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Transcript
Chapter 9: Application Design and
Development
Database System Concepts - 6th Edition
9.1
©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
Chapter 9: Application Design and Development
Application Programs and User Interfaces
Web Fundamentals
Servlets and JSP
Application Architectures
Rapid Application Development
Application Performance
Application Security
Encryption and Its Applications
Database System Concepts - 6th Edition
9.2
©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
Application Programs and User Interfaces
Most database users do not use a query language like SQL
An application program acts as the intermediary between users and
the database
Applications split into
front-end
middle layer
backend
Front-end: user interface
Forms
Graphical user interfaces
Many interfaces are Web-based
Database System Concepts - 6th Edition
9.3
©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
Application Architecture Evolution
Three distinct era’s of application architecture
mainframe (1960’s and 70’s)
personal computer era (1980’s)
We era (1990’s onwards)
Database System Concepts - 6th Edition
9.4
©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
Web Interface
Web browsers have become the de-facto standard user interface to
databases
Enable large numbers of users to access databases from
anywhere
Avoid the need for downloading/installing specialized code, while
providing a good graphical user interface
Javascript, Flash and other scripting languages run in
browser, but are downloaded transparently
Examples: banks, airline and rental car reservations, university
course registration and grading, an so on.
Database System Concepts - 6th Edition
9.5
©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
The World Wide Web
The Web is a distributed information system based on hypertext.
Most Web documents are hypertext documents formatted via the
HyperText Markup Language (HTML)
HTML documents contain
text along with font specifications, and other formatting instructions
hypertext links to other documents, which can be associated with
regions of the text.
forms, enabling users to enter data which can then be sent back to
the Web server
Database System Concepts - 6th Edition
9.6
©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
Uniform Resources Locators
In the Web, functionality of pointers is provided by Uniform Resource
Locators (URLs).
URL example:
http://www.acm.org/sigmod
The first part indicates how the document is to be accessed
“http” indicates that the document is to be accessed using the
Hyper Text Transfer Protocol.
The second part gives the unique name of a machine on the
Internet.
The rest of the URL identifies the document within the machine.
The local identification can be:
The path name of a file on the machine, or
An identifier (path name) of a program, plus arguments to be
passed to the program
– E.g., http://www.google.com/search?q=silberschatz
Database System Concepts - 6th Edition
9.7
©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
HTML and HTTP
HTML provides formatting, hypertext link, and image display features
including tables, stylesheets (to alter default formatting), etc.
HTML also provides input features
Select from a set of options
– Pop-up menus, radio buttons, check lists
Enter values
– Text boxes
Filled in input sent back to the server, to be acted upon by an
executable at the server
HyperText Transfer Protocol (HTTP) used for communication with the
Web server
Database System Concepts - 6th Edition
9.8
©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
Sample HTML Source Text
<html>
<body>
<table border>
<tr> <th>ID</th> <th>Name</th> <th>Department</th> </tr>
<tr> <td>00128</td> <td>Zhang</td> <td>Comp. Sci.</td> </tr>
….
</table>
<form action="PersonQuery" method=get>
Search for:
<select name="persontype">
<option value="student" selected>Student </option>
<option value="instructor"> Instructor </option>
</select> <br>
Name: <input type=text size=20 name="name">
<input type=submit value="submit">
</form>
</body> </html>
Database System Concepts - 6th Edition
9.9
©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
Display of Sample HTML Source
Database System Concepts - 6th Edition
9.10
©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
Web Servers
A Web server can easily serve as a front end to a variety of
information services.
The document name in a URL may identify an executable
program, that, when run, generates a HTML document.
When an HTTP server receives a request for such a
document, it executes the program, and sends back the
HTML document that is generated.
The Web client can pass extra arguments with the name of
the document.
To install a new service on the Web, one simply needs to create
and install an executable that provides that service.
The Web browser provides a graphical user interface to the
information service.
Common Gateway Interface (CGI): a standard interface between
web and application server
Database System Concepts - 6th Edition
9.11
©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
Three-Layer Web Architecture
Database System Concepts - 6th Edition
9.12
©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
Two-Layer Web Architecture
Multiple levels of indirection have overheads
Alternative: two-layer architecture
Database System Concepts - 6th Edition
9.13
©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
HTTP and Sessions
The HTTP protocol is connectionless
That is, once the server replies to a request, the server
closes the connection with the client, and forgets all about
the request
In contrast, Unix logins, and JDBC/ODBC connections
stay connected until the client disconnects
retaining user authentication and other information
Motivation: reduces load on server
operating systems have tight limits on number of open
connections on a machine
Information services need session information
E.g., user authentication should be done only once per
session
Solution: use a cookie
Database System Concepts - 6th Edition
9.14
©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
Sessions and Cookies
A cookie is a small piece of text containing identifying
information
Sent by server to browser
Sent by browser to the server that created the cookie on
further interactions
Sent on first interaction, to identify session
part of the HTTP protocol
Server saves information about cookies it issued, and can
use it when serving a request
E.g., authentication information, and user preferences
Cookies can be stored permanently or for a limited time
Database System Concepts - 6th Edition
9.15
©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
Servlets
Java Servlet specification defines an API for communication
between the Web/application server and application program
running in the server
E.g., methods to get parameter values from Web forms,
and to send HTML text back to client
Application program (also called a servlet) is loaded into the
server
Each request spawns a new thread in the server
thread is closed once the request is serviced
Database System Concepts - 6th Edition
9.16
©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
Example Servlet Code
import java.io.*;
import javax.servlet.*;
import javax.servlet.http.*;
public class PersonQueryServlet extends HttpServlet {
public void doGet (HttpServletRequest request, HttpServletResponse response)
throws ServletException, IOException
{
response.setContentType("text/html");
PrintWriter out = response.getWriter();
out.println("<HEAD><TITLE> Query Result</TITLE></HEAD>");
out.println("<BODY>");
….. BODY OF SERVLET (next slide) …
out.println("</BODY>");
out.close();
}
}
Database System Concepts - 6th Edition
9.17
©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
Example Servlet Code
String persontype = request.getParameter("persontype");
String number = request.getParameter("name");
if(persontype.equals("student")) {
... code to find students with the specified name ...
... using JDBC to communicate with the database ..
out.println("<table BORDER COLS=3>");
out.println(" <tr> <td>ID</td> <td>Name: </td>" + " <td>Department</td> </tr>");
for(... each result ...){
... retrieve ID, name and dept name
... into variables ID, name and deptname
out.println("<tr> <td>" + ID + "</td>" + "<td>" + name + "</td>" + "<td>" + deptname
+ "</td></tr>");
};
out.println("</table>");
}
else {
... as above, but for instructors ...
}
Database System Concepts - 6th Edition
9.18
©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
Servlet Sessions
Servlet API supports handling of sessions
Sets a cookie on first interaction with browser, and uses it to
identify session on further interactions
To check if session is already active:
if (request.getSession(false) == true)
.. then existing session
else .. redirect to authentication page
authentication page
check login/password
request.getSession(true): creates new session
Store/retrieve attribute value pairs for a particular session
session.setAttribute(“userid”, userid)
session.getAttribute(“userid”)
Database System Concepts - 6th Edition
9.19
©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
Servlet Support
Servlets run inside application servers such as
Apache Tomcat, Glassfish, JBoss
BEA Weblogic, IBM WebSphere and Oracle Application Servers
Application servers support
deployment and monitoring of servlets
Java 2 Enterprise Edition (J2EE) platform supporting objects,
parallel processing across multiple application servers, etc
Database System Concepts - 6th Edition
9.20
©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
Server-Side Scripting
Server-side scripting simplifies the task of connecting a database to
the Web
Define an HTML document with embedded executable code/SQL
queries.
Input values from HTML forms can be used directly in the
embedded code/SQL queries.
When the document is requested, the Web server executes the
embedded code/SQL queries to generate the actual HTML
document.
Numerous server-side scripting languages
JSP, PHP
General purpose scripting languages: VBScript, Perl, Python
Database System Concepts - 6th Edition
9.21
©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
Java Server Pages (JSP)
A JSP page with embedded Java code
<html>
<head> <title> Hello </title> </head>
<body>
<% if (request.getParameter(“name”) == null)
{ out.println(“Hello World”); }
else { out.println(“Hello, ” + request.getParameter(“name”)); }
%>
</body>
</html>
JSP is compiled into Java + Servlets
JSP allows new tags to be defined, in tag libraries
such tags are like library functions, can are used for example to
build rich user interfaces such as paginated display of large
datasets
Database System Concepts - 6th Edition
9.22
©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
PHP
PHP is widely used for Web server scripting
Extensive libaries including for database access using ODBC
<html>
<head> <title> Hello </title> </head>
<body>
<?php if (!isset($_REQUEST[‘name’]))
{ echo “Hello World”; }
else { echo “Hello, ” + $_REQUEST[‘name’]; }
?>
</body>
</html>
Database System Concepts - 6th Edition
9.23
©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
Client Side Scripting
Browsers can fetch certain scripts (client-side scripts) or
programs along with documents, and execute them in “safe
mode” at the client site
Javascript
Macromedia Flash and Shockwave for animation/games
VRML
Applets
Client-side scripts/programs allow documents to be active
E.g., animation by executing programs at the local site
E.g., ensure that values entered by users satisfy some
correctness checks
Permit flexible interaction with the user.
Executing programs at the client site speeds up
interaction by avoiding many round trips to server
Database System Concepts - 6th Edition
9.24
©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
Client Side Scripting and Security
Security mechanisms needed to ensure that malicious scripts
do not cause damage to the client machine
Easy for limited capability scripting languages, harder for
general purpose programming languages like Java
E.g., Java’s security system ensures that the Java applet
code does not make any system calls directly
Disallows dangerous actions such as file writes
Notifies the user about potentially dangerous actions, and
allows the option to abort the program or to continue
execution.
Database System Concepts - 6th Edition
9.25
©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
Javascript
Javascript very widely used
forms basis of new generation of Web applications (called Web
2.0 applications) offering rich user interfaces
Javascript functions can
check input for validity
modify the displayed Web page, by altering the underling
document object model (DOM) tree representation of the
displayed HTML text
communicate with a Web server to fetch data and modify the
current page using fetched data, without needing to reload/refresh
the page
forms basis of AJAX technology used widely in Web 2.0
applications
E.g. on selecting a country in a drop-down menu, the list of
states in that country is automatically populated in a linked
drop-down menu
Database System Concepts - 6th Edition
9.26
©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
Javascript
Example of Javascript used to validate form input
<html> <head>
<script type="text/javascript">
function validate() {
var credits=document.getElementById("credits").value;
if (isNaN(credits)|| credits<=0 || credits>=16) {
alert("Credits must be a number greater than 0 and less than 16");
return false
}
}
</script>
</head> <body>
<form action="createCourse" onsubmit="return validate()">
Title: <input type="text" id="title" size="20"><br />
Credits: <input type="text" id="credits" size="2"><br />
<Input type="submit" value="Submit">
</form>
</body> </html>
Database System Concepts - 6th Edition
9.27
©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
Application Architectures
Database System Concepts - 6th Edition
9.28
©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
Application Architectures
Application layers
Presentation or user interface
model-view-controller (MVC) architecture
– model: business logic
– view: presentation of data, depends on display device
– controller: receives events, executes actions, and returns a view
to the user
business-logic layer
provides high level view of data and actions on data
– often using an object data model
hides details of data storage schema
data access layer
interfaces between business logic layer and the underlying database
provides mapping from object model of business layer to relational
model of database
Database System Concepts - 6th Edition
9.29
©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
Application Architecture
Database System Concepts - 6th Edition
9.30
©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
Business Logic Layer
Provides abstractions of entities
e.g. students, instructors, courses, etc
Enforces business rules for carrying out actions
E.g. student can enroll in a class only if she has completed
prerequsites, and has paid her tuition fees
Supports workflows which define how a task involving multiple
participants is to be carried out
E.g. how to process application by a student applying to a
university
Sequence of steps to carry out task
Error handling
e.g. what to do if recommendation letters not received on time
Workflows discussed in Section 26.2
Database System Concepts - 6th Edition
9.31
©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
Object-Relational Mapping
Allows application code to be written on top of object-oriented data
model, while storing data in a traditional relational database
alternative: implement object-oriented or object-relational
database to store object model
has not been commercially successful
Schema designer has to provide a mapping between object data and
relational schema
e.g. Java class Student mapped to relation student, with
corresponding mapping of attributes
An object can map to multiple tuples in multiple relations
Application opens a session, which connects to the database
Objects can be created and saved to the database using
session.save(object)
mapping used to create appropriate tuples in the database
Query can be run to retrieve objects satisfying specified predicates
Database System Concepts - 6th Edition
9.32
©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
Object-Relational Mapping and Hibernate
(Cont.)
The Hibernate object-relational mapping system is widely used
public domain system, runs on a variety of database systems
supports a query language that can express complex queries
involving joins
allows relationships to be mapped to sets associated with objects
translates queries into SQL queries
e.g. courses taken by a student can be a set in Student object
See book for Hibernate code example
The Entity Data Model developed by Microsoft
provides an entity-relationship model directly to application
maps data between entity data model and underlying storage,
which can be relational
Entity SQL language operates directly on Entity Data Model
Database System Concepts - 6th Edition
9.33
©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
Web Services
Allow data on Web to be accessed using remote procedure call
mechanism
Two approaches are widely used
Representation State Transfer (REST): allows use of standard
HTTP request to a URL to execute a request and return data
returned data is encoded either in XML, or in JavaScript
Object Notation (JSON)
Big Web Services:
uses XML representation for sending request data, as well as
for returning results
standard protocol layer built on top of HTTP
See Section 23.7.3
Database System Concepts - 6th Edition
9.34
©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
Disconnected Operations
Tools for applications to use the Web when connected, but operate
locally when disconnected from the Web
E.g. Google Gears browser plugin
Provide a local database, a local Web server and support for
execution of JavaScript at the client
JavaScript code using Gears can function identically on any
OS/browser platform
Adobe AIR software provides similar functionality outside of Web
browser
Database System Concepts - 6th Edition
9.35
©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
Rapid Application Development
A lot of effort is required to develop Web application interfaces
more so, to support rich interaction functionality associated with Web
2.0 applications
Several approaches to speed up application development
Function library to generate user-interface elements
Drag-and-drop features in an IDE to create user-interface elements
Automatically generate code for user interface from a declarative
specification
Above features have been in used as part of rapid application
development (RAD) tools even before advent of Web
Web application development frameworks
Java Server Faces (JSF) includes JSP tag library
Ruby on Rails
Allows easy creation of simple CRUD (create, read, update and
delete) interfaces by code generation from database schema or
object model
Database System Concepts - 6th Edition
9.36
©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
ASP.NET and Visual Studio
ASP.NET provides a variety of controls that are interpreted at server,
and generate HTML code
Visual Studio provides drag-and-drop development using these
controls
E.g. menus and list boxes can be associated with DataSet object
Validator controls (constraints) can be added to form input fields
JavaScript to enforce constraints at client, and separately
enforced at server
User actions such as selecting a value from a menu can be
associated with actions at server
DataGrid provides convenient way of displaying SQL query results
in tabular format
Database System Concepts - 6th Edition
9.37
©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
Application Performance
Database System Concepts - 6th Edition
9.38
©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
Improving Web Server Performance
Performance is an issue for popular Web sites
May be accessed by millions of users every day, thousands of
requests per second at peak time
Caching techniques used to reduce cost of serving pages by
exploiting commonalities between requests
At the server site:
Caching of JDBC connections between servlet requests
– a.k.a. connection pooling
Caching results of database queries
– Cached results must be updated if underlying database
changes
Caching of generated HTML
At the client’s network
Caching of pages by Web proxy
Database System Concepts - 6th Edition
9.39
©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
Application Security
Database System Concepts - 6th Edition
9.40
©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
SQL Injection
Suppose query is constructed using
Suppose the user, instead of entering a name, enters:
"select * from instructor where name = ’" + name + "’"
X’ or ’Y’ = ’Y
then the resulting statement becomes:
"select * from instructor where name = ’" + "X’ or ’Y’ = ’Y" + "’"
which is:
select * from instructor where name = ’X’ or ’Y’ = ’Y’
User could have even used
X’; update instructor set salary = salary + 10000; --
Prepared statement internally uses:
"select * from instructor where name = ’X\’ or \’Y\’ = \’Y’
Always use prepared statements, with user inputs as parameters
Is the following prepared statemen secure?
conn.prepareStatement("select * from instructor where name = ’" + name + "’“)
Database System Concepts - 6th Edition
9.41
©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
Cross Site Scripting
HTML code on one page executes action on another page
E.g. <img src =
http://mybank.com/transfermoney?amount=1000&toaccount=14523>
Risk: if user viewing page with above code is currently logged into
mybank, the transfer may succeed
Above example simplistic, since GET method is normally not used for
updates, but if the code were instead a script, it could execute POST
methods
Above vulnerability called cross-site scripting (XSS) or cross-site
request forgery (XSRF or CSRF)
Prevent your web site from being used to launch XSS or XSRF attacks
Disallow HTML tags in text input provided by users, using functions to
detect and strip such tags
Protect your web site from XSS/XSRF attacks launched from other
sites
..next slide
Database System Concepts - 6th Edition
9.42
©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
Cross Site Scripting
Protect your web site from XSS/XSRF attacks launched from
other sites
Use referer value (URL of page from where a link was clicked)
provided by the HTTP protocol, to check that the link was followed
from a valid page served from same site, not another site
Ensure IP of request is same as IP from where the user was
authenticated
prevents hijacking of cookie by malicious user
Never use a GET method to perform any updates
This is actually recommended by HTTP standard
Database System Concepts - 6th Edition
9.43
©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
Password Leakage
Never store passwords, such as database passwords, in clear text in
scripts that may be accessible to users
E.g. in files in a directory accessible to a web server
Normally, web server will execute, but not provide source of
script files such as file.jsp or file.php, but source of editor
backup files such as file.jsp~, or .file.jsp.swp may be served
Restrict access to database server from IPs of machines running
application servers
Most databases allow restriction of access by source IP address
Database System Concepts - 6th Edition
9.44
©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
Application Authentication
Single factor authentication such as passwords too risky for critical
applications
guessing of passwords, sniffing of packets if passwords are not
encrypted
passwords reused by user across sites
spyware which captures password
Two-factor authentication
e.g. password plus one-time password sent by SMS
e.g. password plus one-time password devices
device generates a new pseudo-random number every minute,
and displays to user
user enters the current number as password
application server generates same sequence of pseudorandom numbers to check that the number is correct.
Database System Concepts - 6th Edition
9.45
©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
Application Authentication
Man-in-the-middle attack
E.g. web site that pretends to be mybank.com, and passes on
requests from user to mybank.com, and passes results back to
user
Even two-factor authentication cannot prevent such attacks
Solution: authenticate Web site to user, using digital certificates, along
with secure http protocol
Central authentication within an organization
application redirects to central authentication service for
authentication
avoids multiplicity of sites having access to user’s password
LDAP or Active Directory used for authentication
Database System Concepts - 6th Edition
9.46
©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
Single Sign-On
Single sign-on allows user to be authenticated once, and applications
can communicate with authentication service to verify user’s identity
without repeatedly entering passwords
Security Assertion Markup Language (SAML) standard for
exchanging authentication and authorization information across security
domains
e.g. user from Yale signs on to external application such as acm.org
using userid [email protected]
application communicates with Web-based authentication service at
Yale to authenticate user, and find what the user is authorized to do
by Yale (e.g. access certain journals)
OpenID standard allows sharing of authentication across organizations
e.g. application allows user to choose Yahoo! as OpenID
authentication provider, and redirects user to Yahoo! for
authentication
Database System Concepts - 6th Edition
9.47
©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
Application-Level Authorization
Current SQL standard does not allow fine-grained authorization such
as “students can see their own grades, but not other’s grades”
Problem 1: Database has no idea who are application users
Problem 2: SQL authorization is at the level of tables, or columns
of tables, but not to specific rows of a table
One workaround: use views such as
create view studentTakes as
select *
from takes
where takes.ID = syscontext.user_id()
where syscontext.user_id() provides end user identity
end user identity must be provided to the database by the
application
Having multiple such views is cumbersome
Database System Concepts - 6th Edition
9.48
©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
Application-Level Authorization (Cont.)
Currently, authorization is done entirely in application
Entire application code has access to entire database
large surface area, making protection harder
Alternative: fine-grained (row-level) authorization schemes
extensions to SQL authorization proposed but not currently
implemented
Oracle Virtual Private Database (VPD) allows predicates to be
added transparently to all SQL queries, to enforce fine-grained
authorization
e.g. add ID= sys_context.user_id() to all queries on student
relation if user is a student
Database System Concepts - 6th Edition
9.49
©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
Audit Trails
Applications must log actions to an audit trail, to detect who carried
out an update, or accessed some sensitive data
Audit trails used after-the-fact to
detect security breaches
repair damage caused by security breach
trace who carried out the breach
Audit trails needed at
Database level, and at
Application level
Database System Concepts - 6th Edition
9.50
©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
Encyption
Database System Concepts - 6th Edition
9.51
©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
Encryption
Data may be encrypted when database authorization provisions do not
offer sufficient protection.
Properties of good encryption technique:
Relatively simple for authorized users to encrypt and decrypt data.
Encryption scheme depends not on the secrecy of the algorithm but
on the secrecy of a parameter of the algorithm called the encryption
key.
Extremely difficult for an intruder to determine the encryption key.
Symmetric-key encryption: same key used for encryption and for
decryption
Public-key encryption (a.k.a. asymmentric-key encryption): use
different keys for encryption and decryption
encryption key can be public, decryption key secret
Database System Concepts - 6th Edition
9.52
©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
Encryption (Cont.)
Data Encryption Standard (DES) substitutes characters and rearranges
their order on the basis of an encryption key which is provided to
authorized users via a secure mechanism. Scheme is no more secure
than the key transmission mechanism since the key has to be shared.
Advanced Encryption Standard (AES) is a new standard replacing DES,
and is based on the Rijndael algorithm, but is also dependent on shared
secret keys.
Public-key encryption is based on each user having two keys:
public key – publicly published key used to encrypt data, but cannot
be used to decrypt data
private key -- key known only to individual user, and used to decrypt
data. Need not be transmitted to the site doing encryption.
Encryption scheme is such that it is impossible or extremely hard to
decrypt data given only the public key.
The RSA public-key encryption scheme is based on the hardness of
factoring a very large number (100's of digits) into its prime components
Database System Concepts - 6th Edition
9.53
©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
Encryption (Cont.)
Hybrid schemes combining public key and private key encryption for
efficient encryption of large amounts of data
Encryption of small values such as identifiers or names vulnerable to
dictionary attacks
especially if encryption key is publicly available
but even otherwise, statistical information such as frequency of
occurrence can be used to reveal content of encrypted data
Can be deterred by adding extra random bits to the end of the
value, before encryption, and removing them after decryption
same value will have different encrypted forms each time it is
encrypted, preventing both above attacks
extra bits are called salt bits
Database System Concepts - 6th Edition
9.54
©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
Encryption in Databases
Database widely support encryption
Different levels of encryption:
disk block
every disk block encrypted using key available in databasesystem software.
Even if attacker gets access to database data, decryption cannot
be done without access to the key.
Entire relations, or specific attributes of relations
non-sensitive relations, or non-sensitive attributes of relations
need not be encrypted
however, attributes involved in primary/foreign key constraints
cannot be encrypted.
Storage of encryption or decryption keys
typically, single master key used to protect multiple
encryption/decryption keys stored in database
Alternative: encryption/decryption is done in application, before sending
values to the database
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Encryption and Authentication
Password based authentication is widely used, but is susceptible to
sniffing on a network.
Challenge-response systems avoid transmission of passwords
DB sends a (randomly generated) challenge string to user.
User encrypts string and returns result.
DB verifies identity by decrypting result
Can use public-key encryption system by DB sending a message
encrypted using user’s public key, and user decrypting and sending
the message back.
Digital signatures are used to verify authenticity of data
E.g., use private key (in reverse) to encrypt data, and anyone can
verify authenticity by using public key (in reverse) to decrypt data.
Only holder of private key could have created the encrypted data.
Digital signatures also help ensure nonrepudiation: sender
cannot later claim to have not created the data
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End of Chapter
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Digital Certificates
Digital certificates are used to verify authenticity of public keys.
Problem: when you communicate with a web site, how do you know if you
are talking with the genuine web site or an imposter?
Solution: use the public key of the web site
Problem: how to verify if the public key itself is genuine?
Solution:
Every client (e.g., browser) has public keys of a few root-level
certification authorities
A site can get its name/URL and public key signed by a certification
authority: signed document is called a certificate
Client can use public key of certification authority to verify certificate
Multiple levels of certification authorities can exist. Each certification
authority
presents its own public-key certificate signed by a
higher level authority, and
uses its private key to sign the certificate of other web
sites/authorities
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A formatted report
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Figure 9.11
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Web Interfaces to Database (Cont.)
2.
Dynamic generation of documents
Limitations of static HTML documents
Cannot customize fixed Web documents for individual users.
Problematic to update Web documents, especially if multiple
Web documents replicate data.
Solution: Generate Web documents dynamically from data
stored in a database.
Can tailor the display based on user information stored in the
database.
–
E.g., tailored ads, tailored weather and local news, …
Displayed information is up-to-date, unlike the static Web
pages
–
E.g., stock market information, ..
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