Download Germany Post-1918 Pre-1918: Authoritarian rule by Kaiser Wilhelm

Germany Post-1918
Pre-1918: Authoritarian rule by Kaiser Wilhelm II, 1871 provision for electing a Reichstag
(parliament) never fully develops in the face of absolutism and authoritarianism (Heeeeey,
Russia?). WWI destroyed imperial rule of Germany – inability to proctor over their empire,
inability to quickly win the war front against the French or Russians in the Great War led to
distrust and distress at home. 9 Nov. 1918 Kaiser abdicates and a republic is declared.
New Socialism – Friedrich Elbert socialist leader of republic signs armistice Nov. 1918, Jan.
1919 a new constitution establishes the Weimar Republic. (German myth of “stabbing in the
back” at the hands of the republic” – Nationalist mythos).
Treaty of Versailles – June 1919;
1. Germany loses 13% of its European territory, all of its colonies.
2. Restricted armed forces (in light of the recent Great War military buildups)
3. demilitarized Rhineland as a buffer with France and land given to Poland to separate E.
Prussia.
4. War guilt clause (Germany is responsible for the war)
5. Reparations 6.6 billion pounds 1921.
Self-determination is happening elsewhere in Europe, ethnic Germans end up outside of
Germany and Anschluss (union) with Austria is forbidden.
New Republic – Proportional Representation voting system – produces coalitions and small parties
gaining representation. 14 Coalitions between Feb. 1919 and June 1928. President granted significant
powers – 7 year terms, appointing of chancellor (runs the government), and Article 48 allows rule by
decree in an emergency. This set of legislative maladies leads to political threats.
Spartacus League – Jan 1919 extreme leftist Socialists attempt to overthrow the government, communists
in the Ruhr in March 1920 and 1923 in Saxony and Thuringia.
Conservatism and nationalism (right) also resents the new representative system. Nationalists showed
contempt in military Kapp Putsch March 1920 (failed coup attempt, legitimate government flees and
civilians join in general strikes) and the White Terror of 1920-22 (400 political murders by the Freikorps
(demobilized soldiers continuing to fight for right-wing values).
Economic Conditions 1919-29:
Returning soldiers could not find work, land was lost to Europe in Treaty of Versailles, military output is
also a large portion of economic output. Reparations were also being paid out.
Government prints money and, along with passive resistance (refusal to work, especially in occupied
territories), leads to production drops – hyperinflation! 1924 new currency is introduced, but many of the
working class middle class are now without savings – US 1924 Dawes Plan injects money into the
economy (precoursor to the Marshall Plan?). 1929 US recalls its loans after stock market collapse.
Nazi Movement 1919 – 29
NSDAP (National Socialist German Worker’s Party) – Nazi party. Anton Drexler founded in Munich in
1919 (at the time called Deutsche Arbeiterpartei or DAP (German Worker’s Party).
Hitler post WWI – works as army informant spying on left-wing groups. Sept. 12, 1919 investigates
Drexler’s party. Decides to join the party. April 1, 1920 – no longer spying, now a full fledged political
agitator, giving the party a new name and a new 25 point programme (read that) that combined
nationalist, socialist, racialist, anti-Semitic, and anti-democratic ideas. July 1921 he becomes the party
chairman.
1921 – SA Sturmabteilung is created (paramilitary force) and the Volkischer Beobachter Nazi newspaper
created. 1923 party had 55,000 members (38 million people in Germany).
1923 Hitler becomes known nationally: tries to gain control of Bavarian government in preliminary march
on Berlin (much like Mussolini’s March on Rome 1922)
1889 born to a customs inspector, 1907 refused entry into Viennese Academy of Art, 1908 failed to enter
academy again – lives in Vienna selling postcards, 1913 moves to Munich, 1914 volunteers for military
service, sent to Western Front as dispatch runner, becomes a corporal; 1918 recovering from poison gas
attack when he hears of armistice, 1919 returns to Munich, serves in “enlightenment project”
investigating new political groups.
Nov. 8 1923 interrupt right-wing Bavarian political meeting in a Munich beer cellar; Kahr, Lossow, and
Seisser agree to Hitler’s plan to overthrow government. Kahr contacts authorities, Nov. 9 march happens,
Hitler leads 2000 armed Nazis through Munich – fired upon by army and Hitler escapes. Arrested Nov.
11. Munich Putsch or Beer Hall Putsch. Hitler convicted of high treason, sentenced to 5 years, only serves
9 months. While in “prison” he writes Mein Kampf (My Struggle) detailing his plans for governmental
control and solutions to the Jewish problem. (excerpt)
1924 Nazis engrain themselves in the political system rather than try for revolutionary overthrow.
Fuhrerprinzip established (Fuhrer as supreme authority) and SS (Schutzstaffel) established 1925-26 as
Hitler’s personal bodyguards.
New party organizations established to attract a broad range of individuals. Dec. 1929 178,000 members
1929-33 and Hitler’s rise to power
Muller’s Grand Coalition (DVP German People’s Party and SPD Social Democratic Party of Germany)
fails 1930 because it is unable to handle the stresses of the economic crisis ( 4.5 million unemployed by
1931 and 6 million by 1932.) and elections are rampantly replacing governmental authorities (5 elections
in 3 years).
Sept 1930 Nazis have 107 seats in the Reichstag; June 1932 230 seats and is largest party in Reichstag
(37.3%). KPD (German Communist Party) gains 17% of the vote Nov. 1929. Franz von Papen –
Chancellor June 1932-Nov 1932 when Nazis gain majority seats 33.1%, communists 16.9%. forced out
by Hindenburg (president). Places von Schleicher in charge, also inept. Eventually left with no other
choice but to choose Hitler as Chancellor – Jan. 30, 1933 von Papen hoping to push Hitler into a corner
and justify his alliance with the Nazis.
Calls for immediate elections, uses propaganda campaign to mount support. Reichstag fire Feb. 27, 1933,
blames communists, asks Hindenburg to issue an emergency decree “For the Protection of People and
State (Feb. 28)” giving Nazis power to search, arrest and censor until further notice, they removed
opponents before the elections. A communist was caught at the scene and later admitted to starting the
fire…
March 1933 43.9% of total votes cast – Nazis. DNVP offers support and Catholic Centre Party 11.2%,
giving Nazis majority and expels communists from Reichstag. March 23 Enabling Act provides Hitler a
basis for his dictatorship – allows chancellor to issue laws without consultation of Reichstag for a period
of four years. 4 months after Enabling Act Hitler combines legal powers and threats of force to Nazify
Germany (Gleichschaltung German institutions must conform to Nazi ideals).
Hitler’s Main Ideological Points
Supremacy of the state and Volksgemeinschaft – loyalty to the state is more important than any other
loyalty; people bound together by blood and community.
Social Darwinism – life is struggle, without interference strongest will always win.
Lebensraum – superior German race should be able to acquire living space for its people
Pan-Germanism Herrenvolk – supremacy of German-Aryans as the master race
Anti-democracy – democracy gives undue weight to weaker peoples and mediocrities
Fuhrerprinzip – the leader’s will is the source of all political authority – cult of the leaders
Anti-feminism – women’s role is to bear future Aryan children – they are baby factories
Anti-marxism – hostility to Marxism as an international creed (anti-internationalism, anti-Jew)
Anti-Semitism – Jews are the lowest race in the social hierarchy and should be persecuted
Blut and Boden blood and soil – blood of the community is rooted in the soil
Nazi ideology from the past
Von Herder 18th C philosopher uses Volk to describe the German superiority. Hegel says Germans will be
united as a single people in a unified state.
Anti-Semitism – hold over of centuries old distrust of Jews in the regions of Europe; industrial age saw
rise of Jews in wealth and status, something that revives old anti-Jewish sentiment and provides fodder
for anti-Semitism and Hitler’s viewpoints of Jews as “poison” and “pests.”
Cult of the Leader – Nietzsche Ubermensch theory of superior people, not just races. A man with the
“will to power” needed to lead – giving rise to Nazi belief in the absolute authority leader; contempt
shown for ordinary people who were, too often, swayed by emotions.
Struggle and survival of the fittest – Struggle and warfare are healthy activities that allow the strongest to
rise up and the weakest to be eliminated, survival of the strongest state – individuals are unimportant.
Hitler’s contributions to Nazi ideology
While in Vienna Hitler begins reading pamphlets, newspapers, and books to reinforce his anti-Semitism.
Rejects democracy because of its compromise to the weak.
Mein Kampf
Fight international Marxism (communism) to regain world power status
Marxism/communism was the invention of the Jews intent on Jewish world domination
National Socialism is the only doctrine that could fight communism. Liberal “bourgeois” or “middleclass” democracy is a stage in the steps to socialism and communism.
Must prepare the population for war to gain Lebensraum in the east; to achieve this there must be racial
unity, elimination of the Jews, authoritarian control, and zero tolerance for diversity or dissent.
Embraces socialism in the early years – abolition of unearned income, nationalization of business. Only
by associated with big business and middle class could Hitler win election and majority in the Reichstag.
Compensation was given to shareholders or owners of businesses that were nationalized, increasing the
incentive to work with the Nazis. Needed lebensraum in the land of the Slavs and Russians – anticommunism. Nationalism in Germany was racialism as well; all German peoples would rise above the
rest, but only those German people who also fell into a racial category prescribed by the Nazi party.
Ideology in Nazi Germany
Through Gleichschaltung and Volksgemeinschaft Hitler spread his beliefs and Nazi ideology throughout
society, through youth organizations (Hitler Youth) especially.
Ideology, while obviously prevalent behind the scenes, did not always permeate the society as a whole.
The Holocaust would not occur until the war years, a near decade after Hitler and the Nazi party’s rise to
prominence. The belief that women were to remain at home was countered when they were asked to enter
the workforce again to fuel the war effort. Nazi party name now irrelevant as many socialist aspects were
overtaken by the nationalistic side of the party.
Hitler’s consolidation of position and the one-party state March-July 1933
KPD (German Communist Party) banned after the Reichstag fire and the presidential decree of Feb. 28
(Reichstag Fire Decree or the Decree of the Reich President for the Protection of People and State). SPD
banned June 22 – socialist ties with the communist party – aka, not revolutionary, but they want the same
thing. DNVP (right-wing nationalist party) absorbed into the Nazi party and disbanded after. July 5
Catholic Centre Party disbands after Concordat with the Pope (Catholics recognized the Nazis and would
not interfere with politics if the Nazis promised not to interfere with the educational, youth, and
community organizations…). July 14 1933 Law Against the Establishment of Parties banning all other
party participation, leaving the Nazis in full control of the Reichstag.
Nazis began infiltrating state governments within the Germany countryside as early as 1933, and many
would resign power after they were unable to prevent SA violence. Jan. 1934 formalized a process of
Nazi government in these regions. All states placed under Nazi governors (Reichstatthalter) responsible
to the central party.
Law for the Restoration of the Professional Civil Service of April 1933 – non-Aryans forced to retire and
Jews and other opponents described as “alien elements” purged from administration, courts, schools, and
universities. New establishments were created (“fronts”) to control the professions – teachers forced to
join the National Socialist Teachers’ League (NSLB) – Nov. 1933 university lecturers forced to sign a
declaration in support of Hitler and join the Nazi Lecturers’ Association.
Dec. 1933 Law to Ensure the Unity of Party and State – legally establishes the one-party rule. There were
elements of shared rule, however, different agencies would compete in the same venues and there were
different branches within the Nazi party with overlapping responsibilities. Was this Hitler’s master plan
for final say-so or an oversight? SA radical wing still existed 1933 and the army was untouched.
Ernst Rohm – leader of the SA paramilitary group wished to merge the army and the SA and openly
defied Hitler, calling for a second revolution to complete the Nazi uprising. Himmler and Goering spread
rumors of a planned coup and Hitler took action. Rohm and 85 others killed on the Night of the Long
Knives June 30, 1934 – some non-SA were also killed Schleicher was killed, von Papen put under house
arrest. Hitler builds his cult by claiming he alone acted to save the German people from revolution.
Reichstag confirmed that his power came from the will of the people and could not be challenged (I’m the
voice of God on Earth…) Goebbels – propaganda minister – now able to portray Hitler as a German
savior, allowed Himmler’s SS to step into prominence over the army. Hindenburg dies, Hitler combines
chancellor with presidency, army swears loyalty to Hitler.
Propaganda and Hitler’s consolidation
Goebbels- Ministry for Popular Enlightenment and Propaganda. Buys up 2/3 of the newspapers by 1939.
Reich Broadcasting Corporation 1933 controlling all broadcasts. Loudspeakers located throughout the
city would project messages to the people. Volksempfanger (people’s receiver) 70% of households by
1939. How can we determine if it were successful or not?
The Use of Repression
Hindenburg’s decree of Feb. 1933 (300,000 communists) and imprisoned or executed (30,000).
Himler – Chief of Police 1936. Reichfuhrer of the SS (Schutzstaffel) the security service that acted as a
paramilitary group for the Nazis. Gestapo (Geheime Staatspolizei) established by Goering in April 1933,
root out and intimidate opposition.
Consolidation by 1938 – army was still an institution that could be volatile and positioned against the
Nazi state, but through Nazification (swastikas, indoctrination, Nazi training) and positioning authority
figures who supported Nazism into positions of command, the army becomes a good relationship. Army
still opposed to Lebensraum and massive expansion, especially against Russia.
Opposition – individuals might read banned books, listen to foreign news broadcasts, protect Jews or
other ethnic minorities. Swing Movement and Edelweiss Pirates…Berlin Red Patrol, Hanover Socialist
Front, KPD also operated underground to disrupt Nazi control. Kreisau Circle, churchmen, judges, others
(Bonhoeffer) met three times 1942-43 before Gestapo broke them apart. 1940-1944 six attempts on
Hitler’s life from army officers – Ludwig Beck, Hans Oster, and Colonel Claus von Stauffenberg.
Totalitarianism? – in theory the party and state worked in unison, but new research claims the opposite,
that the regime was NOT effectively run as totalitarian. “Confused, polycratic” system – overlapping
bodies of government ministries, party organizations, and special agencies. Goering and Speer over the
economy, and the overlapping agencies led to cumulative radicalism -all vying for power or to please
Hitler, which was encouraged through “survival of the fittest.” Hitler was usually away at his mountain
home, was not concerned with the general ideas of government and rarely read government reports given
to him.
Domestic Policies and their Impact
Economic system had no clear goals from Hitler. Promises to small farmers (29% of the population), but
would increasingly look to corporations for support because they could finance his dreams. Reich Food
Estate – controlled food production and sales, set target goals, quotas, and prices.
Wehrwirtshcaft - defense economy that would provide for Germany’s needs in a future war. 1936 state
begins to regulate economic life – and by 1933-1936 1600 new cartels (companies working together to
increase production and efficiency) developed. 70% 1937 monopoly controlled economies. Problem of
guns and butter – increasing the production of rearmament while maintaining standard of living – Hitler
and the Nazis could not resolve the problem.
Economic recovery and the Nazis – 6 million unemployed 1932.
Hitler appoints Hjalmar Schacht as president of the Reichsbank – passes law to reduce unemployment:
Government spending on public works schemes – Arbeitsdienst
Subsidies for private construction/renovation
Income tax rebates/loans to encourage industrial activity
Reich Labour Service (RAD) formed in 1934 – sent to work on civil, military, or agricultural projects
Autobahn – 4350 miles of roadway
Discouraging female labor – until needed to fill spots during war.
Mefo-bills- credit notes given by Reichsbank and guaranteed by the government as part of deficit
financing.
Economic miracle:
18 months unemployment fell from 6 million to 2.5 million, 1936 fell to 1.6 million and by 1939 it was
below 200,000. July 1932 reparations were ended and unemployment had begun to fall anyway, and, in
truth, military production began to strain the economy.
1936 Four Year Plan – Goering – self-sufficiency (autarky), synthetic production encouraged (fuel and
rubber), steelworks with lower grade ores, heavy machinery production. Set up central economy with
large corporate backing and help. Some argue the economic plans led Germany to ruin by 1938 and drove
Germany to war.
Not prepared for war in 1939, at least not a long term war, but only a short war under the blitzkrieg
attacks- so fast that enemy is overwhelmed and cannot fight back.
Hitler planned that Britain and France would not attack to defend Poles and Czechs – also made
arrangement with Soviets (Nazi-Soviet Pact 1939) saw that Poland would be peacefully divided between
them.
Speer’s management of the wartime economy – only half completed rearmaments, showing us the
weakness of other nations rather than the strength of German military. Germany does not defeat Britain
1940 and failed to defeat Soviets in 1941 June. Speer establishes Central Planning Board 1942 – set of
norms to avoid duplication of production, substitution of raw materials, increase in manufacturing, bans
and limits on manufacture of unnecessary goods, set schedules and output comparisons, organized
distribution of labour, machinery, and power supplies. Within first 6 months, armament production rises
50%. It’s not until they start bombing Germany that its economic situation falls. Hitler then begins
ordering destruction of factories and other production sites lest it falls into the enemy’s hands.
Women – Nazi roles – mothers, housewives supporting their husband, community organizers. Primary
role was to bear children for future Aryan population growth. Birth control centers closed, abortion illegal
(unless for elimination of genetic disorders), and maternity benefits increased. 1935 Lebensborn project
(Spring of Life) encouraging unmarried women of good racial qualities to have a baby with an SS officer.
May 1939 Mother’s Cross award encouraging all women to bear a child for the fuhrer. However, 1935,
certificates of fitness to marry and only genetically pure individuals are stressed to reproduce,
unproductive marriages could be ended 1938. Mothers who failed in their education of children,
especially in Hitler Youth attendance, could face having children removed from the home. 1933 Law of
Reduction of Unemployment women encouraged to leave work. 1934 forced from professions in
medicine, legal fields, and Civil Service. (inability to think logically). 10% university entrants women in
1930’s. Some women drawn back into factories to fill rearmament prospects – by 1943 women 16-45
could be conscripted for the war efforts. Germany was the “home” where women would work.
Ensure support of the youth – Hans Schemm Nazi Teacher’s League, those who have the youth on their
side control the future. June 1933 Baldur von Schirach youth leader of the German Reich, by end of 1933
controlled ALL youth organizations except Catholics (Concordat). Hitlerjugend (HJ) Hitler Youth,
membership compulsory 1936 and March 1939 Catholic groups finally closed. Divisions between boys
and girls based upon age. Two overarching aims: train boys for war and girls for motherhood.
Competition to ensure strength, willingness to win, etc. Encourage to spy on their parents… 1984?
Edelweiss Pirates (working-class) and Swing Movement (middle/upper class) rejection of Nazi ideals by
“listening to American jazz (black) music and wearing American-style fashions. May 1934 – Reich
Education Ministry under Bernhard Rust – no real change to structure but curriculum was overhauled.
Biology – racial differences emphasized.
Persecution – Volksgenossen race comrade unfit subject to intimidation and persecution. Minority groups
that also suffered: asocials - habitual criminals, work-shy, tramps and beggars, alcoholics, prostitutes, gay
men and lesbians, juvenile delinquents. Biological outsiders – defects – or those considered a threat due to
race – Jews, gypsies.
Asocials – Law Against Dangerous Habitual Criminals 1933.
Biological outsiders – July 1933 compulsory sterilization of those suffering from hereditary illness.
Euthanasia – devaluation of mental and physical disabilities as “burdens on the community.” (What about
veterans?) initially targeted youth under 3, but extended to up to 16 years old. 1945 5,000 killed by
injection or deliberate starvation. Extended to adults by carbon monoxide gas in mental hospitals.
Gypsies – inferior racial characteristics. 30,000 in Germany, but included in Nuremberg Laws of 1935,
banning marriage between Aryans and non-Aryans. Dr. Josef Mengele, Nazi German SS Officer known
as the Angel of Death would perform medical experiments and determined who became a concentration
camp worker and who would be used as a guinea pig.
Jews – only 500,000 in Germany. March 1933 first state sponsored persecution – act of boycott against
Jewish shops and businesses. Reichskristallnacht (Night of the Broken Glass) Nov. 9/10 1938 attacks on
synagogues, businesses, houses, and shops of Jewish origin. 91 murdered and 20,000 sent to
concentration camps. Jan. 1939 Hitler threatened the annihilation of the Jewish race in Europe. Sept. 1939
adds 3 million Jews to the German Empire. Placed into ghettos, forced to wear a yellow star, performed
labour. Madagascar Plan Summer 1940 – relocate the Jews of the empire to the island of Madagascar
(estimated to support between 500 – 5000 families (depends who you asked?)) but failed after Germany
did not defeat Britain and British maintained control of the seas. Wannsee Conference Jan 1942 – meeting
for Nazi officials to ensure cooperation of government agencies in the implementation of the final
solution to the Jewish problem. Jews gassed at Auschwitz, Chelmo, majdanek, Treblinka.
Relationship between Nazis and Churches in Germany – Protestants 58% and Catholics 32%.
Religious groups shared some ideological principles of the Nazis – opposition to socialism/communism,
conservatism, family values.
Protestant Church – May 1933 Reich Church – People’s Church revitalizing itself with Nazi ideologies.
Ludwig Muller July 1933 Reich Bishop and German Christians. Sept. 1933 Martin Niemoller Pastors’
Emergency League resisting German Christians and defend traditional Lutheranism. 3 Protestant
Churches: Reich Church under Muller, German Christians, trying to control Reich Church, and
Confessional Church, an oppositional church.
The Catholic Church – July 1933 Concordat – Vatican recognized Nazi regime and would not interfere
in politics. State would not interfere in Catholic Church. 1933-39 Nazis would use propaganda, closing of
Catholic schools, and removal of organizations.
German Faith Movement, neo-Paganism and “positive Christianity´- many SS members were
strongly supportive of the paganism movement, moving to replace Christian ideals. However, Christianity
remained as a bulwark in the face of Nazi totalitarian progression.
Art and Culture- Theme of art: Blood and soil – peasants pure Aryan blood, anti-feminism “Gretchen
Myth” emphasizing agricultural women, anti-Semitism. Burning of books. Richard Wagner’s works were
especially prominent