Download Jawahar Chigurupati Chem 151 Essay Final Quinine

Jawahar Chigurupati Chem 151 Essay Final Quinine Quinine is a white crystalline alkaloid molecule that has fever-­‐reducing, anti-­‐malarial, pain-­‐killing, and anti-­‐inflammatory effects on the body. This extremely bitter-­‐tasting drug is found naturally in the bark of the cinchona tree and was originally discovered by the Quechua people of present day Peru and Bolivia. The earliest known usage of quinine by Europeans occurred in the early 17th century and use of the compound continued to present day. It was originally an anti-­‐malarial drug, in use from the 17th century all the way to the 1940’s where it was replaced by superior alternatives. In the present day, quinine is popularly prescribed and also available over the counter in minute quantities in the form of tonic water. Quinine has a molar mass of ~324.4 grams and a melting point of 177 degrees Celsius. It is a common fluorescence standard used in photochemistry, due to its well known and constant quantum yield. UV absorption peaks are around 350 nanometers and fluorescent peaks at around 460 nanometers. Quantum yield refers to how efficiently absorbed light creates an optical effect. A substance becomes fluorescent when absorbed excited light photons releases emission photons of another wavelength when the excited protons fall to their normal states. When the absorbed photons are in the ultraviolet range and the emission photons are in the visible spectrum, the substance will glow under black light. Quinine gives off a blue-­‐green fluorescent effect when subjected to ultraviolet light. The origins of Quinine and it’s early usages derive from Quechua practices. Quinine is an effective muscle relaxant. The Quechua people used the bark of the cinchona tree to stop shivering caused by low temperatures or fever. The bark of the tree was stripped and then steeped in hot water for some time to leach out the required nutrients and then the ‘tea’ was drunk. The quinine compound relaxed the shivering muscles, which calmed the patient and allow sleep. European exposure to the quinine’s healing effects quickly led to its import into Europe in the mid 17th century. Prior to the availability of quinine in Europe, medical practioners relied on amputation, blood-­‐letting, purging etc. to treat fever and malaria patients. Malaria was particularly troublesome during this time and outbreaks were accompanied with significant death tolls. A Jesuit brother in the America’s observed the healing properties of the plant and had it shipped to Europe for testing. King Charles II of Britain was cured of malaria due to quinine medication a short while after. As a result, quinine’s popularity surged in London and imports of the plant increased substantially. In 1820, two French researchers named Pierre Pelletier and Joseph Caventou gave quinine its offical name. The name was derived from the original Quechua word for the native tree. Quinine remained a popular anti-­‐
malarial drug throughout the world till the 1940’s. Quinine’s historical impact revolves around its effect on malaria outbreaks throughout the world. The colonization of Africa by European powers was made possible in part by quinine. Africa, also known as the “white man’s grave” due to the prevalence of malaria, now could support colonies without the fear of mass deaths. The colonization of Africa as well as other malaria-­‐ridden areas such as the East Indies (Java, Micronesia, Phillipines) proceeded without delay. This expansion allowed the Europeans to gain footholds in India, Africa, China, and the East Indies. European imperialism expanded in scope and size due to far-­‐reaching medical impacts of quinine during this time period. Quinine’s substantial effect on global trade also needs to be mentioned. In the early 19 century, Peru and its surrounding countries outlawed the export of cinchona seeds. European powers such as the Dutch attempted smuggling operations in order to maintain production in other humid colonial areas such as Indonesia and the Phillipines. Soon, the European powers controlled 97% of the global quinine market and huge profits were reaped at the expense of the impoverished South American nations. World War II was also heavily th
affected by the availability of the quinine medication as well as synthetic variants. When the Germans conquered the Dutch and the Japanese took the Phillipines and Indonesia, the Allied powers were cut off from their quinine supply. The U.S had reserves of quinine seeds and began planting immediately, but tens of thousands of troops fell to malaria in the intermittent time. It was during this time that American researchers began attempting to produce quinine synthetically to distribute to American soldiers in the Pacific and Africa. In 1944, the American chemists R.B Woodward and W.E Doering created a formal chemical synthesis for artificial quinine. This breakthrough saved the lives of many soldiers and allowed the push in the Pacific Theater to continue. However, harvesting quinine from natural sources was still far more efficient and cost-­‐effective during this time. Since the advent of synthetically available quinine, several newer and more efficient quinine total syntheses have been discovered. However, they still cannot compete with the natural derivation process in terms of efficiency and cost. There is still no effective vaccine for malaria and treatment is based around the administration of several anti-­‐malarial drugs. Drugs of similar nature have somewhat replaced quinine’s use in healthcare and malaria treatment. In 2006, the World Health Organization rescinded its recommendation for quinine being used in treating malaria as a first option. It should only be used in situations were arteminisins are not available. This was the first time in almost 400 years that quinine was replaced as the primary malaria medicine. However, in recent years malaria strains in Southeast Asia have begun evolving so that they resist the synthetic quinine drugs. The World Health Organization (WHO) has begun experimenting again with natural quinine and are finding that the resistant strains of malaria still respond well to natural quinine treatments. The reason for the World Health Organization’s decision to not recommend quinine usage in present times is due to its considerable negative effects. Quinine can cause cinchonism which is essentially a quinine overdose. This condition has minor symptoms such as flushed skin, tinnitus, pain, impaired hearing etc, but also has heavier consquences for larger overdoses. Skin rashes, deafness, anaphylactic shock, and can lead to blackwater fever. In addition, pulmonary edema’s, constipation, paralysis in case of overdose, and renal failure are also possible side-­‐effects. Quinine was also used somewhat ‘off-­‐label’ to treat leg cramps as it is a potent muscle relaxant, but has since been banned by the FDA in 1994 due to adverse health affects. The over the counter availability of quinine has been dropping in first world countries and now requires a prescription more often than not. However, the risks associated with quinine use are deemed acceptable when attempting to treate malaria as malaria is a life-­‐threatening disease. Despite the adverse medical effects associated with quinine use, there are some nonmedical uses of quinine that are regulated. Tonic water dates back to the Quechua people, who would mix quinine and water in order to remove the bitter taste of the drug. More modern companies such as Canada Dry and Schweppes now mass produce tonic water for the general populace. The British Army mixed tonic water and gin back in the times of British India and that led to the still popular ‘gin and tonic’ cocktail. The decline of quinine as an anti-­‐malarial drug has caused modern tonic water to contain much less quinine and is generally sweeter. Other drinks such as wine do list quinine as one of their ingredients. The level of quinine in these commercial drinks are at acceptable levels however. Quinine’s value in the past was immeasurable. A remedy against endemic malaria outbreaks provided a great deal of relief to European and colonial citizens. It allowed for further colonization by the European powers in Africa and the East Indies. As the years passed, it became a major commodity in the global trade market. Quinine’s usage entered a down period after the advent of synthetic alternatives in the 1940’s. It is however, still relevant in today’s world as an anti-­‐malarial drug due to the resistance that malaria has evolved in regards to synthetic alternatives as well as the lack of an effective malaria vaccine. It’s use has admittedly dropped but endures in the form of tonic water and as a compound used in fluorescence experiments in the lab. Quinine has saved many lives over the course of approximately 400 years of use and continues to be a useful compound for scientific study today.