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History of the Church
4 –Latter Middle Ages
The Offensive against Islam
The most idealistic, and perhaps tragic, events of the Middle Ages were the Crusades. Occupying the first
quarter of the second millennium, the Crusades were planned to save Constantinople and the Byzantine Empire,
to reunite the Eastern and Western branches of the Christian Church, and to reconquer the Holy Land. These
results were achieved, but only temporarily. Constantinople survived for five hundred years, the brief reunion of
East and West led to harsher feelings than before, and the conquest of Jerusalem lasted a hundred years before
the city fell to the Moslems.
In 1095 Pope Urban II received a request for aid from Alexios, Emperor of the Byzantine Empire, requesting
assistance due to possible defeat by the Seljuk Turks, a Sunni Moslem nation. Urban convened the Clermont
Council in November and called for a campaign against the Moslem forces, extending from Constantinople
through Antioch all the way to Jerusalem. Those who answered the call, rich or poor, would be pardoned of
their sins. Urban appointed Adhemar, bishop of Puy, leader of the expedition. The Crusaders made their way to
Constantinople and with the help of the Byzantines took Nicea, the headquarters of the Turks. After a difficult
siege at Antioch, during which Adhemar died of a fever, they eventually captured Jerusalem on July 15, 1099. A
bloodbath ensued; all defenders and many civilians were killed. At great cost, the aims of the first Crusade had
been met.
The period of the Crusades were a continuing series of battles and reinforcements, but specific high points have
been labeled as specific campaigns. In the Second Crusade (1147-1149), a huge army of two hundred thousand
under Louis VII of France and Conrad III of Germany suffered numerous defeats by the Turks and got little
accomplished. Jerusalem fell to the Muslims in 1187, so a third Crusade (1187-1192) was launched. These
crusaders never made it as far as Jerusalem, but Richard the Lionhearted negotiated a treaty which allowed for
trade and unarmed pilgrimages there. The fourth Crusade (1202-1204) was even more a disaster. The crusaders
ended up capturing Constantinople and setting up a western pope and an emperor of this already Christian city.
The Byzantines retook the city in 1261, and relationships between the Eastern and Western Church got worse
than ever.
The remaining Crusades, extending until 1270, served little purpose. The only successful moves against the
Moslems took place in Sicily and Spain. In the eleventh century, Normans drove out the Moslems who had
taken Sicily. By 1085 the Moors had been driven out of Spain except in Granada; they paid tribute to Spain until
the time of Ferdinand and Isabella in 1492.
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The Golden Age of Medieval Christianity
Mendicant Orders.
Latter Middle Ages saw the development of mendicant (“begging”) orders in the church. In the early 1200’s
Peter Waldo of Lyons was a merchant who was moved to devote his life to poverty and preaching. Rejected by
the church authorities and subjected to persecution, Waldo and his followers moved to remote areas of the Alps.
At the time of the Reformation, the Waldensians became Protestant.
Giovanni di Bernardone, nicknamed Francesco by his merchant father, became a Christian during his time of
fighting for his native Assisi. Paralleling Waldo, Francesco determined to found a mendicant order, and he
obtained blessing of Pope Innocent to do so. The movement grew rapidly, focusing on preaching, singing, and
begging. After beginning the Franciscan Order in 1210, he stepped down from leadership 1220 and died in
1226. The Pope declared him a Saint by 1228. Among the innovations of St. Francis of Assisi was establishing
Nativity scenes.
The Dominican Order (the Order of Preachers) was founded at the same time by Dominic Guzman, a priest
from Castile. He established to order to combat heresy and spread the Gospel. The focus was on study in a
monastic context. The Dominicans established houses in the leading universities. Thomas Acquinas was a
Dominican. Following this pattern, the Franciscans also began to serve in the leading universities.
Papacy.
Although the Concordat of Worms (1122) established an orderly process for popes to be selected by cardinals,
the strife between emperors and popes was far from over. When Frederick Barbarossa was Emperor (11521190), he even had a series of rival popes appointed. When Frederick’s son Henry VI succeeded him and tried to
interfere with papal matters, Pope Celestine III excommunicated him. Both men died around the same time
(1198), and the Cardinals elected 37 year old Lotario di Segni pope. The new pope, Innocent III became one of
the strongest and most active popes in medieval times.
When two rival factions chose the new emperor, Innocent backed Otto IV, saying that just as the moon got its
light from the sun, the emperor gets his power from the pope. When Otto turned against the pope over resisting
his power in Italy, Innocent excommunicated Otto and helped get the previous emperor’s son on the throne.
When the powerful king of France, once widowed, left his second wife to take a third, Innocent placed the
whole country under an interdict which forbade the celebration of the sacraments until the king returned to wife
two. When two factions in Britain advanced candidates to be Archbishop of Canterbury, the pope rejected both
and put his man Stephen Langton (1207) in place. When King John refused to accept Langton, the pope first
excommunicated John. When that was insufficient, Innocent declared King John deposed from his throne,
released all his subjects from vows of obedience to him, and made plans for a crusade against him. John
capitulated. John was the English king who signed the Magna Carta of 1215.
Innocent’s plan for reformation within the church took shape in the Fourth Lateran Council in 1215. The
council, meeting at the Lateran Palace in Rome, quickly approved the doctrine of substantiation, condemned the
Waldensians, and ordered that every cathedral have a school open to the poor. It required all Christians to
confess their sins at least once per year and all non-Christians (Jews and Moslems) to wear distinctive clothing
in Christian lands.
Scholasticism.
The thirteenth century was a high point in Scholasticism, the method of learning based on logical analysis. It
was developed in the cathedral schools and universities. One of the leaders in the movement was Anselm of
Canterbury (1033-1109), an Italian monk who had become archbishop of Canterbury. Anselm applied reason to
questions of faith. He is known for working to prove things which he already knew by faith.
Handling the relationship between faith and reason somewhat differently was one of the greatest of the
theologians of the period, Thomas Aquinas (1225-1274). Well educated, from an aristocratic family, Acquinas
became a Dominican monk and later a famous professor in Paris. Thomas held that sense perception is the
beginning of knowledge. Rational inquiry helps us to understand better what we accept by faith. Some truths
are beyond reason, but those required for salvation have been revealed and can be proved. Acquinas added a
new dimension to traditional doctrine in a systematic structure.
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The Collapse
The high points of the church began to erode at the end of the 13th century. The temporary link between the East
and West from the Fourth Crusade dissolved. New economic and political conditions weakened the authority of
the Pope. Nationalism, war, plague, corruption, and invasion were all to be faced.
The growing monetary economy with trade and manufacturing led to a growing middle class whose interest
clashed with petty wars and high taxes of the nobles. They supported a strong king to control the nobles and
protect trade. Stronger kings meant stronger nations, and that weakened the authority of the popes who saw
themselves over all. If the pope leaned toward the interests of his ally in France, England was ready to disobey.
If the pope leaned away from France, they would elect a new pope.
One great event of the latter Middle Ages was the Hundred Years’ War (1337-1475). Although many European
nations were involved over the time span, it was essentially a war between England and France. A number of
times the English would attack France successfully but then withdraw when they ran out of funds. When Charles
VI of France died, there was a civil war in France to succeed him. His son, Charles VII, was losing the war and
was besieged in the village of Domremy. Joan of Arc, claiming that she had visions of Saints Catherine and
Margaret and the archangel Michael ordering her to lead Charles’ troops, got permission from Charles to lead
some minor ant then larger sorties, which were successful. The siege broke, and Charles became king; he was
crowned in the cathedral at Reims with Joan at his side. Incredibly Joan was later tried for heresy by the French
and burned at the stake. (Joan was sainted in 1920)
Another major event of the period was the great plague of 1347, causing estimates of the death of one third of
the population. In addition to personal losses, it caused great economic disruption. Superstitions ran rampant.
The Jews were suspected of instigating the destruction, and many acts of persecution resulted. To top it off, in
1453 the Turks captured and took formal possession of Constantinople.
The Papacy and France.
A serious rift developed between the Roman popes and the kings of France beginning around 1294. At one point
Pope Boniface was preparing to excommunicate King Philip and was actually kidnapped by Philip’s forces. A
pro-French pope, Clement V, was elected in 1305; in 1309 he began residing in Avignon, a papal city on the
French border. For nearly seventy years the “bishops of Rome” remained in Avignon. They were viewed, with
some justification, by England and other countries as “tools” of French policy, further weakening the papal
authority. These papal moves took funds, and the practices condemned earlier of selling ecclesiastical positions
(sometimes multiples), absenteeism, and nepotism returned.
In 1370 Gregory XI became Pope. That same year Catharine of Siena, a well known teacher of mysticism, had a
vision that the popes should return the papacy to Rome. She mounted a campaign from city to city, and in 1377
Gregory moved to Rome. It is not clear what effect Catharine had on the Pope’s decision, but a century later she
was sainted. In 1970 she was named a “doctor of the church,” the highest honor.
When Gregory died in 1378, the people of Rome feared another French pope or French-leaning pope, for the
number of French cardinals outnumbered the Italians. To prevent the cardinals from moving to a French area
and electing a French pope, a mob controlled the area. Under this threat, the cardinals elected an Italian, Urban
VI. Urban began strict reforms which raised the ire of the cardinals. To solidify his position, Urban appointed
26 new cardinals from among his supporters. He also appointed relatives to positions of importance.
The cardinals, based on the circumstance of Urban’s initial election as well as his actions afterward, concluded
that they need a proper election of a new pope. The new Italian cardinals abstained, and a pro-French new pope,
Clement VII, was elected. After an attempt to take over Rome, Clement was repulsed and settled back in
Avignon. With two duly-elected popes, the rest of Europe was forced to take sides. France along with their ally
Scotland supported the Avignon Pope Clement. England, Scandinavia, Flanders, Hungary and Poland backed
Urban, the Roman pope.
In Quest of Reformation
The state of the church at the end of the 14th century was poor, and a number of approaches were taken to try to
improve – reform – the fragmented church. The papal sagas, including the “Babylonian captivity” (Avignon)
and the Great Schism resulting in two popes, were damaging. In the past, such challenges called for a church
council to resolve, but with two popes who had the authority to call such a council? In 1409, cardinals of both
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parties, weary of the wrangling and lack of negotiation, called a combined council at Pisa. This was supported
by the crown heads as well. Within a year, the council had elected John XXIII, but neither the Roman nor
Byzantine pope was ready to resign; there were now three popes! (Yes, there was a John XXIII in the 20th
century, but neither the Byzantine nor Pisan popes count in the Roman Catholic Church.)
The Turkish threat caused the Byzantine pope and the patriarch to reach out to Rome for protection; they agreed
to Roman papal supremacy and joined the council. The old Roman pope died and was not succeeded. There
was one splinter pope for a brief period with a part of the council, but finally in 1449 the church had a single
pope (Nicholas V) supported by a single council; the papacy had finally won.
The councils of the church dealt with ecclesiastical issues such as electing popes and legislating church polity,
such as nepotism, simony, and absenteeism; other movements sought to reform the doctrines of the church. One
of those seeking doctrinal reform was John Wycliffe (1320-1384), who lived during the Avignon papacy (13091378) when seven popes in succession lived away from Rome. An Oxford scholar, Wycliffe maintained that all
legitimate dominion comes from God; this power should be used in the manner of Christ, Who came to serve,
not be served. This was well received by English forces concerned with papal excesses, but not well received
when applied to English civil authority.
He began to teach that the true church is the body of those predestined by God (per Augustine), not necessarily
the pope and other hierarchy. Since the best way to know one’s status is by the fruit one produces, he doubted
the pope was predestined! The Bible belongs to the body of the church and should be translated so the common
people in the body can read it. He did some translation himself and the translation movement began.
The Fourth Lateran Council in 1215 had affirmed transubstantiation, and this caused the biggest controversy in
Wycliffe’s teachings. When God was joined to human nature, the presence of the divinity did not destroy the
humanity. Likewise, the presence of Christ in the bread and wine does not destroy it. This was viewed as a
heresy. Wycliffe died suddenly performing a mass in 1384. The Council of Constance in 1415 declared
Wycliffe a heretic, had his body exhumed, and his ashes scattered in the river Swift.
Wycliffe’s writings were taken to Bohemia, part of Czechoslovakia (now the Czech Republic), and caused a stir
at the University of Prague. The rector there, Jan Hus (John Huss 1369-1415), did not particularly agree with
Wycliffe, especially about transubstantiation, but he strongly supported the ability to discuss his ideas. The
archbishop of Prague, who had previously clashed with Hus, banned Wycliffe works as well as banning
preaching outside of regular churches (which was aimed at Hus.) Hus disobeyed, was summoned to see the
pope to answer for his disobedience, refused to go, and was excommunicated in 1411.
Hus’ conflict with Pope John XXIII became more pointed. Although he was not concerned about the legitimacy
of the Pisan pope, Hus questioned the authority of the pope when he was clearly acting for his own interest and
not the church. This was exemplified when the pope began to sell indulgences to finance a crusade against
Naples in a matter of Italian politics. Hus was incensed that a war was being promulgated between Christians
for the pope’s ambitions. A pope who does obey the Bible is a pope not to be obeyed. When Hus’ views were
made known, backed up by demonstrations of supporters, John excommunicated Hus again.
Jan Hus was invited to present his views at the Council of Constance and promised safe harbor by Emperor
Sigismund. This was violated when Hus was taken to the papal consistory and ordered to recant his heresy. He
responded that he would be glad to recant any heresy if he could be shown what he had ever said that was
heretical. He was later taken before the council in chains and told to recant. If he had agreed that what he had
said was heresy, he would be labeling his supporters as heretics as well, and this he refused to do. The council
wanted to confirm orthodoxy and wanted no arguments about their decisions, so Hus was burned at the stake.
Some Czechs took ashes from the spot back home to serve as a memorial of the Constance crime against Hus.
All of Bohemia rebelled at the treatment of Hus by the Council and the Pope. After five unsuccessful crusades
against Bohemia, the church in Bohemia rejoined the alliance with the proviso that they could continue with
some of their basic tenets, including communion of bread and wine for the laity. Some elements did not agree
and left the church, forming the Unitas Fratrum – Union of Brethren. Their numbers grew rapidly in Bohemia
and nearby Moravia. The Unitas Fratrum was persecuted later by the Roman Catholics, but the remnants – the
Moravians – became an integral part of the Reformed faith.
Reformation within the church was clearly needed.
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