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Tropical ecology
Tropical biodiversity:
species richness,
Diversity of life strategies
(January Weiner)
Problems:
• Adaptive strategies of tropical biota
• Clinal variation of biotic diversity on Earth
• Hypotheses explaining species richness in
the tropics
INSOLATION
kWh ×m-2×d-1
JANUARY
APRIL
MEAN ANNUAL SUM OF
RAINFALL (mm)
< 100
500 – 1000
>1000
100-500
TERRESTRIAL PLANT BIOMASS PRODUCTION (t/ha)
very low
low
medium
NPP (t d.m./ha)
high
very high
CHLOROPHYL CONTENT = BIOMASS PRODUCTION
NDVI 2008
NILE DELTA
LAI (leaf area index) reaches maximum
on equator
NASA: TERRA/MODIS, 2007
LAI (leaf area index) reaches maximum
on equator
NASA: TERRA/MODIS 2000
LAI annual amplitude
ADAPTIVE STRATEGIES
IN THE TROPICS
(rain forest and coral reef)
• High production
• Limited resources – strong competition
– For light
– For nutrients
• Other interactions also very strong
– Antagonistic (predation, „arms race”)
– Mutualistic
• Physical conditions +/- favourable
Tropical plants
• Angiosperms dominate
– Eudicots [Melastomataceae, Myrtaceae, Fabaceae, Fagaceae, etc.]
– Monocots [palms, grasses (bamboo), orchids]
• Gymnosperms – limited occurence
– Conifers
• Araucariaceae (spectacular trees, southern hemisphere, ca.40
sp.)
• Podocarpus (pantropical, montane, ca. 100 sp.)
• Pinaceae (northern hemisphere exclusively)
– Cycads
– Gnatum (One genus, 70 sp.; similar
to angiosperms)
89 m
80
82 m
Araucaria hunsteini
[New Guinea]
70
69 m
60
50
40
30
20
10
TROPICAL
FOREST TREES
TEMPERATE
ZONE FOREST
TREES
Adaptive strategies of tropical plants
1
• Rain forest trees (37000 sp.)
– Butressed trees
– Walking trees
– Early successional trees; „gaps” (palms etc.)
• Zoochory
STRATEGIES OF TREES:
BUTTRESED ROOTS
korzenie przyporowe
(Rancho Grande, Venezuela)
Gyranthera caribensis
Gyranthera caribensis
THE ROLE OF BUTTRESSED
ROOTS
• Mechanical
• Better soil coverage
• Mycelium mats (mycorrhiza)
Gyranthera caribensis
Malvaceae
Bombacoideae
Gyranthera caribensis
Catatumbo, Wenezuela
Malvaceae
Bombacoideae
Many tropical trees
Kapok (Ceiba pentandra)
Baobab
(Adansonia digitata)
phot. WIKPEDIA
SPINY TRUNKS
kapok (Ceiba pantandra)
Range of the family Dipterocarpaceae
Appr. 500 tropical tree species
of lowland rain forests
Shorea faguetiana (Borneo) : 88 m
Dipterocarpus
TREE STRATEGIES:
SUPPORTING (PROP) ROOTS
(„WALKING TREES”)
Palm Iriartea fusca
Rancho Grande, Venezuela
TREE STRATEGIES: MANGROVES
(namorzyny)
Global range of mangroves
Red mangrove (Rhizophora mangle)
Ocumare de la Costa, Venezuela
Propagulum
jw
©© jw
Mangroves are viviparous
(Rhizophora mangle)
Ocumare de la Costa, Venezuela
© jw
Rooted propagulae of red mangrove
(low tide)
Ocumare de la Costa, Venezuela
[Black mangrove] Avicenia sp.
Paraguana, Venezuela
Avicenia sp.
Aerating roots
(pneumatophores)
(korzenie powietrzne)
Paraguana, Venezuela
Hibiscus tiliaceus
mangrove; Ocumare de la Costa, Venezuela
Gymnospermae
Araucaria forest
Range of the genus Araucaria
Araucaria angustifolia
Sympodial crown
Curitiba, Brazylia
Araucaria angustifolia
Curitiba, Brazylia
Araucaria angustifolia
Curitiba, Brazylia
Polylepis sp.
Gymnospermae
TROPICAL ANDES
Dr Saul Flores, IVIC
Podocarpus pittieri (Gymnospermae)
[Genus distribution: GONDWANA]
Pinus sp. Introduced to Venezuela (Andes de Merida)
Tree fern (Dicksonia selowiana)
Curitiba, Brazylia
Tree fern (Cyathea sp.)
IVIC, Venezuela
PTERIDOPHYTA
Tree fern
Cyathea sp.
(Caracas, IVIC)
Selaginella sp.
Lycopod
CHARACTERISTIC TAXONS OF
TROPICAL PLANTS
(selected)
•
(Zingiberales)
– Cannaceae [1 genus]
– Marantaceae [550 sp.]
– Banana (Musaceae)
• Musaceae, Heliconiaceae
– Streliziaceae
– gingers (Zingiberaceae) [1300 sp.]
TYPICAL ADAPTATIONS OF TROPICAL
FOREST PLANTS
•
•
•
•
SCOTOPHILY (SHADOW TOLERANCE)
THERMOPHILY
HYGROPHILY
EPIPHYTES: SMALL ROOT SYSTEMS
• IN ONE WORD - IDEAL POT PLANTS
POT PLANTS
Araceae
Philodendron sp.
Diffenbachia sp.
Nepenthes sp.
Bromelia sp.
Vriesea sp.
Calathea sp.
Maranta sp.
Tillandsia sp.
POT PLANTS
Spatiphyllum sp.
Bromeliaceae, Araceae, Marantaceae
Nepenthaceae
Cannaceae
Canna indica
Canna edulis
wiki
Calathea sp.
Marantaceae
Arrowroot family
Rancho Grande, Venezuela
Maranta sp. ? (Marantaceae)
Rancho Grande, Venezuela
BANANA family
(Musaceae)
Heliconia velloziana (?)
Early successional; ornithogamic;
Fruits zoochoric (for birds)
Paranagua, Brazylia
© jw
Streliziaceae
Strelizia reginae
[native to South Africa]
Range of the ginger family (Zingiberaceae)
Costus sp. (Zingiberaceae)
Rancho Grande, Venezuela
Costus spicatus (Zingiberaceae)
Paranagua, Brazylia
Hedychium sp.
[Zingiberaceae]
Rancho Grande, Venezuela
White ginger lily
National flower of Cuba
(origin: Himalaya)
Hedychium coronarium
[Zingiberaceae]
Rancho Grande, Venezuela
CHARACTERISTIC TAXONS OF
TROPICAL PLANTS
• MYRTALES
– Melastomes (Melastomataceae;Melastomaceae)
Pantropical (2/3 in S. Am.)
4500 species
Miconia sp.
Species resistant to the excess of aluminium in soil
CHARACTERISTIC PATTERN OF LEAF NERVES
Melastomataceae; SPECIES RESISTANT TO Aluminium
IVIC, Venezuela
Melastomataceae
ARUM family
(„aroids”)
Araceae
Pantropical
(mainly neotropical)
More than 3700 sp.
Many epiphytes
Thermogenic flowers
Rancho Grande, Venezuela
Anthurium sp. (Araceae)
Rancho Grande, Venezuela
Anthurium costatum [Araceae] Gigantic
Cyclanthaceae
Rancho Grande, Venezuela
TREE STRATEGIES:
PALMS
Pantropical range of palms
(Arecaceae = Palmaceae)
extant
fossil
>200 genera, >2500 species
Palms – „Guiness records”
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Tallest tree (Ceroxylon)
Longest climber (Calamus, rotang)
Largest leaves [„fronds”] (Raphia)
Largest inflorescences (Corypha)
Largest seed (coco-de-mer, Lodoicea; 20 kg)
4
5
1
2
3
Ghazoul & Sheil 2011
Palms – global diversity
Region
Number of species
Indonesia
ca 500
Columbia
280
Brasil
220
Africa (continental)
50
Madagascar
176 (172 endemites)
Coconut palm (Cocos nucifera)
Ocumare de la Costa, Venezuela
Bactris sp.
Rancho Grande, Venezuela
Dwarf palms Geonoma paraguanensis above tree line,
Cerro Santa Ana, Paraguana, Venezuela
Woodland „cerrado” with the palm Butia capitata
Pantanal, Brazylia
„Palmito”
(Euterpe edulis)
Iguassu, Brazylia
„Caranda” palm
(Copernicia alba)
C. prunifera: „carnauba”, wax palm
Pantanal, Brazylia
Doum palm (Hyphaene thebaica),
the only palm genus with forked trunk; Samburu, Kenia
Cecropia sp. (Urticaceae) – early successional,
secondary forests of S.Am. (Choroni, Venezuela)
Cecropia sp. – edible fruits („snake fingers”)
(toucan toko)
(Pantanal. Brazylia)
Cecropia sp. Andes de Merida, Venezuela
Cecropia sp. (Urticaceae) – hairy leaves
(Pantanal. Brazylia)
TROPICAL PLANT (TREE) STRATEGIES:
Cauliflory and i caulicarpy
CAULIFLORY
CAULICARPY
Papaya:
A perenial
CAULIFLORY
CAULICARPY
Cacao
Theobroma cacao
SPECTACULAR TROPICAL TREES OF BLOSSOM
(POLLINATED BY BIRDS, INSECTS, BATS)
Erythrina sp.
(Fabaceae)
S. Africa, pantropical
„Coral tree”
Entomophylous flowers are
less spectacular (Caracas,
IVIC)
Palicourea sp.
Hummingbird pollinating banana flowers
Nitrogen fixing trees (Leguminosae):
Mimosa sp.
Adaptive strategies of tropical plants
2
LIANAS and VINES
• Lianas (scototropism)
• Strangler lianas (Ficus sp.)
• Early successional vines (Passiflora sp.)
Lianas (scototropism)
[„bottom-up strategy”]
• Up to 24o N
• 95% species coil to the right
• Families:
America:
Araceae (Mostera sp)
Bignoniaceae (Bauhinia sp.)
Fabaceae
Africa:
+ Apocynaceae
Asia
+ Arecaceae (rattan)
Rancho Grande, Venezuela
Choroni, Venezuela
Bauhinia sp.
LIANA
„MONKEY LADDER”
Hemi - epiphytes
Stranlgler lianas (Ficus sp.)
[„Top-down strategy”]
Merida, Venezuela
Philodendron at INoŚ
Strangler lianas (Ficus sp.)
Choroni, Venezuela
WORLD DISTRIBUTION OF THE GENUS Ficus
http://waynesword.palomar.edu/arbimg10.htm
Strangler lianas (Ficus sp.)
Pantanal, Brazylia
Strangler lianas (Ficus sp.)
Pantanal, Brazylia
An olive tree with strangler fig.
Mt. Kenia, Africa
Chalcid wasp
(Sycophila sp.)
FEMALE FLOWERS
MALE
FLOWERS
OSTIOLE
„bracts” = transformed leaves
A „fig” (Syconium) = pseudofruit (Ficus sp.. Moraceae)
Passiflora sp.
Vanilla sp.
VINES
EPIPHYTES AND PARASITES
Epiphytes: „Spanish moss”
Tilandsia sp.
(Bromeliaceae)
% epiphytes
among plant species
In S. America 25%
In Asia 10-15%
In Africa 2-3 (8?)%
IVIC, Venezuela
Tilandsia usneoides
Monte Cano, Paraguana, Venezuela
TWO STRATEGIES:
Bromelia sp.
Intercepts rainwater
Mosses and lichens
Condensate
water vapor
El Baho, Andes de Merida,
Venezuela
El Baho, Andes de Merida,
Venezuela
Philodendron sp.
Rancho Grande, Venezuela
Bromelia sp.
Rancho Grande, Venezuela
Orchid (Catleya sp. ?)
Fot. R. Laskowski
EPIPHYLES Epiphyllic community on a palm leaf Asplundia sp. (
Rancho Grande, Venezuela
Rancho Grande, Venezuela
Rhipsalis sp.
Epiphyllum hookeri
Cactaceae
SUSPENDED
ECOSYSTEMS
(phytotelmata)
Quest for nutrients:
Carnivirous plants
Range of the genus Nepenthes
Terrestrial Bromeliaceae
Paraguana, Venezuela
Heliconia sp.
ARID ENVIRONMENTS
• DRY FORESTS
• DRY SAVANNAS AND GRASSLANDS
• SEMIDESERTS
Plant defense strategies:
• structural (spines etc.)
• chemical (tannins, alcaloids, glycosides etc.)
• mutualistic cooperation
© jw
© jw
© jw
© jw
„Joshua tree” Yucca brevifolia
Mojave desert
© jw
© jw
© jw
© jw
Euphorbia resinifera
(Resin spurge)
native to Morocco
wiki
CHEMICAL DEFENSE: Acocanthera ouabaio
shrub containing strophantine, used for arrow poisoning (Kenia)
PLANT DEFENSE: Acacia drepanolobium „whistling thorn”
spines + tannins + mutualism with ants Crematogaster sp.
Ants Azteca sp. leaving Cecropia sp. hollow trunk
Venezuela
Ants Azteca sp. leaving Cecropia sp. hollow trunk
Venezuela
Ants Azteca sp. leaving domitia in Triplaris brasiliana (Polygonaceae) trunk
(Pantanal, Brasil)