads resulted in the destruction of 3 enemy ammunition carriers, 1
anti-tank gun, the capture of large quantities of small arms and the killing or wounding of
over 130 German soldiers. 156 All the units that made-up Task Force O’ Connor received
151
Ibid.
Don Seki, interviewed by author, phone tape recording, Knoxville, TN to Long Beach, CA., June 30,
2002.
153
Lawson Sakai, interview by author at Air National Guard TEC, Knoxville, TN., May 22, 2002.
154
Lyn Crost, Honor by Fire-Japanese Americans at War in Europe and the Pacific (Novato: Presidio
Press, 1994), 178.
152
155
Orville C. Shirey, Americans-The Story of the 442nd Combat Team (Washington, D.C.: Infantry Journal
Press, 1946), 59.
156
Ibid, 59.
a Distinguished Unit Citation for their bravery under fire. 157 It was just prior to these
attacks that Don Seki of “L” Company, 442nd, earned his Purple Heart. “I had gotten hit
by a machine gun blast. The fire from one machine gun was about 6 feet high with tracer
bullets you could see. It was the gun that was underneath at about 3 feet that got me.
This was a common tactic the Germans used. One machine gun fired real high with
tracers. You would think he was aiming too high, so you moved out, only to be racked
by a second machine gun nest that aimed lower, waiting for your move! You think
they’re firing high, but the one on the bottom is the real killer. The round ripped my arm
real bad. I was in shock, that’s all I remember. Shortly afterwards I lost my arm in a
field hospital. A colonel came out and gave me a Purple Heart.”158 After the battle of
Bruyeres and Biffontaine, the 100th /442nd expected to head to the rear for some rest and
reorganization, but within 36 hours the 442nd was pulled out of reserve and given orders
to attack a few miles to the east. Their objective this time was to attempt a rescue of
some 200 Texans of the famous 141st “Alamo” Regiment that were surrounded by heavy
German forces on a narrow ridge leading out from the town of Biffontaine. 159 When
numerous attacks by other units failed in dislodging the German 933rd Grenadier
Regiment from its position surrounding the 141st , General Dahlquist, commander of the
36th Division, once more called on the 100/442nd to get the job done. 160
By October 40, 1944, the battle to rescue the “Lost Battalion” had become desperate.
Aided by a preliminary mortar and artillery barrage by elements of the 522nd Field
Artillery Battalion, the three companies of men from the 100th /442nd advanced up the
slope in full few of the Texans from the 141st .161 Firing from the hip as they advanced up
the hill, the Nisei soldiers pushed back fierce German resistance, leaving 55 dead enemy
soldiers lying on the ground near the bunkers they so desperately tried to defend. 162
According to Lawson Sakai of Company “L”, 2nd Battalion of the 442nd RCT, the fight
was closer then many thought:
157
Ibid, 59.
Don Seki, interviewed by author, phone tape recording, Knoxville, TN to Long Beach, CA., June 30,
2002.
159
Franz Steidl, Lost Battalions (Novato: Presidio Press, 1997), 77.
160
Ibid, 81.
161
Thomas D. Murphy, Ambassadors in Arms (Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1955), 241.
162
Ibid, 242.
158
There were many U.S. generals who wanted to be the first into Germany. Patton was one, General
Dahlquist of the 36th Division was another. That’s why the 141st Infantry got surrounded. They pushed
beyond their means and supplies. And they were being annihilated. And they would have been in a
couple of days I think. I don’t think the Germans knew the 141st was out of ammo and food. General
Dalhquist ordered the 442nd back in to attack the hill where they were. It’s not that long of a distance,
but it took 5 days to cover the ground. And it was just a daily battle night and day. It was rainy, cold
and foggy. There weren’t as many trees in the Biffontaine area, but there was no place to hide. And of
course, the Germans had the high ground. The only way for us to take out the German positions was to
crawl up and loop grenades into the machine gun nests. You can’t take them out with a rifle. The
members of the 141st were very thankful. They were numb from the experience. They knew that if they
were not rescued that it would be the end. They had no more ammo, food…it was bad. They were
hardly able to walk out, a pitiful site. 163
In the end, the 100th /442nd suffered more than 800 casualties to rescue 211 Texans. The
100th and 3rd Battalions were awarded Distinguished Unit Citations, as was the attached
232rd Engineer Company. The 2nd Battalion received similar recognition for taking Hill
617, and distinguished service for later battles in Italy. 164 As a gesture of extreme
gratitude, the Texans of the 141st Infantry and 36th Division made the brave Nisei of the
100th /442nd RCT honorary citizens of the state of Texas. There was some talk after the
battle was over that General Dalhquist considered the men of the 100th /442nd as nothing
more then cannon fodder. The consensus among surviving veterans today is that there
may have been some truth to that statement. “My feeling,” states Joe Ichuiji of the 522nd
FAB, “is that the General thought we were expendable. Why would he use a lesser
amount of men to accomplish an impossible mission when two whole divisions before
couldn’t take the position?”165
Not long after the battle for the “Lost Battalion,” the Nisei of the 100th /442nd were
separated from the 36th Division and sent back down the extreme southern portion of
France where it connects to the border of Italy. There, in what was jokingly referred to as
the “Champagne Campaign,” the 100th /442nd RCT performed combat and reconnaissance
patrols to prevent the Germans from escaping out of the Italian Alps through France. 166
From there, the 100th /442nd was ordered to join back up with General Mark Clark and the
U.S. 5th Army to help drive the last pockets of German resistance into surrender in the Po
163
Lawson Sakai, interview by author at Air National Guard TEC, Knoxville, TN., May 22, 2002.
Lyn Crost, Honor by Fire-Japanese Americans at War in Europe and the Pacific (Novato: Presidio
Press, 1994), 198.
165
Joe Ichiuji, interviewed by author, phone tape recording from Knoxville, TN to Rockville, MA. June 18,
2002.
164
166
Orville C. Shirey, Americans-The Story of the 442nd Combat Team (Washington, D.C.: Infantry Journal
Press, 1946), 75.
Valley region of northern Italy. In April of 1945, General Clark ordered a new offensive
in an attempt to remove heavy German opposition on the Ligurian coast blocking the
allies from the Po Valley. In Operation Second Wind, the U.S. 92nd Division, with the
attached 100th /442nd RCT, was ordered to launch a diversionary attack to capture Massa
while the British 8th Army penetrated enemy defenses east of Bologna. 167 As the attack
unfolded, the 92nd Division became bogged down by German defenses on the high
ground to their front. Once again, the 100th/442nd was called in to accomplish the
impossible. Serving in a light 60mm mortar platoon with “G” Company, 2nd Battalion of
the 442nd, Tets Asato explains what happened next:
It took all night to climb Mount Folgorito to our immediate front. The 3rd Battalion went in on the
reverse side near Azzano, Italy. That happened around April 4th . The 2nd Battalion, with “G” Company
attached to it, was to attack retreating German forces. The 100th Battalion went in on the left. This all took
about 4 hours. We were told we had to climb the 3,000 feet without making any noise what so ever. Some
of the men fell to their deaths from the high positions. They fell without making any sound! The Germans
were looking down from the top. These were crack SS troops of the Machine-Gun Battalion Kesselring
making a last stand.168
In less then 35 minutes, the 100th /442nd succeeded in driving the Germans from their
mountain top positions that had previously withstood five straight months of persistent
attacks by other U.S. forces. 169 It was during the battle for Mount Folgorito that the first
Japanese-American soldier would earn a Medal of Honor posthumously. PFC Sadao
Munemori of Los Angeles, California, while serving in “A” Company of the 100th
Battalion, performed the most heroic act one can possibly give while engaged in the heat
of battle. The following official citation describing Sadao’s heroic actions that spring day
in 1945 serves as a timeless reminder of the ultimate sacrifice many most give in time of
war.
167
Campaigns of World War II Commerative Series-Po Valley 1945 (Washington D.C.: Government
Printing Press, 1945), 5.
168
Tets Asato, interviewed by author, phone tape recording from Knoxville, TN to Torrance, CA., June 17,
2002.
169
Lyn Crost, Honor by Fire-Japanese Americans at War in Europe and the Pacific (Novato: Presidio
Press, 1994), 253.
MUNEMORI, SADAO S.
Rank and organization: Private First Class, U.S. Army, Company A,100th Infantry Battalion, 442d Combat
Team. Place and date: Near Seravezza, Italy, 5 April 1945. Entered service at: Los Angeles, Calif Birth:
Los Angeles, Calif. G.O. No.. 24, 7 March 1946. Citation: He fought with great gallantry and intrepidity
near Seravezza, Italy. When his unit was pinned down by grazing fire from the enemy’s strong mountain
defense and command of the squad devolved on him with the wounding of its regular leader, he made
frontal, l-man attacks through direct fire and knocked out 2 machineguns with grenades Withdrawing under
murderous fire and showers of grenades from other enemy emplacements, he had nearly reached a shell
crater occupied by 2 of his men when an unexploded grenade bounced on his helmet and rolled toward his
helpless comrades. He arose into the withering fire, dived for the missile and smothered its blast with his
body. By his swift, supremely heroic action Pfc. Munemori saved 2 of his men at the cost of his own life
and did much to clear the path for his company’s victorious advance.170
In an almost ironic twist of fate, one of the last chapters of the history of the
100th /442nd involves the Nisei of the 522nd Field Artillery battalion. While most of the
100th /442nd was sent back to northern Italy to help in the final push against the Germans,
the 522nd FAB was detached and assigned as a roving artillery support unit assigned to
various combat units in Germany. As such, the 522nd was involved with the liberation of
Dachau, one of Nazi Germany’s most notorious extermination camps. During its
infamous existence, the camp at Dachau housed prisoners from over 27 different
countries and claimed over 32,000 deaths by mass extermination, death marches,
individual execution and starvation. 171 It was during the last days of April, 1945 that men
of the 522nd FAB happened upon a site that would be forever etched into their memory.
In the book Go For Broke by Chester Tanaka, Company “K” of the 442nd RCT, the first
moments when the soldiers of the Nisei artillery unit entered the camp are brought to
light in the passages of a diary written by eyewitness, Ichiro Imanura of the 522nd
Medical Detachment: “Two liason scouts from the 522nd Field Artillery Battalion,
170
The official website for the Center for Military History. ( http://www.army.mil/cmh -pg/mohiib1.htm)
Data from Concentration Camp-Dachau, 1933-1945, International Dachau Committee, Munich, 1978,
booklet.)
171
100th /442nd, were among the first Allied troops to release prisoners in Dachau
concentration camp. I watched as one of the scouts used his carbine to shoot off the
chain that held the prison gates shut. He said he just had opened the gates when he saw a
couple of the 50 or so prisoners sprawled on the snow-covered ground, moving weakly.
They weren’t dead as he had first thought.”172 Another eyewitness to the liberation of
prisoners at Dachau was Technician Forth Grade, Joe Ichiuji of Battery “A” of the 522nd
FAB. The following is his incredible story:
Joseph Ichiuji, Battery “A”, 522 FAB during second Basic Training at Camp Shelby, Miss., 1943,
pictured on left. Service record is on the right. (Photo courtesy of Joe Ichiuji)
As a member of the 522nd Field Artillery Battalion, we were attached to the 21st Army Group in
Germany. We passed the Siegfried Line where we saw a whole regiment of captured German POWs.
The Germans were giving-up everywhere along the Rhine. We spent about 45 days in Germany as a
floating battalion assigned as needed. We entered Dachau and saw a number of released Jewish
prisoners with black and gray uniforms on. They were released by our advanced scouts. These prisoners
had short haircuts and very shallow faces. Practically all of them suffered from malnutrition because the
German soldiers, in their haste to escape our advance, left them with no food. I saw the Jewish inmates
eating a raw horse on the side of the road. We bivouacked on the side of the Dachau camp where we
built a fire. Many of the released Jews came into the camp looking for food and warmth. Some of our
guys gave them blankets and “C” rations, whatever they could find. We were told later not to feed the
inmates the food we had because it was too rich, they would not be able to handle it. Some died. Some
of my friends went into the camp and opened the door to one of the barracks and it was full of skeletons!
He said he would never forget the smell. The commanders of the 522nd allowed some of the Jewish
inmates to work in the camps as aids in the mess tent. The 522nd helped some of the Jewish prisoners try
to find lost family members who were separated after the massive round-ups by the Nazis. There was
this one Jewish POW who was a painter. He knew that his family was in one of the concentration camps
in Austria, so he asked the CO if it would be okay to look for his family, and the CO allowed it. He
172
Chester Tanaka, Go for Broke (Richmond, Ca.: Go for Broke, Inc., 1982), 117.
found his wife and two children alive.” 173
As the war came to end, thousands of new Japanese-American recruits continued to flood
the ranks of the 100th /442nd RCT in Italy. Finally, on May 2, the Germans surrendered in
the Po Valley region, and 5 days later all German forces surrendered effective May 8,
1945. After a brief period as occupation troops, the men of the 100th /442nd RCT went
home to little fanfare or celebration. 174
MSgt Sus Toyoda (far right) with Japanese POW (left
In Bougainville, April 1944.
173rd Language Detachment, 37th Division
Bougainville, 1944-45. MSgt Sus Toyoda
is in the front row, 2nd from the right
No history of the Japanese-American experience during World War II wo uld be
complete without a brief examination of the contributions made in the Pacific Theater by
the Nisei who served with the Military Intelligence Service (MIS). When the war in the
Pacific began between the Empire of Japan and the United States, Japanese officials felt
very confident in marking any type of military document or battle order in plain
“Japanese” without first decoding the material. In fact, throughout the war it was
common practice for Japanese pilots and radio operators to broadcast information in the
173
Joe Ichiuji, interviewed by author, phone tape recording from Knoxville, TN to Rockville, MA. June 18,
2002.
174
Lyn Crost, Honor by Fire-Japanese Americans at War in Europe and the Pacific (Novato: Presidio
Press, 1994), 253.
“clear” because it was thought that no one could understand the complex Japanese
language. 175 To counter this problem, the War Department decided to start a language
school in the Presidio of San Francisco under the direction of Lt. General John DeWitt,
the same man who later echoed those infamous words “A Jap is a Jap” during the
roundup for internment. 176 In July of 1942, months before the outbreak of war in the
Pacific, a number of Nisei who were serving in the Army were subjected to a testing of
their Japanese language abilities. Recruiters were quickly dispatched throughout Hawaii
and the mainland to find skilled Nisei linguists who could be trained in the art of military
intelligence and interrogation. One of the first recruits to enter the Military Intelligence
Service was Sus Toyoda of San Gabriel, California: “I was inducted into the U.S. Army
per the Selective Service Act at Fort MacArthur, California and assigned to Company
“A” of the 56th Medical Battalion at Ft. Lewis, Washington. ”177 Sus, like so many other
Japanese-Americans on the West Coast, was not immune to the effects of prejudice and
discrimination produced by the attack on Pearl Harbor:
I was in the San Francisco area attending the Surgical Technicians Course at Letterman General
Hospital in the Presidio when I heard about the attack on Pearl Harbor. I quickly returned to Ft. Lewis in
Washington and found the 56th Medical Battalion set-up in the surrounding woods. Rumors were flying
that the Japanese were going to attack and land troops in Seattle. Being an eager beaver, I stepped out
and became a volunteer for guard duty. I performed my guard duty 2 hours on down at the motor-pool
armed with nothing but a nightstick, no rifle. We hadn’t received rifle training yet. I completed the 2
hours and reported back to the guard officer. He said, “You’re relieved of duty.” I said, “Why?” He
replied that some of the guys in the outfit did not want the motor pool guarded by a “Jap.” That really
hurt me!178
After being transferred to a Reception Center at Camp Wolters, Texas, Corporal Toyoda
was assigned to the newly relocated Military Intelligence School at Camp Savage,
Minnesota where he underwent 6 months of Japanese Language training. “It was an
intensive course on the Japanese language. We had to memorize all types of material that
contained Japanese writing including letters, radio intercepts, order of battle documents
from the Japanese Army and diaries. We also had to learn all the Japanese holidays.
Why? The Japanese military loved to attack on holidays.”179 Upon the completion of
training, Corporal Toyoda and other MIS members were reassigned to the Pacific to help
175
Joseph D. Harrington, Yankee Samurai (Detroit: Pettigrew Press, Inc, 1979), 7.
Ibid, 8.
177
Sus Toyoda, interviewed by author, phone tape recording from Knoxville, TN to Carlsbad, CA., June 9,
2002.
178
Ibid
179
Ibid.
176
the American and Allied troops gather information about the Japanese forces through
POW interrogation.
By March 1945, newly promoted Master Sergeant Sus Toyoda was heavily involved
with the combat actions of the 173rd Language Detachment of the 37th Infantry Division
on Bougainville in the Solomon Islands. After an intense firefight between the 37th
Infantry and the 45th Regiment of the infamous Japanese 6th Division*, a Japanese POW
disclosed vital information that resulted in a major victory for American forces. MSgt
Toyoda was there to gather the crucial information from the POW:
He mentioned he was on patrol and that he was trying to find a soft spot somewhere in our lines.
Why? Because there was going to be a regimental attack by the Japanese forces. The next Japanese
holiday was “Japan’s Army Day” on March 10th . This information was relayed to the G-2 section and
the commanding officer of the U.S. XIV Corps all the way up the line. The front lines were really
reinforced with extra fields of fire, extra pillboxes, barbed wire entanglements were doubled and tripled
in some places. Sure enough, the Japanese 45th Regiment attacked on our right on March 10, 1944. Our
infantrymen described it like shooting ‘fish in a barrel.’ Bodies were stacked like cordwood. The
strength of the 45th was about 3500 soldiers. We estimated that the entire regiment was decimated. All
this caused by the information from one prisoner.180
Information obtained by Japanese prisoners wasn’t the only source of valuable
intelligence that had an effect on the outcome of the operations on Bougainville. Once
again, according to MSgt Toyoda, information about Japanese operations could be found
everywhere, even on the dead:
I found a bloodied map showing the location of the 23rd Infantry Regiment of the Japanese 6th
Division, including the assembly area, line of attack, and the line of departure, all for the entire 23rd
Regiment. We noticed two nights prior to this that there had been an attack. The Japanese had used
probing tactics every other night. It was estimated that the night I found the map was the night the Japs
would assemble. Fortunately their maps and ours were practically the same as far as coordinates and
grids go. It was decided that the artillery of the 37th , the 14th Corps and Americal Division would zero in
on the assembly area. Starting around 6 in the evening, we sent everything but the kitchen sink into the
area. The following morning the patrol went out and claimed that the entire jungle area appeared like a
moonscape. They found only one Japanese soldier wondering around. He was brought back to
Headquarters and interrogated. This guy broke down and cried because he came all the way from Japan
to fight the American soldiers and he was unable to fire even one shot. This more or less ended the
Battle of Bougainville. 181
180
181
Ibid.
Ibid. *The Japanese 6th Division was involved with the “Rape of Nanking” in China
For his service in the Philippines, Sergeant Toyoda received a Bronze Star.
(Document courtesy of Sus Toyoda)
From Bougainville, to the Philippines and all the way to the gates of Tokyo, the
intelligence and information gathered by MIS men like MSgt Sus Toyoda had a dramatic
effect on the outcome of the war in the Pacific as American and Allied forces won victory
after victory over Japanese forces. In Burma, members of the MIS served with
distinction as part of the elite 5307th Composite Unit under the command of Colonel
Frank D. Merrill. 182 Modeled and trained along the lines of the Chindits under General
Joe “Vinegar” Stillwell, the actions of “Merrill’s Marauders” were instrumental in re-
182
John Costello, The Pacific War-1941 to 1945 (New York: Rawson, 1981), 462.
opening supplies along the vital Burma highway into China. 183 As the war ended in the
Pacific, some MIS veterans continued to serve in occupied Japan, helping to re-build the
ravaged nation. According to Peter Okada, who was assigned to the Marine 10th Division
in southern Japan in October of 1945, “The Nisei were involved with almost everything,
from helping establish the court system where they had the military tribunal, to providing
assistance to industry and education.”184 Many believe the contributions of the veterans
of the Military Intelligence School helped end the war in the Pacific two years earlier
than expected.
Before closing this chapter on the history of the Japanese-American experience during
World War II, it’s important to examine what the leading commanders and soldiers in the
field had to say about their contributions. General Mark Clark, Commander of the U.S.
5th Army had this to say about the 100th Battalion during its time in Italy:
A bright spot in this period was the performance of the 100th Battalion, which had recently been
assigned to the 34th Division. Except for several months in southern France, the 100th Battalion fought
magnificently throughout the Italian campaign. It won the Presidential Citation for the destruction of a
German SS Battalion on Mt. Belevedere, north of Piombino, in June 1944. It participated in many other
engagements, had heavy casualties, and earned fourteen Distinguished Service Crosses and seventy-five
Silver Stars. These Nisei troops seemed to be very conscious of the fact that they had an opportunity to
prove the loyalty of many thousands of Americans of Japanese ancestry and they willingly paid a high
price to achieve that goal. I was proud to have them in the 5th Army.185
Major General Jacob L. Devers, who commanded the Allied invasion of Southern France,
had this to say about the 100th /442nd:
There is one supreme, final test of loyalty for one’s native land-readiness and willingness to fight for,
and if need be, to die for one’s country. These Americans pass that test with colors flying. They proved
their loyalty and devotion beyond all question…These men…more than earned the right to be called just
Americans, not Japanese Americans. Their Americanism may be described only by degree, and that the
highest!186
In reaction to a wave of new racial discrimination that broke out after the war, a number
of field officers and fellow G.I.s spoke out for their Nisei brethren. In a request to the
War Department to get permission to officially speak out on behalf of the Japanese-
183
Ibid, 462.
Peter Okada, interviewed by author, phone tape recording from Knoxville, TN to Kirkland, WA. June
10, 2002.
185
Mark Clark, Calculated Risk (New York: Harpers & Brothers, 1950), 235.
186
Chester Tanaka, Go for Broke (Richmond, Calif.: Go for Broke, Inc., 1982), 171.
184
American combat veterans in his home state of California, Captain George H. Grandstaff
of the 100th Battalion had this to say:
As one of the few white officers who served with the Japanese American 100th Battalion for two and
a half years, my main interest is to see that the splendid work they have done in combat is called to the
attention of the people of the Pacific Coast in order that Japanese Americans who desire to return here
may receive fair treatment. The thought in…my mind…was that a white officer who lived in California
most of his life could emphasize their splendid combat record as no Japanese American could. Racial
prejudice would not enter the minds of the audience where I am concerned.187
Four other officers, including three from the 442nd RCT requested and received
permission to similar assignments in their home states. All of them were given 30-day
furloughs to represent the War Relocation Authority in its efforts to re- introduce the
Japanese-Americans back into American society. 188 White soldiers who had served in
other combat units along side the 100th /442nd also joined in these efforts:
From Company D, 168th Regiment, 34th Division to the 100th Battalion in appreciation of the heroic
and meritorious achievements of our fellow Americans in the 100th Battalion and the 442nd Infantry
Regiment. We do hereby assert that our help can be counted upon to convince the folks back home that
you are fully deserving of all the privileges with which we ourselves bestowed. It is a privilege and
honor to acknowledge the members of the 100th Battalion and the 442nd Regiment as fellow Americans.
We are duly proud to say “Well Done” to you and yours.189
These and other similar statements can be found almost everywhere in all the material
and histories written about the 100th /442nd. The legacy of the dedicated work and bravery
of the members of the Military Intelligence Service are best illustrated in the numerous
buildings named in their honor at the Defense Language Institute at the Presidio of
Monterey in California.
In the end, the incredible record of achievements, awards and citations earned on the
fields of battle in Europe and the Pacific by the heroic Nisei of the 100th /442nd
Regimental Combat Team and Military Intelligence Service are testimony to the bravery
and loyalty of all Japanese-Americans who contributed to American and Allied victory
during World War II. When asked recently why they fought so hard against their
enemies, the veterans interviewed for this essay all gave similar responses. “I didn’t do
anything brave, I just did what I had to,” responded Tets Asato of Company “G” of the
187
Thomas D. Murphy, Ambassadors in Arms (Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1955), 276.
Ibid, 276.
189
Ibid, 277.
188
442nd. “ It’s part of our ancestry, you don’t do anything to shame the family. We did
what we had to do as a team, some gave more.”190 For Jim Makino, a veteran of “G”
Company of the 442nd, it came down to just doing the right thing: “We had to join, fight
and win with honor, and live-up to our motto, “Go For Broke.”191 In reflecting on his
motivation to serve with the 522nd Field Artillery Battalion of the 442nd RCT, Joe Ichiuji
echoed similar thoughts: “We had to prove we were loyal Americans. I’m very happy to
have served in the U.S. Army and that I came back uninjured.”192 One of the things that
Don Seki of “L” Company, 442nd RCT remembers the most is the leadership: “Our noncommissioned officers, especially the platoon sergeants, they were the ones who really
led us. Our officers were really terrific! They did whatever they could for us. Our
Battalion commanders were terrific. I feel terrific today to have served with such an
incredible group of guys.”193 The following sentiments by Lawson Sakai of “E”
Company, 2nd Battalion of the 442nd encapsulates the total spirit and motivation of the
typical Japanese-American combat veteran of World War II:
We needed to prove we were loyal Americans. Prove to the government that we were loyal and not
“enemy aliens” as they called us. We needed to right a wrong, and this is what we intended to do, even if it
meant giving up our lives to do so. It meant serving with honor. That is why these men would charge a hill
and attack a machine gun nest with such veracity. I don’t know if other units would do the same thing. I
saw so many men shot down during those charges. I saw medics get shot right through the red cross on
their helmets. These guys were the real heroes.194
For many veterans of the 100th /442nd and MIS, they interpreted their mission as a
means to inspire their incarcerated families at home in Relocation Camps. In a letter to
his imprisoned sister dated July 29, 1944, Pfc. Ernest Uno of the 442nd RCT wrote about
why he was fighting: “I know now, for certain, what we are fighting for! Our mission is
to free all the nations of oppression. Give the children of this, and the coming
190
Tets Asato, interviewed by author, phone tape recording from Knoxville, TN to Torrance, CA., June 17,
2002.
191
Jim Makino, interviewed by author, phone tape recording from Knoxville, TN to San Gabriel, CA., June
30, 2002.
192
Joe Ichiuji, interviewed by author, phone tape recording from Knoxville, TN to Rockville, MA. June 18,
2002.
193
Don Seki, interviewed by author, phone tape recording, Knoxville, TN to Long Beach, CA., June 30,
2002.
194
Lawson Sakai, interview by author at Air National Guard TEC, Knoxville, TN., May 22, 2002.
generations a chance to grow decently, and learn the true meaning of the ‘Four
Freedoms.’”195
Thanks to the incredible efforts of the Nisei soldiers who fought and died on such
infamous battle fields as Monte Cassino, Bruyeres-Biffontaine, Guadalcanal, Iowa Jima,
Okinawa and in the Po Valley, the liberties and freedoms we so dearly cherish today are
preserved for future generations. The surviving veterans of the 100th /442nd and the
Military Intelligence Service are getting older now. Not many of them are left. But even
as they pass on, their legacy continues in the form of their children and grandchildren.
The lessons we’ve learned from the history of the 100th /442nd and MIS say a lot about our
nation and people. In closing, let the following statement from President Truman made
in honor of the 100th /442nd/MIS veterans at a special presentation at the end of the war, be
the foundation in which we honor and remember these proud soldiers:
You are to be congratulated on what you have done for
this great country of ours. I think it was my predecessor
who said that Americanism is not a matter of race or creed,
it is a matter of the heart.
You fought for the free nations of the world along
with the rest of us. I congratulate you on that, and I
can’t tell you how very much I appreciate the privilege of
being able to show you just how much the United States of
America thinks of what you have done.
You are now on your way home. You fought not only the
enemy, but you fought prejudice-and you have won. Keep up
the fight and we will continue to win-to make this great
Republic stand for just what the Constitution says it
stands for: the welcome of all the people all the time.
Bring forward the colors.
Decorations Earned by the 100th Infantry Battalion and the
442nd Regimental Combat Team
•
195
7 Major campaigns in Europe
Pfc.Ernst Uno in a letter to his sister, Mae taken from War Letters, ed. Andrew Carroll (New York:
Scribner, 2001), 225.
•
8 Presidential Unit Citations: 5 of these were earned during the one -month
period during the fighting for Bruyeres and the “Lost Battalion”
•
9,486 Casualties (Purple Hearts)
•
18,143 Individual decorations including:
•
21 Congressional Medals of Honor
•
52 Distinguished Service Crosses
•
1 Distinguished Service Medal
•
560 Silver Stars, with 28 Oak Leaf Clusters in lieu of second award
•
22 Legion of Merit Medals
•
4,000 Bronze Stars, 1,200 Oak Leaf Clusters representing second Bronze
Stars
•
15 Soldier’s Medals
•
12 French Croix de Guerre, with 2 Palms representing second award
•
2 Italian Crosses for Military Merit
•
2 Italian Medals for Military Valor
•
36 Army Commendations
•
87 Division Commendations
•
1 Meritorious Service Plaque for Medical Detachment and Service Company
Medal of Honor Recipients of the 100th/442nd RCT
Private Barney Hijaro
Private First Class, I Company, 3rd Battalion, 442nd RCT
Awarded the Medal of Honor for valor on October 19, 22 and 29, 1944, near Bruyeres
and Biffontaine, France during the famous battle to rescue the “Lost Battalion” of Texas
National Guardsmen from the 141st Infantry Regiment
Acting as a security guard on top of an embankment, Hijaro observed a friendly unit
under attack in a house 200 yards away. Disregarding personal safety, Hijaro directed
fire at the enemy stronghold killing or wounding a number of snipers. While holding a
forward attack position, Hijaro helped capture 2 light machine guns, two automatic rifles,
4 pistols, 10 rifles and a number of grenades.
Tech. Sgt. James K. Okubo
Awarded the Medal of Honor for heroism as a noncombatant on October 28 and 29, and
November 4, 1944 with the 442nd RCT near Biffontaine, France.
Under constant barrages of enemy small arms and machine gun fire, Okubo risked
personal safety to treat a number of wounded soldiers during the fierce struggle to save
the Texas National Guard troops of the “Lost Battalion”, 141st Infantry Regiment. In
one particular instance, Okubo ran 75 yards under grazing machine gun fire, while
exposing himself to direct hostile fire, to save a wounded crewman from a burning tank
who would have otherwise died.
Pfc. Kiyoshi Muranaga
Private First Class, F Company, 442nd RCT
Awarded the Medal of Honor for heroic actions on June 26, 1944 near Suverto, Italy.
While his company of fellow soldiers dispersed around him, Pfc. Muranaga held his
position as a mortarman in an attempt to hold back attacking German forces. Fully
exposing his position to the enemy, he called down his own death as he dueled one-onone with the heavier artillery of deadly German 88 mm self-propelled guns in order to
protect his comrades. Muranaga was killed by a direct hit on his position
(no photo available)
Pvt. Mikio Hasemoto
Private, B Company, 100th Battalion, 442nd RCT
Awarded Medal of Honor on November 29, 1943
During intense combat action around Cerasuolo, Italy, Pvt. Hasemoto distinguished
himself by repulsing a German attack on the left flank of his position by over 40 heavily
armed soldiers. When the enemy advanced on his position, Hasemoto fired his weapon
until it was damaged by automatic rifle fire. He ran to the rear, secured another rifle, and
continued to defend his position. Running through a barrage of machine gun bullets,
Hasemoto continued to fire back at the enemy, killing 27 enemy soldiers in the process.
He was killed the next day repelling another German attack.
(no photo available)
Tech. Sgt. Yeiki Kobashigawa
Tech. Sgt. B Company, 100th Battalion, 442 RCT
Awarded Medal of Honor for his actions on June 2, 1944, near Lanuvio, Italy
During an attack, Kobashigawa’s platoon came across a series of German machine-gun
nests. Spotting one 50 yards away, he crawled forward, threw a grenade and then
charged with his sub- machine gun. He killed one enemy soldier and captured two
prisoners. Moment’s later, more enemy machine-gun positions opened fire on
Kobashigawa’s men. While providing cover fire and grenade support, Kobashigawa
helped neutralize and capture a number of enemy soldiers and guns.
Pvt. Shizuya Hayashi
Private, A Company, 100th Battalion, 442nd RCT
Awarded Medal of Honor for his actions on November 29, 1943 near Cerasuolo, Italy
During an assault on high ground held by German soldiers, Hayashi rose alone in the face
of grenade, rifle and machine-gun fire, fired his automatic weapon from the hip while
wearing a shoulder sling, and cha rged an enemy machine-gun nest. He took the position,
killing 7 men and wounding two more. Moments later, Hayashi attacked an enemy antiaircraft position, killing nine more enemy soldiers while capturing 4 prisoners.
Pfc. Kaoru Moto
Private First Class, C Company, 100th Battalion, 442nd RCT
Awarded Medal of Honor for his actions on July 7, 1944 at Castellina, Italy
While serving as a first scout, Pfc. Moto attacked a machine-gun nest, took a prisoner,
and then captured a house used as an observation post by the enemy. Wounded, Moto
continued to defend the position from being attacked by the Germans. Later, Moto
spotted another machine- gun nest and opened fire, wounding two Germans and capturing
several others.
Pvt. Masato Nakae
Private, A Company, 100th Battalion, 442nd RCT
Awarded Medal of Honor for his actions on August 19, 1944 at Pisa, Italy
Defending an outpost position, Pvt. Nakae held back a probe by German forces.
Wounded during a mortar barrage, Nakae refused to leave and continued to fire his M-1
rifle and throw grenades from his exposed position. Despite being seriously wounded by
shrapnel, Nakae held on and forced the Germans to withdraw.
Pvt. Shinyei Nakamine
Private, B Company, 100th Battalion, 442nd RCT
Awarded Medal of Honor for his actions on June 2, 1944 at La Torreto, Italy
When his platoon was pinned down by intense machine-gun cross fire, Pvt. Nakamine
crawled to within 25 yards of one enemy position and then charged it while firing his
sub- machine gun, killing 3 enemy soldiers and capturing 2 more. Later in the day, he led
another successful attack against a second German machine-gun. After spotting a third
enemy gun, he led another charge and was killed by a burst of enemy fire.
Pfc. William K. Nakamura
Private First Class, G Company, 442nd RCT
Awarded Medal of Honor for his actions on July 4, 1944 at Castellina, Italy
During a fierce firefight, Pfc. Nakamura crawled about 20 yards towards an enemy
machine- gun nest while under intense gunfire. When he was within 15 yards of the
enemy position, he quickly rose to a kneeling position and blasted the nest with a hail of
grenades. Pfc. Nakamura was later killed in action while making a heroic stand to defend
his position while the rest of his unit withdrew safely.
Staff Sgt. Allan M. Ohata
Staff Sgt. 100th Battalion, 442 RCT
Staff Sgt. Allan M. Ohata, 100th Battalion, was cited for heroism on November 29 and
30, 1943, near Cerasuola, Italy. Ohata, his squad leader and three other men were
ordered to protect their platoon’s left flank against a large force of enemy soldiers.
Coming to the aid of a wounded comrade, Ohata sprinted through heavy gunfire, reached
his comrade’s position, and pulled him to safety while spraying the enemy with withering
fire from his automatic weapon. Ohata and his men repeatedly fought off German attacks
throughout the day, killing over 40 some enemy soldiers.
Staff Sgt. Kazuo Otani
Staff Sgt., 442nd RCT
Staff Sgt. Kazuo, 442nd RCT, was awarded the Medal of Honor for heroism on July 15,
1944, near Pieve Di S. Luce, Italy. Otani’s platoon was attacking a hill when it was
pinned down in a wheat field by concentrated fire from enemy machine- gun and sniper
fire. Realizing the danger confronting his platoon, Otani left his cover and killed a sniper
who was firing with deadly effect upon his men. Then, followed by a steady stream of
machine- gun bullets, Otani dashed across the open field to act as a decoy to help his men
crawl to safety. Otani was killed while administering first aid to one of his wounded
comrades.
Tech. Sgt. Ted T. Tanouye
Tech. Sgt. Ted T. Tanouye, 442nd RCT, distinguished himself by extraordinary heroism
in action on July 7, 1944, near Molino A Ventoabbto, Italy. Tanouye led his platoon in
an attack to capture the crest of a strategically important hill that afforded little cover or
concealment. Tanouye crept up on an enemy machine-gun and opened fire, killing or
wounding three Germans. While advancing forward, Tanouye was severely wounded by
grenade bursts but continued forward, knocking out a number of enemy guns and men.
After drawing enemy fire on his position for most of the afternoon, Tanouya finally
organized a defensive position on a slope and accepted first aid for his wound.
Pvt. Joe Hayashi
Private First Class, Company K, 442nd RCT
Pvt. Joe Hayashi, 442nd RCT, was presented the Medal of Honor for gallantry on April 20
and 22, 1945, near Tendola, Italy. Ordered to attack a strongly defended hill that
commanded all approaches to the village of Tendola, Hayashi led his men to a point within 75 yards of enemy positions before they were detected. After dragging his wounded
comrades to safety, he returned alone and exposed himself to small arms fire in order to
direct and adjust mortar fire against the hostile emplacements. While attacking Tendola
two days later, Hayashi engaged and destroyed a number of enemy machine- guns and
men before being killed by a burst of machine pistol fire.
Pfc. Joe M. Nishimoto
Private First Class, Company G, 442nd RCT
Pfc. Joe M. Nishimoto, 442nd RCT, was cited for heroism on November 7, 1944, near La
Houssiere, France. After three days of unsuccessful attempts by his company to dislodge
the enemy from a strongly defended ridge, Nishimoto, as acting squad le ader, crawled
forward through a heavily mined and booby-trapped area. Spotting a machine gun nest,
he hurled a grenade and destroyed it. Circling to the rear of another nest, he knocked it
out with point-blank submachine gun fire. Nishimoto’s actions fo rced the enemy to
withdraw.
Tech. Sgt. Yukio Okutsu
Tech Sgt., Company F, 2nd Battalion, 442nd RCT
Tech. Sgt. Yukio Okutsu, 442nd RCT, distinguished himself in April 1945 on Mount
Belvedere, Italy. While his platoon was halted by the crossfire of three machine guns,
Oktutsu crawled through heavy fire to within 30 yards of one emplacement and
destroyed it with two grenades. Crawling and dashing from cover-to-cover, he silenced a
second machine gun with a grenade and then advanced on a third. Momentarily stunned
by glancing fire of his helmet, Okutsu continued to engage several other enemy positions,
killing and wounding a number of men. His single- handed actions enabled his platoon to
resume its vital mission.
Pfc. Frank H. Ono
Private First Class, Company G, 442nd RCT
Pfc. Frank Ono, 442nd RCT, was awarded the Medal of Honor for valor on July 4, 1944,
near Castellina, Italy. In attacking a heavily defended hill, Ono’s squad was caught in a
hail of gunfire from well-entrenched enemy soldiers. Ono opened fire with automatic
rifle and silenced one machine gun 300 yards to his front. When his platoon was ordered
to retreat, Ono occupied virtually unprotected positions, drawing enemy fire towards him
and away from his comrades. Disregarding his own safety, Ono made himself a target
until his men reached safety.
Pvt. George T. Sakato
Private, Company E, 442nd RCT
Pvt. George T. Sakato, 442nd RCT, distinguished himself in action on October 29, 1944,
near Biffontaine, France. After his platoon destroyed two enemy defense lines, during
which Sakato killed five enemy soldiers and captured four, the unit was pinned down by
heavy fire. Disregarding the enemy assault, Sakato made a one- man rush that
encouraged his platoon to charge and destroy the enemy stronghold. After his squad
leader was killed, Sakato too charge and continued the attack, killing and wounding a
number of enemy soldiers. His gallantry helped turn possible defeat into victory.
First Lt. Daniel K. Inouye
Company E, 2nd Battalion, 442nd RCT
First Lt. Daniel K. Inouye, now a U.S. senator, was awarded the Medal of Honor for
heroism on April 21, 1945, in the vicinity of San Terenzo, Italy. While attacking a
defended ridge guarding an important road junction, Inouye directed his platoon through
a hail of automatic weapons and small arms fire to capture an artillery and mortar post.
Inouye boldly crawled up the treacherous slope to within five yards of the nearest
machine- gun and destroyed it with two grenades. Before the enemy could retaliate, he
stood-up and neutralized a second enemy gun with submachine gun fire. Although
wounded by a sniper’s bullet, he continued to engage the enemy until an enemy grenade
shattered his right arm. Despite intense pain, Inouye refused treatment and continued to
lead his men.
Staff Sgt. Robert T. Kuroda
Company H, 2nd Battalion, 442nd RCT
Staff Sgt. Robert T. Kuroda, 442nd RCT, earned his Medal of Honor on October 20, 1944,
near Bruyeres, France. While leading his men in an effort to eliminate snipers and
machine gun nests, Kuroda encountered heavy enemy machine-gun fire from a heavily
wooded slope. Unable to pinpoint the nest, he maneuvered under fire toward the crest of
the ridge and located the enemy gun. He then advanced to within 10 yards of the nest
and killed three enemy gunners with grenades. Kuroda was later killed that same day by
a sniper while going to the aid of an American officer hit by enemy fire.
Pfc. Sadao S. Munemori
Pfc. Sadao S. Munemori, 100th Battalion, 442nd RCT, was awarded the Medal of Honor
posthumously for gallantry on April 5, 1945, near Servavezza, Italy. When his unit was
pinned down by grazing enemy fire and the outfit’s leader lay wounded, Munemori took
over and made frontal, one- man attacks through direct fire and knocked out two machinegun nests with grenades
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Oral Interviews conducted with the following veterans :
Mr. Lawson Sakai, veteran of Company “E” of the 2nd Battalion, 442nd Regimental
Combat Team, interviewed by author at the Air National Guard Training and Education
Center Multi-Media TV Studio, McGhee Tyson Air National Guard Base, Knoxville,
TN., May 22, 2002.
Mr. Tetsuo Asato, veteran of Company “G” of the 2nd Battalion, 442nd Regimental
Combat Team, interviewed by author by phone using a normal cassette tape recorder
from Knoxville, TN to Torrance, California, June 17, 2002.
Mr. Jim Makino, veteran of Company “G” of the 2nd Battalion, 442nd Regimental
Combat Team, interviewed by author by phone using a normal cassette tape recorder
from Knoxville, TN to San Gabriel, California, June 20, 2002.
Mr. Joe Ichiuji, veteran of the 522nd Field Artillery Battalion attached to the 442nd
Regimental Combat Team, interviewed by author by phone using a normal cassette tape
recorder from Knoxville, TN to Rockville, Maryland, June 18, 2002.
Mr. Don Seki, veteran of Company “L” of the 3rd Battalion of the 442nd Regimental
Combat Team, interviewed by author by phone using a normal cassette tape recorder
from Knoxville, TN to Long Beach, California, June 30, 2002.
Mr. Sus Toyoda, veteran of the Military Intelligence Service who served in the
campaigns at Bougainville and the Philippines, interviewed by author by phone using a
normal cassette tape recorder from Knoxville, TN to Carlsbad, California, June 9, 2002.
Mr. Peter Okada, veteran of the Military Intelligence Service who served in the
Philippines and Japan during the occupation phase, interviewed by author by phone using
a normal cassette tape recorder from Knoxville, TN to Kirkland, Washington, June 10,
2002.