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ISLAMISATION POLICY IN MALAYSIA:
A POLICY STUDY IN A MULTI-RELIGIOUS SOCIETY
____________________________________________________
ZATUL HIMMAH ADNAN
B.A. (Hons.), M.A.
Thesis submitted in fulfillment of the requirement for
the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy
Politics and Public Policy
School of Social and Policy Studies
Faculty of Social and Behavioural Sciences
Flinders University
Adelaide
Australia
JANUARY 2013
CANDIDATE’S DECLARATION
I certify that this thesis does not incorporate without acknowledgment any material
previously submitted for a degree or diploma in any university; and that to the best
of my knowledge and belief it does not contain any material previously published or
written by another person except where due reference is made in the text.
Zatul Himmah Adnan
January, 2013
i
ABSTRACT
The formalisation of efforts and support for Islam in Malaysia have been described
as part of the governmental drive for Islamisation, commonly known as “Islamisation
Policy”. This idea of ‘Islamisation’ is a contested concept open to various
interpretations since it is not officially defined in government’s blueprint. This study
arose from two main concerns. First, since Islamisation Policy is not documented or
legislated, the meaning and content of Islamisation Policy needs to be made explicit.
Second, based on emerging criticisms of and concerns about Islamisation Policy in
the mass media as well as in academic literature, there is a need to explore the
diversity of perceptions in Malaysia’s multi-religious community towards Islamisation
Policy.
This study provides a policy analysis of Islam in the Malaysian context and its
impact on a multi-religious society. The primary aim is to explore the content of
Islamisation Policy in a multi-religious society based on the perspectives of four
different groups of stakeholders. Three main areas of Islamisation Policy were
analysed: the content, implementation and its impact. The study covers the period
from 1981 until 2009, which includes Mahathir’s administration (1981 – 2003) until
the end of Abdullah’s term (2003 – 2009), focusing on four major areas of the
policy’s implementation: public administration, education, laws and economics. The
exploration of the multi-religious society’s views towards Islamisation Policy was
carried out through semi-structured interviews with four groups of key persons in the
government and community, i.e. former ministers, administrators, community
representatives and commentators.
The analysis produced three insights into Islamisation Policy. First, a pattern of
perspectives regarding Islamisation Policy was identified. This pattern shows that
views are more complex than just ‘for’ and ‘against’, although there were two broad
groups: the Proponents who support the Policy, and the Opponents who oppose it.
This diversity is significant in that it helps to provide a better understanding of some
multi-religious perspectives towards Islamisation Policy and also in identifying its
implications. Second, an exposition of Islamisation Policy as a public policy was
investigated. Despite being an unlegislated and informal policy, this exposition
assists in understanding its current status as well as informing future directions.
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Third, the consequences of Islamisation Policy were identified. The achievements of
the Policy and the repercussions of its implementation demonstrate both the
intended and unintended outcomes. These three insights are the main contribution
this study makes to the area of Islam in public policy in a diverse society. In
particular, this study addresses a gap in studies of Islamisation and multi-religious
society in Malaysia from a public policy perspective. The negative outcomes
emerging from the Policy suggest that there is a need for the government to
seriously assess some areas of concern and review the implementation process of
Islamisation in maintaining the cohesion of Malaysia’s multi-religious society.
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
All praises to Allah who gives the strength and guidance to complete this PhD
journey.
First and foremost, I would like express my greatest gratitude to my supportive
principal supervisor Dr Noore A. Siddiquee and co-supervisor Assoc. Prof. Dr Jo
Baulderstone for their generous advice, wisdom, unconditional support and
guidance in the last few years. Thank you for not giving up on me.
Special appreciation goes to Prof. Dr Jayum Jawan as an advisor during the
fieldwork back home and Dr Michael Barr as an interim supervisor during the six
month absence of my principal supervisor.
I would like to gratefully acknowledge the community of Flinders University. Thank
you to the staff and ‘family’ of Deirdre Jordan Village (DJV) for the accommodation
and hospitality especially to Janet Armitage and Gary Shaw. Many thanks to the
supportive ISSU team especially Jane Horgan, Klaus Koefer and Maxine. Thank you
to the staff of the Faculty (FSSBS) and Department of Politics and Public Policy for
all the help. To all my ‘FIPPM friends’ thank you for the inspiring thoughts and
friendships in Adelaide.
I am deeply grateful for the support given by the top management of the Faculty of
Human Ecology, Universiti Putra Malaysia during my PhD candidature, especially to
Prof. Dr Laily Paim (former Dean of the Faculty), Assoc. Prof. Dr Zaid Ahmad
(current Dean of the Faculty and former Head of Department of Government and
Civilisation Studies) and Dr Ahmad Tarmizi Talib (current Head of Department).
I would also like to extend my special thanks to all insightful informants and helpful
staffs from all the organisations that have participated in my study.
Family, friends and colleagues were always my strength and inspiration in this
journey. Thank you to my beloved mother, my sister and her children for the
unconditional support, patience and love. To my ‘PhD companions’; Nita, Junyi,
Munira, Wan Norwidayawaty, Faza, Awan, Suzie, Anan, Andry, Husna, Salizar,
Arfah, Zuriyati and Zana, thank you for everything. To my colleagues especially Sri
Rahayu, Dr Adlina, Dr Nobaya, Dr Haslinda, Zarina, Normala, Dr Sarjit Singh, Dr
Lee Yoke Fee and Dr Ku Hasnita thank you for all your support.
To Emily, thank you very much.
Last but not least, I would like to convey my heartfelt thanks to the government of
Malaysia, especially to the Ministry of Higher Education and the Universiti Putra
Malaysia for the sponsorship and support throughout my PhD candidature.
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CONTENT
CANDIDATE’S DECLARATION ............................................................................................... i
ABSTRACT .............................................................................................................................. ii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ..........................................................................................................iv
CONTENT ................................................................................................................................ v
LIST OF DIAGRAMS .............................................................................................................viii
LIST OF TABLES ..................................................................................................................viii
LIST OF APPENDICES .........................................................................................................viii
ABBREVIATION ......................................................................................................................ix
GLOSSARY ............................................................................................................................. x
CHAPTER 1
OVERVIEW OF THE STUDY ....................................................................... 1
1.0
INTRODUCTION ...................................................................................................... 1
1.1
ISLAMISATION POLICY: THE IRONY OF A MULTI RELIGIOUS SOCIETY? ..... 5
1.2
FOCUS AND SCOPE OF THE STUDY...................................................................13
1.3
MALAYSIA: SOME BACKGROUND ......................................................................15
1.3.1 A pluralistic society ............................................................................................16
The Malays ..................................................................................................................18
The Chinese ................................................................................................................20
The Indians ..................................................................................................................22
1.3.2 Malaysia’s Political System ................................................................................24
1.4
DEFINITIONS OF KEY CONCEPTS .......................................................................26
1.4.1 The Government ................................................................................................26
1.4.2 The Community .................................................................................................27
1.4.3 Islamisation and Islamisation Policy ..................................................................27
1.5
CONCLUSION ........................................................................................................29
CHAPTER 2
ISLAM IN THE MALAYSIAN CONTEXT: SOME HISTORICAL
BACKGROUND 30
2.0
INTRODUCTION .....................................................................................................30
2.1
THE PRE COLONIAL ERA .....................................................................................30
2.1.1 Pre-Islamic religious traditions ...........................................................................31
2.1.2 The coming of Islam ..........................................................................................32
2.1.3 Islam and Malay institutions ...............................................................................35
Islam and social dimensions ........................................................................................36
Malay political institutions ............................................................................................40
2.2
ISLAM UNDER COLONIAL ADMINISTRATION ....................................................44
2.2.1 Colonial Powers in Malaya: An Overview ..........................................................44
2.2.2 British policy on Islam ........................................................................................47
2.2.3 Islam and Malay nationalism..............................................................................57
2.3
CONCLUSION ........................................................................................................60
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CHAPTER 3
PUBLIC POLICY AND ISLAMISATION IN
FRAMEWORK 62
MALAYSIA: THE
3.0
INTRODUCTION .....................................................................................................62
3.1
UNDERSTANDING PUBLIC POLICY.....................................................................62
3.1.1 Public policy: a conceptual discussion ...............................................................63
3.1.2 The Malaysian context .......................................................................................73
3.2
THE DISCOURSE OF “ISLAMISATION POLICY” .................................................83
3.2.1 Islamisation: the definition and context ..............................................................84
3.2.2 Islamisation: the catalyst and cause ..................................................................90
3.2.3 Islamisation and a multi-religious society ...........................................................93
3.2.4 Islamisation: the legal and constitutional framework ..........................................95
3.3
CONCLUSION ........................................................................................................97
CHAPTER 4
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY ...................................................................99
4.0
INTRODUCTION .....................................................................................................99
4.1
METHODOLOGICAL APPROACH .........................................................................99
4.2
DATA COLLECTION ............................................................................................104
4.2.1 Government publications .................................................................................104
4.2.2 Interviews.........................................................................................................105
4.2.3 The informants .................................................................................................108
4.3
DATA MANAGEMENT..........................................................................................111
4.3.1 Handling the data.............................................................................................111
4.3.2 Coding and data analysis.................................................................................113
4.4
ETHICAL ISSUES .................................................................................................116
4.5
THE ROLE OF THE RESEARCHER ....................................................................116
4.6
LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY ............................................................................118
4.7
CONCLUSION ......................................................................................................119
CHAPTER 5
THE CONTEXT OF ISLAMISATION POLICY: ITS PERCEPTION,
CONTENT AND RATIONALE...............................................................................................120
5.0
INTRODUCTION ...................................................................................................120
5.1
A FRAMEWORK OF THE DIVERSITY OF PERCEPTIONS IN A MULTIRELIGIOUS SOCIETY ......................................................................................................120
5.2
THE MEANING AND STATUS OF ISLAMISATION POLICY ...............................125
5.2.1 The Islamisation programme as a ‘policy’ ........................................................125
5.2.2 The legitimacy of Islamisation Policy ...............................................................133
5.3
THE FACTORS OF RELIGION AND ETHNICITY ................................................141
5.3.1 Islam ................................................................................................................141
5.3.2 ‘Malayness’ ......................................................................................................145
5.4
POLITICAL MOTIVATION ....................................................................................148
5.4.1 UMNO’s political ambition ................................................................................149
5.4.2 The motivation of the leaders...........................................................................152
5.5
CONCLUSION ......................................................................................................160
CHAPTER 6
ISLAMISATION POLICY: THE APPROACH TO ITS IMPLEMENTATION
163
6.0
INTRODUCTION ...................................................................................................163
6.1
A PRAGMATIC APPROACH TO ISLAMISATION? .............................................163
6.1.1 Consistence with Islam ....................................................................................163
6.1.2 Appropriateness in a multi-religious society .....................................................169
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6.2
A PROBLEMATIC ISLAMISATION POLICY? ......................................................173
6.2.1 An un-Islamic approach? .................................................................................173
6.2.2 Improper approach and poor implementation ..................................................182
6.3
CONCLUSION ......................................................................................................188
CHAPTER 7
ISLAMISATION POLICY: ACHIEVEMENTS AND REPERCUSSIONS ...191
7.0
INTRODUCTION ...................................................................................................191
7.1
ISLAMIC DEVELOPMENTS .................................................................................191
7.1.1 Islamic education .............................................................................................191
7.1.2 An Islamic economy: ‘Halal businesses’ .........................................................199
7.1.3 Shari’ah ...........................................................................................................205
7.1.4 Public services and the Islamic bureaucracy ...................................................210
7.2
THE ADVERSITY OF NON-MUSLIMS: THE DOWNSIDE OF ISLAMISATION
POLICY? ...........................................................................................................................218
7.2.1 An imposition on non-Muslims? .......................................................................219
7.2.2 Discrimination in religious rights and practices? ..............................................225
7.3
CONCLUSION ......................................................................................................228
CHAPTER 8
CONCLUSION: INSIGHTS INTO ISLAMISATION POLICY .....................231
8.0
INTRODUCTION ...................................................................................................231
8.1
THE PATTERN OF MULTI-RELIGIOUS PERSPECTIVES ON ISLAMISATION
POLICY .............................................................................................................................232
8.1.1 The pattern of the perspectives: a recapitulation .............................................233
8.1.2 The diversity of perspectives: where to go now? .............................................244
8.2
ISLAMISATION POLICY: ‘A PUBLIC POLICY’ ...................................................246
8.2.1 The concept of Islamisation Policy ...................................................................248
8.2.2 The aim and motivation ...................................................................................250
8.2.3 The approach and direction of the Policy .........................................................252
8.2.4 The performance of Islamisation policy............................................................254
8.3
CONSEQUENCES OF ISLAMISATION POLICY .................................................255
8.4
THE FUTURE OF ISLAMISATION POLICY .........................................................259
REFERENCES ......................................................................................................................263
APPENDICES .......................................................................................................................285
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LIST OF DIAGRAMS
Diagram 1.1: Percentage distribution of Malaysia’s population by ethnic groups (2010) .........17
Diagram 3.1: Easton’s diagram on political systems ...............................................................68
Diagram 3.2 An integrated implementation model by Soren Winter ........................................72
Diagram 3.3: Model of policy making in Malaysia ....................................................................75
Diagram 3.4 Framework of the study.......................................................................................78
Diagram 3.5: The main areas where Islamisation Policy is implemented ................................80
Diagram 4.1: An excerpt from the coding process .................................................................115
Diagram 5.1: The diversity of informants’ perceptions regarding Islamisation Policy...........125
Diagram 8.1:Summary of pattern of perceptions concerning Islamisation Policy ..................235
Diagram 8.2: The consequences of Islamisation Policy ........................................................255
LIST OF TABLES
Table 4.1: Details of the informants .......................................................................................109
Table 4.2: The informants’ profiles by ethnicity and religion ..................................................110
Table 4.3: Informants’ codes based on groups and religious identity ....................................113
LIST OF APPENDICES
Appendix 1: Letter of Introduction ..........................................................................................285
Appendix 2: Research Participant Information.......................................................................286
Appendix 3: Consent Form For Participation In Research .....................................................288
Appendix 4: Interview Guide ..................................................................................................289
Appendix 5: Explanatory Notes on Sensitive Issues ..............................................................291
viii
ABBREVIATION
ABIM
Angkatan Belia Islam Malaysia (Malaysian Islamic Youth Movement)
BAHEIS
Bahagian Hal Ehwal Agama Islam (The Islamic Affairs Division)
BFR
Base Financing Rates
BN
Barisan Nasional (National Coalition)
DPNI
FMS
Dasar Penerapan Nilai Islam (The Inculcation of Islamic Values
Policy)
Federated Malay States
IFC
Interfaith Commission (Suruhanjaya Antara Agama)
IIUM
International Islamic University of Malaysia
IKIM
Institut Kehakiman Islam Malaysia (Institute of
Understanding Malaysia)
International Institute of Islamic Thought and Civilisation
ISTAC
JAKIM
JAWHAR
JAWI
JIM
JKSM
JPM
KBSM
Islamic
Jabatan Kemajuan Islam Malaysia (Department of Islamic
Development Malaysia)
Jabatan Waqaf, Zakat dan Haji (Department of Waqaf, Zakat and
Hajj)
Jabatan Agama Islam Wilayah Persekutuan (Federal Territory
Islamic Affairs Department)
Pertubuhan Jemaah Islah Malaysia
Jabatan Kehakiman Shari’ah Malaysia (Department of Shari’ah
Judiciary Malaysia)
Jabatan Perdana Menteri (Department of Prime Minister)
KBSR
Kurikulum Bersepadu Sekolah Menengah (Integrated Secondary
School Curriculum)
Kurikulum Baru Sekolah Rendah (New Primary School Curriculum)
MCA
Malaysian Chinese Association
MCCBCHST
MIC
Malaysian Consultative Council of Buddhism, Christianity, Hinduism,
Sikhism and Taoism
Malaysian Indian Congress
PAS
Parti Islam Se-Malaysia (Pan-Malaysia Islamic Party)
SIS
Sister in Islam
SUHAKAM
Suruhanjaya Hak Asasi Manusia Malaysia (Malaysian Human Rights
Commission )
Un-federated Malay States
UMFS
UMNO
YADIM
Pertubuhan Kebangsaan Melayu Bersatu (United Malays National
Organisation)
Yayasan Dakwah Islamiah Malaysia (Islamic Dakwah Foundation
Malaysia)
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GLOSSARY
Adab
Islamic etiquette or Islamic ethics and norms of behaviour
Adat
Malay customs
Ad-din
Literally from din (religion or faith). Complete way of Islam
Aqidah
Faith or creed
Bilal
Those make daily calls to prayer or caller to prayer
Dakwah
Call to Islam or propagation. Also written as da’wah.
Fard ain
Personal religious obligations or actions obligatory for every
Muslim
Fard kifayyah
Congregational religious obligations. Also written as Fardhu
kifayyah
Fatwa
Islamic ruling
Fiqh
Literally means ‘understanding, a knowledge of Shari’ah or
commonly refers as Islamic jurisprudence
Fitrah
Nature or disposition
Gharar
Unreasonable uncertainty. Commonly refer as illegal
activities in economic activities and is prohibited by Islam
Gurukul
Hindu priest (Tamil). Also commonly known as teacher or
master.
Hadanah
Custody of children
Hadith
Tradition of the Prophet Muhammad consisting narratives
relating his deeds sayings; also interchangeably with the
term ‘sunnah’
Hajj
Pilgrimage to Mecca and a pillar of Islamic faith.
Halal
Permissible or lawful by Islamic law
Haram
Forbidden by Islam
Hijab
Veil worn by Muslim women
Hudud
A prescribed penalty fixed by Allah. Also commonly known
as penal code of Islam
Ijtihad
Independent legal judgment based on the interpretation of
four basic sources of Islamic law
Imam
People who led public prayers
Khalwat
Close proximity
Khatib
Those who give the sermon during the Friday (and Eid)
prayer
x
Madhab
School of thought/law
Mal
Property
Madrasah
Islamic school
Maqasid
The purpose of the Shari’ah, whose preservation and
Shari’ah
protection
amounts
to
the
securing
of
an
interest
(maslahah). Also known as maqasid al Syari’ah
Nafkah
Maintenance money
Pondok
Literally a hut. Commonly refers as an informal institution of
learning or school
Qadi
Islamic judges. Also written as qadhi
Qisas
Literally means retaliation; penalty for homicide or criminal
punishment
Qiyas
Reasoning by anology. One of the four main sources of
Islamic jurisprudence
Riba’
Usury or interest
Siak
A local position at mosque in Malaysia. Usually involving
upkeep and care the mosque
Solah
Prayer and also written as solat, sholah and salah
Sulh
Retaliation or end of conflict/mediation
Sufi
Those emphasising the mystical and spiritual elements of
Islam
Shari’ah
Islamic law which is intended to cover aspect of life. Also
written as Shariah
Tafsir
Exegesis of the Quran
Takaful
Literally means cooperation. Also commonly known as
Islamic insurance
Tauhid
A doctrine of the oneness of God that is Allah.
Ulama
Islamic theologians or those who were learned and had a
great knowledge of Islamic teachings
Ustaz
Religious teachers
Waqaf
Endowment
Wasiyah
Wills
Zakat
Alms or religious tithes obligatory on Muslim
Zina
Adultery
xi