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Tropical ecology
Tropical bidiversity:
Species richness,
Diversity of life strategies
(January Weiner)
Problems:
• Clinal variation of biotic diversity on the
Earth
• Hypotheses explaining richnes of triopical
biodiversity
• Adaptive strategies of organisms in the
tropics
– INTERACTIONS
Adaptive strategies
of tropical herbivores
• Life in tree canopies (frogs, lizards, sloths,
monkeys, squirels)
• Seedeaters and fruiteaters (birds)
• Nectarivores (pollinators)
• Herbivory - metabolic symbioses: termites,
longhorn beetles, sloths, large savannah
ungulates;
• Defense strategies of tropical plants
(effects of productivity limitation)
Flectonotus pygmaeus
Venezuela. Rancho Grande
Iguana iguana
Venezuela Catatumbo
Species richness of small homeotherms in tree
canopies of equatorial forests (Primack i Corlett 2005)
Parrots
Wood
cangaroos
Australia
13
2
New Gwinea
43
8
Region
Primates
Squirrels
Tupaias
Other
Java, Borneo,
Sumatra
2
37
10
7
1
S-E Asia
2
31
5
6
1
Philipines
1
2
1
12
1
7
1
6
India
Sri Lanka
1
6
5
African forests
14
14
8
Madagascar
35
Amazon
22
7
50
2
Central America
4
7
32
4
7
3
Sciurus granatensis
(Rancho Grande, Venezuela)
Brown-throated three-toed sloth (Bradypus variegatus)
Choroni, Venezuela
Brown-throated three-toed sloth
(Bradypus variegatus)
IVIC, Venezuela
Brown-throated three-toed sloth (Bradypus variegatus)
IVIC, Venezuela
Brown-throated three-toed
sloth (Bradypus variegatus)
Rancho Grande, Venezuela
Red howler monkey (Alouatta seniculus)
Catatumbo, Wenezuela
Pantanal. Brasil
Capoucin monkey Cebus olivaceus
Iguassu. Brasil
Black-tufted marmoset Callithrix penicilata
World range of primates (human excluded)
BLACK & WHITE COLOBUS
Colobus gueresa
(Kenia)
SYKES/BLUE MONKEY
Cercopithecus mitis
(Kenia)
Monodelphis scalops [Long-nosed Short-tailed Opossum]
Iguassu. Brasil
Coati (Nasua nasua)
Iguassu. Brasil
Coati (Nasua nasua)
Iguassu. Brasil
Strategies of frugivory (zoochory)
• Birds: parrots, toucans, tanagers and many
others; bats:
– medium sized, brightly colored fruits
– „gulpers” and „mashers”
– more common than insectivorous birds
• Mammals (monkeys)
– Large fruits
• Fish
– (seasonally flooded forest: Llanos, Amazon,
Pantanal)
• Fig strategy (early successional)
• Stone fruit strategy (dense mature forests)
ZOOCHORY
(A half of tropical tree species, at minimum)
SPECIES RICHNESS OF VERTEBRATE
FRUGIVORES IN THE TROPICS
Frugivores
Region
Folivores
Birds
Bats
Primates
Primates
Neotropics
405
96
33
11*
Africa
149
26
32
9
Southeast
Asia
143
66
11
25
Ghazoul & Sheil 2010
* eat some fruits as well
Red-breasted Toucan (Ramphastos bicolorus)
Iguassu Brasil
Chestnut-eared Aracari (Pteroglossus castanotis)
Iguassu, Brasil
Toucan toco (Ramphastes toco)
Pantanal, Brasil
Toucan toco (Ramphastes toco)
Pantanal, Brasil
Groove-billed Toucanet (Aulacorhynchus sulcatus)
Rancho Grande, Venezuela
Red-billed Hornbill
Tocus erythrorynchus
Samburu, Kenia
PARROTS (Psittacidae):
pantropical family
RANGE OF PARROTS (PSITTACIFORMES)
+/- 370 species
Blue-and-yellow Macaw (Ara ararauna)
Iguassu, Brasil
Scarlet macaw (Ara macao)
Iguassu, Brasil
Hyacinth macaw (Anodorhynchus hyacinthinus)
Iguassu, Brasil
Blue-fronted Amazon
(Amazona aestiva)
Pantanal. Brasil
Blue-fronted Amazon (Amazona aestiva)
Pantanal. Brasil
Blood-eared parakeet (Pyrrhura hematotis)
Rancho Grande, Venezuela
TANAGERS (Thraupinae; Emberizidae)
appr. 250 species, mainly forest dwelling
Thraupis episcopus
Blue-gray tanager
Tangara arthus
Golden tanager
Rancho Grande, Venezuela
Swallow tanager
Tersina viridis
Rancho Grande, Venezuela
Bay-headed Tanager (Tangara gyrola)
Rancho Grande, Venezuela
Silver-beaked Tanager (Ramphocelus carbo)
Rancho Grande, Venezuela
Orange-bellied Euphonia (Euphonia xanthogaster)
Rancho Grande, Venezuela
Violaceous Euphonia (Euphonia violacea)
Iguassu, Brasil
Oilbird [guacharo]
Steatornis caripensis
Simaba cedron,
Simaroubaceae
DiGRESSION:
FRUITS
& CROPS
IN (1610-1665)
THE TROPICS
Brazilian fruits
by Albert
Eckhout
THE ORIGIN OF CROP PLANTS
orange, soynbeam
banana, coconut, sugar c.
Macadamia
tea, jute, mango, rice
onions, apricot, wheat
barley, flax, lentils
cauliflower, olive
pears, apples,
watermelon, coffe,
oil palm
sunflower
agave, batat, pumpkin
grapefruit
tomato, potato,
peanuts
ananas, cassava,
papaya
Wielka Encyklopedia Geografii Świata, Wyd. Kurpisz
FRUITS
Common FIG
Ficus carica)
Avocado (Persea americana)
Avocado
WORLD PRODUCTION OF AVOCADO
no significant production
% of world production
Plantation of bananas, Ocumare de la Costa, Venezuela
Banana (Musa sativa)
Ocumare de la Costa
Venezuela
WORLD PRODUCTION OF BANANAS
no significant production
% of world production
AREAS OF BANANA PLANTATIONS IN THE WORLD
Centre of wild
banana
diversity
Domestication
6000 b.C.
precolumbian?
Polynesians?
840-350 b.C.?
Gazoul & Sheil 2010
Variations of bananas (market in Curitiba, Brasil)
Cambur
Papaya
Carica papaya
enzyme papain
GMO cultivars
(market in Curitiba, Brasil)
Papaya „lechosa”; Venezuela
Mango (Mangifera indica)
(market in Curitiba, Brasil)
MANGO
Carambola Averrhoa carambola
(Origin: SE Asia)
Carambola Averrhoa carambola
Soursop (guanábana, graviola) (Annona muricata L.)
Maracuya (Passiflora edulis) – „granadilla”
Venezuela
Maracuya plantation
Venezuela
Guava (Psidium guajava)
(market in Curitibie, Brasil)
Opuntia cylindrica
Malta
Tuna, fruit of a cactus (Opuntia i in.)
Mamon, mamoncillo (Melicoccus bijugatus)
Mamon, mamoncillo (Melicoccus bijugatus)
WORLD SUGAR PRODUCTION
Sugar beet
Sugar cane
Wielka Encyklopedia Geografii Świata, Wyd. Kurpisz
Ocumare de la Costa
Venezuela
Sugar cane (Saccharum sp.)
Merida, Venezuela
THE HISTORY OF SUGAR
Hispaniola
1493
Brasil
1540
Madeira
Canary Is.
1425
crystalisation
350 a.D.
600 a.D.
S. barberi
Zanzibar
cultivation
8000 pne
S. edule, S. officinarum
SUGAR CANE Saccharum barberi, S. edule, S. officinarum
THE HISTORY OF SUGAR
1800
sugar beet
Hispaniola
1493
Brasil
1540
Consumption
per capita
Present: 75 kg/y
1700: 3,5 kg/y
Madeira
Canary Is.
1425
600 a.D.
crystalisation
350 a.D.
S. barberi
cultivation
8000 pne
S. edule, S. officinarum
IMPORT TO EUROPE modern
IMPORT TO EUROPE crusades
SUGAR CANE Saccharum barberi, S. edule, S. officinarum
TRADITIONAL
CANE SUGAR MILL
Venezueal
Coffee (Coffea L.)
Ocumare de la Costa
Venezuela
BRASILIAN NUTS
(Bertholletia excelsa)
(market in Curitiba, Brasil)
Various nuts and seeds
(market in Curitiba, Brasil)
Taro (Colocasia esculenta); Araceae
Origin: south-east Asia
Ocumare de la Costa
Venezuela
Batata; „sweet potato” (Ipomoea batatas), Convolvulaceae
Origin: South America
WORLD PRODUCTION OF BATATAS
Maniok(CASSAVA,
(casava) YUCA) (Manihot
MANIOK
esculenta)
Ocumare de la Costa
Venezuela
MANIOK (CASSAVA, YUCA)
Origin: South America
(market in Curitiba, Brasil)
WORLD PRODUCTION OF CASSAVA
Breadfruit (Artocarpus altilis)
Drzewo chlebowe
Origin: Southeast Asia, Pacific
Ocumare de la Costa
Venezuela
HMS Bounty
Mutiny on the Bounty
CACAO
Ocumare de la Costa
Venezuela
WORLD PRODUCTION OF CACAO
PALM OIL
African oil palm Elaeis guineensis
American oil palm E. oleifera
Palm oil production
Palm oil output (2006) - % of Indonesia;
Indonesia: 16 mln t/y
BACK TO THE TOPIC
LARGE FOREST
GALLINACEOUS BIRDS
Fam. Cracidae (czubacze)
Ortalis ruficauda
Rufous-vented chacalaca
Crax daubentoni
Yellow-cnobbed curassow
Photo R. Laskowski
Red-throated Piping-guan
(Pipile cujubi)
Iguassu, Brasil
Red-winged tinamou (Tinamidae) Rhynchotus rufescens
Iguassu, Brasil
SAVANNAH
& GRASSLAND
LARGE
GALLINACEOUS
BIRDS
Helmeted Guineafowl
(Numida meleagris)
Samburu, Kenia
Vulturine Guineafowl Acryllium vulturinum
Samburu, Kenia
Otididae
Black-bellied Bustard (Lissotis melanogaster)
Samburu, Kenia
GIANT Ratitae
Ostrich
Struthio camelus
Massai Mara, Kenia
Nandu (Rhea americana)
Pantanal, Brasil
HERBIVORY
LARGE UNGULATES
OF TROPICAL
GRASSLANDS
Savannah ujngulates
Reticulated Giraffe (Giraffa camelopardalis reticulata)
Samburu, Kenia
African savanna elephant (Loxodonta africana)
Samburu, Kenia
LARGE GRAZING
UNGULATES
Indian Rhinoceros
(Rhinoceros unicornis)
[Albrecht Dürer]
White rhinoceros
(Ceratotherium simium)
Lake Nakuru, Kenia
LARGE GRAZING
UNGULATES
Grevy’s zebra (Equus grevyi)
Samburu, Kenia
Plains zebra
(Equus burchelli)
Masai Mara, Kenia
LARGE HERBIVORES:
RUMINANTS
(after Hoffmann,1973)
early evolved
concentrate
selector
late evolved
grass and
roughage eater
FORESTOMACH
Dik-dik (Madoqua kirkii) 4 kg
African buffalo (Syncerus caffer) 800-1000 kg
Antelopes (>90 extant species, mostly African)
Thommsons gazelle
Eudorcas thomsonii
Grant’s gazelle (Nanger granti)
Gerenuk (Litocranius walleri)
Impala (Aepyceros melampus)
Samburu, Kenia
Hartebeest (Alcelaphus buselaphus)
Topi (Damaliscus lunatus)
Savannah ujngulates
East African Oryx (Oryx beisa)
175 kg
Samburu, Kenia
Kirk's Dik-dik (Madoqua kirkii)
6 kg
Samburu, Kenia
Wildebeest
(Connochaetes taurinus)
Plains zebra (Equus quagga)
Savannah ujngulates
African buffalo (Syncerus caffer)
Pronghorn (Antilocapra americana)
Saiga (Saiga tatarica)
CONCENTRATE INTERMEDIATE
SELECTORS
GRASS/ROUGHAGE EATERS
GNU
GERENUK
GRANT’S
GAZELLE
KONGONI
GIRAFFE
TOPI
BOHOR
THOMSON’S
GAZELLE
DIK-DIK
WATERBUCK
ORYX
BONGO
IMPALA
BUSHBOCK
(after
(after
Hoffmann,1973)
Hoffmann,1973)
BUFFALO
Forest dwelling large ungulates
Gray Brocket (Mazama gouazoubira)
Pantanal, Brasil
Indian Muntjac (Muntiacus muntjak)
Origin:
south-east Asia
Kraków ZOO
Hoazin Opisthocomus hoazin
Hoazin
Opisthocomus hoazin
(„an avian
ruminant”)
FOOD:
leaves 82%
flowers 10%
fruits 8%
Crop transformed
into fermenting
chamber
Photo R. Laskowski
SEEDEATERS: Weaverbirds (Ploceidae)
Plocepasser mahali
Weaverbirds
Samburu, Kenia
Dinemellia dinemelli
Ploceus rubiginosus
Pseudonigrita cabanisi
Red-billed Quelea (Quelea quelea)
Most abundant bird species on Earth: 1,5 bln
Insect pollination (entomophily)
no anemophily (wind pollination) in rainforests!
entomophily
POLLINATING BIRDS
1 – hummingbirds (Trochilidae), 2 - bananaquits (Coerebidae), 3 - sunbirds
(Nectariniidae), 4 - loris (Trichoglossidae), 5 - honeycreepers (Drepanidae).
after Szafer 1969
POLLINATING MAMMALS
1 – New World leaf-nosed bats (Phyllostomatidae), 2 – fruit bats (Pteropidae),
3 – tupaias (Tupaiidae), 4 - brushtail possums (Phalangeridae);
after Szafer 1969
Nectar-feeders, pollinators (and thieves )
Hummingbirds
Choroni, Venezuela
POLLINATION SYNDROMES Ghazoul & Sheil 2010
Pollinators
Floral charactreristics
Examples
Bats
Large, pale, musky odour,
abundant nectar with hexose
(neotropics) or sucrose
(paleotropics)
Bignoniaceae, Malvaceae,
Myrtaceae, Caesalpinioidea,
Caryocaraceae, Cacti
Birds
Diurnal, red/orange, no scent,
abundant diluted nectar
(hummingbidrs: sucrose rich)
Erythrina, Spathodea, Musa, many
others
Bees
Extremely variable, bright
colors, nectar guides on
petals; nectar+ pollen (oils)
Fabaceae, Bignoniaceae,
Melastomataceae, etc.
Moths
Nocturnal; scent, long tubular
corollas, sucrose rich nectar
Rubiaceae, Apocynaceae,
Meiaceae, Mimosoidea etc.
Butterflies
Long tubular corollas, bright
colors
Delonix, Cesalpinia, Ixora, Cordia,
Mussaenda; etc.
Beetles
Highly variable; mostly open
flowers
Annonaceae, Lauraceae,
Mytisticeae, Palmae,
Cyclantaceae etc.
Flies
Small, pale, litle nectar
Anacardiaceae, some palms, etc.
Phaethornis eurynome
Iguassu, Brasil
Melanotrochilus fuscus Iguassu, Brasil
Erythtina sp.
Tanagras (Thraupinae)
Cyanerpes cyaneus eximius
Red-legged honeycreeper
Coereba flaveola
Bananaquit
(Coerebidae)
Photo R. Laskowski
Blue dacnis (female) (Dacnis cayana)
Rancho Grande, Venezuela
Eastern Double-collared sunbird
(Nectarinia [Cynnyris] mediocris)
Mt. Kenia, Kenia
Tacazze Sunbird, Nectarinia tacazze
Mt. Kenia, Kenia
Feijoa=Acca sellowiana, Myrtaceae;
ornithophilous tree
Curitiba, Brasil
Strelizia reginae
FLOWERPIERCERS (2 genera of tanagers,Thraupidae)
Masked Flowerpiercer
(Diglossopis cyanea)
Glossy Flowerpiercer
(Diglossa lafresnayii)
Kenia
„sausage tree”
Kigelia africana
polinated by bats
PREDATION
AND ARMS RACE
(VARIOUS KINDS OF MIMICRY,
CHEMICAL DEFENCE,
DEFENCE ALLIANCES)
„FLYCATCHERS”: JACAMARS, BEE-EATERS
Galbula ruficauda
Rufous-tailed jacamar
Cinnamon-chested Bee-eater
Merops oreobates (Kenia)
Chestnut-crowned Becard (Pachyramphus castaneus)
Tityridae [form. Tyrannidae]
Rancho Grande, Venezuela
NEOTROPICAL FLYCATCHERS: Tyrannidae
Myiodynastes chrysocephalus
Golden crowned flycatcher
Bentewi
Myiarchus sp.
Photo R. Laskowski
Vermilion Flycatcher Pyrocephalus rubinus
Llanos, Venezuela
RAPTORS AND SCAVENGERS
New World vultures
Coragyps atratus
Black vulture
Cathartes aura
Turkey vulture
Coragyps atratus
Black vulture
Pantanal, Brasil
Andean condor Vultur gryphus
Andes de Merida, Venezuela
Northern crested caracara Polyborus cheriway
Llanos, Venezuela
Largest avian
carnivores
(carrion eaters)
White-backed vulture
Gyps africanus
Kenia, Masai Mara
Largest terrestrial carnivores
Lion (Panthera leo)
Tiger (Panthera tigris)
JAGUAR
(Panthera onca)
Pantanal, Brasil
Sonora desert
Cougar (puma)
(Puma concolor)
Llanos, Venezuela
FISHEATERS
Coasts, mangroves, archipelagos
Pelecanus occidentalis
Brown Pelican
Sula leucogaster
Brown booby
Photo R. Laskowski
Fregata magnificens
Magnificent frigatebird
COEVOLUTION
CAMBIO-XYLOPHAGES
LONGHORN BEETLES
(Cerambycidae)
20 thousands species in the tropics
Metabiolic symbioses
Harlequin Acrocinus longimanus (Cerambycidae; Venezuela)
PHORESIS: pseudoscorpion Cordylochernes scorpioides
ANTBIRDS
Thamnophilidae
209 gat. Neotropikalnych
GROUND ANTBIRDS
Formicariidae
56 GAT. NEOTROPIKALNYCH
http://montereybay.com/creagrus/antbirds.html
ARMY ANTS
Eciton sp.
TERMITES
• Metabolic symbiosis
• Biogeochemic role
• Food for specialized predators
• „Ecosystem engineers”
Southern tamandua
Tamandua tetradactyla
MYRMECOPHAGES
(Ant- & termite-eaters)
Aardvark (Orycteropus afer)
South Africa
Giant anteater
(Myrmecophaga tridactyla)
South America