Download Practice Guidelines for Sedation and Analgesia by Non

Practice Guidelines for Sedation and Analgesia by Non-Anesthesiologists
1.
1
Sedation and Analgesia :
There is insufficient published evidence to evaluate the relationship between sedation / analgesia
outcomes and the performance of a preoperative patient evaluation. There is suggestive evidence that
some pre-existing medical conditions may be related to adverse outcomes in patients receiving either
moderate or deep sedation / analgesia. The consultants strongly agree that appropriate pre-procedure
evaluation (history, physical examination) increases the likelihood of satisfactory sedation and decreases
the likelihood of adverse outcomes for both moderate and deep sedation.
Recommendations: Clinicians administering sedation/analgesia should be familiar with sedationoriented aspects of the patient's medical history and how these might alter the patient’s response to
sedation / analgesia. These include: (1) abnormalities of the major organ systems; (2) previous adverse
experience with sedation/analgesia as well as regional and general anesthesia; (3) drug allergies, current
medications and potential drug interactions; (4) time and nature of last oral intake; and (5) history of
tobacco, alcohol or substance use or abuse. Patients presenting for sedation/analgesia should undergo a
focused physical examination including vital signs, auscultation of the heart and lungs, and evaluation of
the airway. (Refer to Example I.) Pre-procedure laboratory testing should be guided by the patient's
underlying medical condition and the likelihood that the results will affect the management of
sedation/analgesia. These evaluations should be confirmed immediately before sedation is initiated.
2.
Pre-procedure preparation:
The literature is insufficient regarding the benefits of providing the patient (or her/his guardian,
in the case of a child or impaired adult) with pre-procedure information about sedation and analgesia.
For moderate sedation the consultants agree and for deep sedation the consultants strongly agree that
appropriate pre-procedure counseling of patients regarding risks, benefits, and alternatives to sedation
and analgesia increases patient satisfaction.
Sedatives and analgesics tend to impair airway reflexes in proportion to the degree of
sedation/analgesia achieved. This dependence on level of sedation is reflected in the consultants
opinion: They agree that pre-procedure fasting decreases risks during moderate sedation, while strongly
agreeing that it decreases the risk of deep sedation. In emergency situations, when pre-procedure fasting
is not practical, the consultants agree that the target level of sedation should be modified (i.e., less
sedation should be administered) for moderate sedation, while strongly agreeing that it should be
modified for deep sedation. The literature does not provide sufficient evidence to test the hypothesis
that pre-procedure fasting results in a decreased incidence of adverse outcomes in patients undergoing
either moderate or deep sedation
Practice Guidelines for Sedation and Analgesia by Non-Anesthesiologists
2
Recommendations: Patients (or their legal guardians in the case of minors or legally incompetent adults)
should be informed of and agree to the administration of sedation / analgesia including the benefits,
risks, and limitations associated with this therapy, as well as possible alternatives. Patients undergoing
sedation/analgesia for elective procedures should not drink fluids or eat solid foods for a sufficient
period of time to allow for gastric emptying prior to their procedure, as recommended by the American
Society of Anesthesiologists “Guidelines for Preoperative Fasting” 2 (Example II). In urgent, emergent,
or other situations where gastric emptying is impaired, the potential for pulmonary aspiration of gastric
contents must be considered in determining (1) the target level of sedation, (2) whether the procedure
should be delayed or (3) whether the trachea should be protected by intubation.
3.
Monitoring
Level of consciousness: The response of patients to commands during procedures performed with
sedation/analgesia serves as a guide to their level of consciousness. Spoken responses also provide an
indication that the patients are breathing. Patients whose only response is reflex withdrawal from
painful stimuli are deeply sedated, approaching a state of general anesthesia, and should be treated
accordingly. The literature is silent regarding whether monitoring patients’ level of consciousness
improves patient outcomes or decreases risks. The consultants strongly agree that monitoring level of
consciousness reduces risks for both moderate and deep sedation. The members of the Task Force
believe that many of the complications associated with sedation and analgesia can be avoided if adverse
drug responses are detected and treated in a timely manner (i.e., prior to the development of
cardiovascular decompensation, or cerebral hypoxia). Patients given sedatives and/or analgesics in
unmonitored settings in anticipation of a subsequent procedure may be at increased risk of these
complications.
Pulmonary ventilation: It is the opinion of the Task Force that the primary causes of morbidity
associated with sedation/analgesia are drug-induced respiratory depression and airway obstruction. For
both moderate and deep sedation, the literature is insufficient to evaluate the benefit of monitoring
ventilatory function by observation or auscultation. However, the consultants strongly agree that
monitoring of ventilatory function by observation or auscultation reduces the risk of adverse outcomes
associated with sedation/analgesia. The consultants were equivocal regarding the ability of capnography
to decrease risks during moderate sedation, while agreeing that it may decrease risks during deep
sedation. In circumstances where patients are physically separated from the care giver, the Task Force
2
Anesthesiology 1999; 90:896-905
Practice Guidelines for Sedation and Analgesia by Non-Anesthesiologists
3
believes that automated apnea monitoring (by detection of exhaled CO2 or other means) may decrease
risks during both moderate and deep sedation, while cautioning practitioners that impedance
plethysmography may fail to detect airway obstruction. The Task Force emphasizes that because
ventilation and oxygenation are separate though related physiological processes, monitoring oxygenation
by pulse oximetry is not a substitute for monitoring ventilatory function.
Oxygenation: Published data suggests that oximetry effectively detects oxygen desaturation and
hypoxemia in patients who are administered sedatives / analgesics. The consultants strongly agree that
early detection of hypoxemia through the use of oximetry during sedation/analgesia decreases the
likelihood of adverse outcomes such as cardiac arrest and death. The Task Force agrees that hypoxemia
during sedation and analgesia is more likely to be detected by oximetry than by clinical assessment
alone.
Hemodynamics: Although there is insufficient published data to reach a conclusion, it is the opinion of
the Task Force that sedative and analgesic agents may blunt the appropriate autonomic compensation for
hypovolemia and procedure-related stresses. On the other hand, if sedation and analgesia are inadequate,
patients may develop potentially harmful autonomic stress responses (e.g., hypertension, tachycardia).
Early detection of changes in patients' heart rate and blood pressure may enable practitioners to detect
problems and intervene in a timely fashion, reducing the risk of these complications. The consultants
strongly agree that regular monitoring of vital signs reduces the likelihood of adverse outcomes during
both moderate and deep sedation. For both moderate and deep sedation, a majority of the consultants
indicated that vital signs should be monitored at 5-minute intervals once a stable level of sedation is
established. The consultants strongly agree that continuous electrocardiography reduces risks during
deep sedation, while they were equivocal regarding its effect during moderate sedation. However, the
Task Force believes that electrocardiographic monitoring of selected individuals (e.g., patients with
significant cardiovascular disease or dysrhythmias) may decrease risks during moderate sedation.
Recommendations: Monitoring of patient response to verbal commands should be routine during
moderate sedation, except in patients who are unable to respond appropriately (e.g., young children,
mentally impaired or uncooperative patients), or during procedures where movement could be
detrimental. During deep sedation, patient responsiveness to a more profound stimulus should be sought,
unless contraindicated, to ensure that the patient has not drifted into a state of general anesthesia..
During procedures where a verbal response is not possible (e.g., oral surgery, upper endoscopy), the
ability to give a "thumbs up" or other indication of consciousness in response to verbal or tactile (light
tap) stimulation suggests that the patient will be able to control his airway and take deep breaths if
Practice Guidelines for Sedation and Analgesia by Non-Anesthesiologists
4
necessary, corresponding to a state of moderate sedation. Note that a response limited to reflex
withdrawal from a painful stimulus is not considered a purposeful response and thus represents a state of
general anesthesia.
All patients undergoing sedation/analgesia should be monitored by pulse oximetry with
appropriate alarms. If available, the variable pitch "beep", which gives a continuous audible indication
of the oxygen saturation reading, may be helpful. In addition, ventilatory function should be continually
monitored by observation and/or auscultation. Monitoring of exhaled CO2 should be considered for all
patients receiving deep sedation and for patients whose ventilation cannot be directly observed during
moderate sedation. When possible, blood pressure should be determined before sedation/analgesia is
initiated. Once sedation/analgesia is established, blood pressure should be measured at 5-minute
intervals during the procedure, unless such monitoring interferes with the procedure (e.g., pediatric MRI
where stimulation from the BP cuff could arouse an appropriately-sedated patient). Electrocardiographic
monitoring should be used in all patients undergoing deep sedation; it should also be used during
moderate sedation in patients with significant cardiovascular disease or those who are undergoing
procedures where dysrhythmias are anticipated.
4. Recording of monitored parameters: The literature is silent regarding the benefits of
contemporaneous recording of patients' level of consciousness, respiratory function or hemodynamics.
Consultant opinion agrees with the use of contemporaneous recording for moderate sedation, and
strongly agrees with its use for patients undergoing deep sedation. It is the consensus of the Task Force
that unless technically precluded (e.g., uncooperative or combative patient) vital signs and respiratory
variables should be recorded before initiating sedation/analgesia, after administration of
sedative/analgesic medications, at regular intervals during the procedure, upon initiation of recovery, and
immediately before discharge. It is the opinion of the Task Force that contemporaneous recording
(either automatic or manual) of patient data may disclose trends which could prove critical in
determining the development or cause of adverse events. Additionally, manual recording ensures that an
individual caring for the patient is aware of changes in patient status in a timely fashion.
Recommendations: For both moderate and deep sedation, patients' level of consciousness, ventilatory
and oxygenation status, and hemodynamic variables should be assessed and recorded at a frequency
which depends upon the type and amount of medication administered, the length of the procedure, and
the general condition of the patient. At a minimum, this should be: (1) before the beginning of the
procedure; (2) following administration of sedative/analgesic agents; (3) at regular intervals during the
Practice Guidelines for Sedation and Analgesia by Non-Anesthesiologists
5
procedure, (4) during initial recovery; and (5) just before discharge. If recording is performed
automatically, device alarms should be set to alert the care team to critical changes in patient status.
5. Availability of an individual responsible for patient monitoring: Although the literature is silent
on this issue, the Task Force recognizes that it may not be possible for the individual performing a
procedure to be fully cognizant of the patient's condition during sedation/analgesia. For moderate
sedation, the consultants agree that the availability of an individual other than the person performing the
procedure to monitor the patient's status improves patient comfort and satisfaction and that risks are
reduced. For deep sedation, the consultants strongly agree with these contentions. During moderate
sedation, the consultants strongly agree that the individual monitoring the patient may assist the
practitioner with interruptible ancillary tasks of short duration; during deep sedation, the consultants
agree that this individual should have no other responsibilities.
Recommendation: A designated individual, other than the practitioner performing the procedure, should
be present to monitor the patient throughout procedures performed with sedation/analgesia. During deep
sedation, this individual should have no other responsibilities. However, during moderate sedation, this
individual may assist with minor, interruptible tasks once the patient's level of sedation/analgesia and
vital signs have stabilized, provided that adequate monitoring for the patient’s level of sedation is
maintained.
6. Training of personnel: Although the literature is silent regarding the effectiveness of training on
patient outcomes, the consultants strongly agree that education and training in the pharmacology of
agents commonly used during sedation / analgesia improves the likelihood of satisfactory sedation and
reduces the risk of adverse outcomes from either moderate or deep sedation. Specific concerns may
include: (1) potentiation of sedative-induced respiratory depression by concomitantly administered
opioids; (2) inadequate time intervals between doses of sedative or analgesic agents resulting in a
cumulative overdose; and (3) inadequate familiarity with the role of pharmacological antagonists for
sedative and analgesic agents.
Because the primary complications of sedation/analgesia are related to respiratory or
cardiovascular depression, it is the consensus of the Task Force that the individual responsible for
monitoring the patient should be trained in the recognition of complications associated with
sedation/analgesia. Because sedation/analgesia constitute a continuum, practitioners administering
moderate sedation should be able to rescue patients who enter a state of deep sedation, while those
intending to administer deep sedation should be able to rescue patients who enter a state of general
anesthesia. Therefore, the consultants strongly agree that at least one qualified individual trained in
Practice Guidelines for Sedation and Analgesia by Non-Anesthesiologists
6
advanced life support skills (according to ACLS guidelines) should be present in the procedure room
during both moderate and deep sedation.
Recommendations: Individuals responsible for patients receiving sedation/analgesia should understand
the pharmacology of the agents that are administered, as well as the role of pharmacologic antagonists
for opioids and benzodiazepines. Individuals monitoring patients receiving sedation/analgesia should be
able to recognize the associated complications. At least one individual capable of establishing a patent
airway and positive pressure ventilation, as well as a means for summoning additional assistance should
be present whenever sedation/analgesia are administered. It is recommended that an individual with
advanced life support skills be present for moderate and deep sedation .
7. Availability of emergency equipment: Although the literature is silent, the consultants strongly
agree that the ready availability of appropriately-sized emergency equipment reduces the risk of both
moderate and deep sedation. The literature is also silent regarding the need for cardiac defibrillators
during sedation/analgesia. During moderate sedation, the consultants agree that a defibrillator should be
immediately available for patients with both mild (e.g., hypertension) and severe (e.g., ischemia,
congestive failure) cardiovascular disease. During deep sedation, the consultants agree that a defibrillator
should be immediately available for all patients.
Recommendations: Pharmacologic antagonists as well as appropriately-sized equipment for establishing
a patent airway and providing positive pressure ventilation with supplemental oxygen should be present
whenever sedation/analgesia is administered. Suction, advanced airway equipment, and resuscitation
medications should be immediately available and in good working order (e.g., Example III). A
functional defibrillator should be immediately available whenever deep sedation is administered, and
when moderate sedation is administered to patients with mild or severe cardiovascular disease.
8. Use of supplemental oxygen: The literature supports the use of supplemental oxygen during
moderate sedation, and suggests the use of supplemental oxygen during deep sedation to reduce the
frequency of hypoxemia. The consultants agree that supplemental oxygen decreases patient risk during
moderate sedation, while strongly agreeing with this view for deep sedation.
Recommendations: Equipment to administer supplemental oxygen should be present when
sedation/analgesia is administered. Supplemental oxygen should be considered for moderate sedation
Practice Guidelines for Sedation and Analgesia by Non-Anesthesiologists
7
and should be administered during deep sedation unless specifically contraindicated for a particular
patient or procedure. If hypoxemia is anticipated or develops during sedation/analgesia, supplemental
oxygen should be administered.
9. Combinations of Sedative/Analgesic Agents: The literature suggests that combining a sedative
with an opioid provides effective moderate sedation; it is equivocal regarding whether the combination
of a sedative and an opioid may be more effective than a sedative or an opioid alone in providing
adequate moderate sedation. For deep sedation, the literature is insufficient to compare the efficacy of
sedative-opioid combinations with that of a sedative, alone. The consultants agree that combinations of
sedatives and opioids provide satisfactory moderate and deep sedation. However, the published data
also suggest that combinations of sedatives and opioids may increase the likelihood of adverse
outcomes including ventilatory depression and hypoxemia; the consultants were equivocal on this issue
for both moderate and deep sedation. It is the consensus of the Task Force that fixed combinations of
sedative and analgesic agents may not allow the individual components of sedation/analgesia to be
appropriately titrated to meet the individual requirements of the patient and procedure while reducing the
associated risks.
Recommendations: Combinations of sedative and analgesic agents may be administered as appropriate
for the procedure being performed and the condition of the patient. Ideally, each component should be
administered individually to achieve the desired effect (e.g., additional analgesic medication to relieve
pain; additional sedative medication to decrease awareness or anxiety). The propensity for combinations
of sedative and analgesic agents to cause respiratory depression and airway obstruction emphasizes the
need to appropriately reduce the dose of each component as well as the need to continually monitor
respiratory function.
10. Titration of intravenous sedative/analgesic medications: The literature is insufficient to
determine whether administration of small, incremental doses of intravenous sedative/analgesic drugs
until the desired level of sedation and/or analgesia is achieved is preferable to a single dose based on
patient size, weight, or age. The consultants strongly agree that incremental drug administration
improves patient comfort and decreases risks for both moderate and deep sedation.
Recommendations: Intravenous sedative/analgesic drugs should be given in small, incremental doses
which are titrated to the desired endpoints of analgesia, and sedation. Sufficient time must elapse
between doses to allow the effect of each dose to be assessed before subsequent drug administration.
When drugs are administered by non-intravenous routes (e.g., oral, rectal, intramuscular, transmucosal),
allowance should be made for the time required for drug absorption before supplementation is
Practice Guidelines for Sedation and Analgesia by Non-Anesthesiologists
8
considered. Because absorption may be unpredictable, administration of repeat doses of oral
medications to supplement sedation / analgesia is not recommended.
11. Anesthetic induction agents used for sedation / analgesia (propofol, methohexital, ketamine)
The literature suggests that when administered by non-anesthesiologists, propofol and ketamine
can provide satisfactory moderate sedation, and suggests that methohexital can provide satisfactory deep
sedation. The literature is insufficient to evaluate the efficacy of propofol or ketamine administered by
non-anesthesiologists for deep sedation. There is insufficient literature to determine whether moderate
or deep sedation with propofol is associated with a different incidence of adverse outcomes than similar
levels of sedation with midazolam. The consultants are equivocal regarding whether use of these
medications affects the likelihood of producing satisfactory moderate sedation, while agreeing that using
them increases the likelihood of satisfactory deep sedation. However, the consultants agree that
avoiding these medications decreases the likelihood of adverse outcomes during moderate sedation, and
are equivocal regarding their effect on adverse outcomes during deep sedation.
The Task Force cautions practitioners that methohexital and propofol can produce rapid,
profound decreases in level of consciousness and cardiorespiratory function, potentially culminating in a
state of general anesthesia. The Task Force notes that ketamine also produces dose-related decreases in
level of consciousness culminating in general anesthesia. Although it may be associated with less
cardiorespiratory depression than other sedatives, airway obstruction, laryngospasm, and pulmonary
aspiration may still occur with ketamine. Furthermore, because of its dissociative properties, some of
the usual signs of depth of sedation may not apply (e.g., the patient’s eyes may be open while in a state
of deep sedation or general anesthesia). The Task Force also notes that there are no specific
pharmacological antagonists for any of these medications.
Recommendations: Even if moderate sedation is intended, patients receiving propofol or methohexital by
any route should receive care consistent with that required for deep sedation. Accordingly, practitioners
administering these drugs should be qualified to rescue patients from any level of sedation including
general anesthesia. Patients receiving ketamine should be cared for in a manner consistent with the level
of sedation which is achieved.
12. Intravenous Access: Published literature is equivocal regarding the relative efficacy of sedative
/analgesic agents administered intravenously as compared to agents administered by non-intravenous
routes to achieve moderate sedation; the literature is insufficient on this issue for deep sedation. The
literature is equivocal regarding the comparative safety of these routes of administration for moderate
sedation, and insufficient for deep sedation. The consultants strongly agree that intravenous
Practice Guidelines for Sedation and Analgesia by Non-Anesthesiologists
9
administration of sedative and analgesic medications increases the likelihood of satisfactory sedation for
both moderate and deep sedation. They also agree that it decreases the likelihood of adverse outcomes.
For both moderate and deep sedation, when sedative/analgesic medications are administered
intravenously, the consultants strongly agree with maintaining intravenous access until patients are no
longer at risk for cardiovascular or respiratory depression, because it increases the likelihood of
satisfactory sedation and decreases the likelihood of adverse outcomes. In those situations where
sedation is begun by non-intravenous routes (e.g., oral, rectal, intramuscular) the need for intravenous
access is not sufficiently addressed in the literature. However, initiation of intravenous access after the
initial sedation takes effect allows additional sedative/analgesic and resuscitation drugs to be
administered if necessary.
Recommendations: In patients receiving intravenous medications for sedation/analgesia, vascular access
should be maintained throughout the procedure and until the patient is no longer at risk for
cardiorespiratory depression. In patients who have received sedation/analgesia by non-intravenous
routes, or whose intravenous line has become dislodged or blocked, practitioners should determine the
advisability of establishing or reestablishing intravenous access on a case-by-case basis. In all instances,
an individual with the skills to establish intravenous access should be immediately available.
13. Reversal Agents: Specific antagonist agents are available for the opioids (e.g., naloxone) and
benzodiazepines (e.g., flumazenil). The literature supports the ability of naloxone to reverse opioidinduced sedation and respiratory depression. Practitioners are cautioned that acute reversal of opioidinduced analgesia may result in pain, hypertension, tachycardia, or pulmonary edema. The literature
supports the ability of flumazenil to antagonize benzodiazepine-induced sedation and ventilatory
depression in patients who have received benzodiazepines alone or in combination with an opioid. The
consultants strongly agree that the immediate availability of reversal agents during both moderate and
deep sedation is associated with decreased risk of adverse outcomes. It is the consensus of the Task
Force that respiratory depression should be initially treated with supplemental oxygen and, if necessary,
positive pressure ventilation by mask. The consultants disagree that the use of sedation regimens which
are likely to require routine reversal with flumazenil or naloxone improves the quality of sedation or
reduces the risk of adverse outcomes.
Recommendations: Specific antagonists should be available whenever opioid analgesics or
benzodiazepines are administered for sedation/analgesia. Naloxone and/or flumazenil may be
administered to improve spontaneous ventilatory efforts in patients who have received opioids or
benzodiazepines, respectively. This may be especially helpful in cases where airway control and
Practice Guidelines for Sedation and Analgesia by Non-Anesthesiologists
10
positive pressure ventilation are difficult. Prior to or concomitantly with pharmacological reversal,
patients who become hypoxemic or apneic during sedation/analgesia should: (1) be encouraged or
stimulated to breathe deeply; (2) receive supplemental oxygen; and (3) receive positive pressure
ventilation if spontaneous ventilation is inadequate. Following pharmacological reversal, patients
should be observed long enough to ensure that sedation and cardiorespiratory depression does not recur
once the effect of the antagonist dissipates. The use of sedation regimens which include routine reversal
of sedative or analgesic agents is discouraged.
14. Recovery care: Patients may continue to be at significant risk for developing complications after
their procedure is completed. Decreased procedural stimulation, delayed drug absorption following nonintravenous administration, and slow drug elimination, may contribute to residual sedation and
cardiorespiratory depression during the recovery period. Examples include intramuscular meperidinepromethazine-chlorpromazine mixtures and oral or rectal chloral hydrate. When sedation/analgesia is
administered to outpatients, one must assume that there will be no medical supervision once the patient
leaves the medical facility. Although there is not sufficient literature to examine the effects of postprocedure monitoring on patient outcomes, the consultants strongly agree that continued observation,
monitoring, and predetermined discharge criteria decrease the likelihood of adverse outcomes for both
moderate and deep sedation. It is the consensus of the Task Force that discharge criteria should be
designed to minimize the risk for cardiorespiratory depression after patients are released from
observation by trained personnel.
Recommendations: Following sedation/analgesia, patients should be observed in an appropriately
staffed and equipped area until they are near their baseline level of consciousness and are no longer at
increased risk for cardiorespiratory depression. Oxygenation should be monitored periodically until
patients are no longer at risk for hypoxemia. Ventilation, and circulation should be monitored at regular
intervals until patients are suitable for discharge. Discharge criteria should be designed to minimize the
risk of central nervous system or cardiorespiratory depression following discharge from observation by
trained personnel (e.g., Example IV.)
15. Special Situations: The literature suggests and the Task Force members concur that certain types of
patients are at increased risk for developing complications related to sedation/analgesia unless special
precautions are taken. In patients with significant underlying medical conditions (e.g. extremes of age;
severe cardiac, pulmonary, hepatic or renal disease; pregnancy; drug or alcohol abuse) the consultants
agree that pre-procedure consultation with an appropriate medical specialist (e.g., cardiologist,
pulmonologist) decreases the risk associated with moderate sedation and strongly agree that it decreases
Practice Guidelines for Sedation and Analgesia by Non-Anesthesiologists
11
the risks associated with deep sedation. In patients with significant sedation-related risk factors (e.g.,
uncooperative patients, morbid obesity, potentially difficult airway, sleep apnea) the consultants are
equivocal regarding whether preprocedure consultation with an anesthesiologist increases the likelihood
of satisfactory moderate sedation while agreeing that it decreases adverse outcomes; the consultants
strongly agree that preprocedure consultation increases the likelihood of satisfactory outcomes while
decreasing the risk associated with deep sedation. The Task Force notes that in emergency situations,
the benefits of awaiting pre-procedure consultations must be weighed against the risk of delaying the
procedure.
For moderate sedation, the consultants are equivocal regarding whether the immediate
availability of an individual with postgraduate training in anesthesiology increases the likelihood of a
satisfactory outcome or decreases the associated risks. For deep sedation the consultants agree that the
immediate availability of such an individual improves the likelihood of satisfactory sedation and that it
will decrease the likelihood of adverse outcomes.
Recommendations: Whenever possible, appropriate medical specialists should be consulted prior to
administration of sedation to patients with significant underlying conditions. The choice of specialists
depends on the nature of the underlying condition and the urgency of the situation. For severely
compromised or medically unstable patients (e.g., anticipated difficult airway, severe obstructive
pulmonary disease, coronary artery disease, or congestive heart failure), or if it is likely that sedation to
the point of unresponsiveness will be necessary to obtain adequate conditions, practitioners who are not
trained in the administration of general anesthesia should consult an anesthesiologist.
Practice Guidelines for Sedation and Analgesia by Non-Anesthesiologists
12
Example I: Airway Assessment Procedures for Sedation and Analgesia
Positive pressure ventilation, with or without tracheal intubation, may be necessary if respiratory
compromise develops during sedation/analgesia. This may be more difficult in patients with atypical
airway anatomy. Also, some airway abnormalities may increase the likelihood of airway obstruction
during spontaneous ventilation. Some factors which may be associated with difficulty in airway
management are:
History:
Previous problems with anesthesia or sedation
Stridor, snoring, or sleep apnea
Advanced rheumatoid arthritis
Chromosomal abnormality (e.g. trisomy 21)
Physical Examination:
Habitus:
Significant obesity (especially involving the neck and facial structures)
Head and Neck:
Short neck, limited neck extension, decreased hyoid-mental distance (<3 cm
in an adult), neck mass, cervical spine disease or trauma, tracheal deviation,
dysmorphic facial features (e.g., Pierre-Robin syndrome)
Mouth:
Small opening (< 3 cm in an adult); edentulous; protruding incisors; loose or
capped teeth; dental appliances; high, arched palate; macroglossia; tonsillar
hypertrophy; non-visible uvula
Jaw:
Micrognathia, retrognathia, trismus, significant malocclusion
Practice Guidelines for Sedation and Analgesia by Non-Anesthesiologists
13
Example II: Summary of American Society of Anesthesiologists Pre-Procedure Fasting Guidelines1
Ingested Material
Minimum Fasting Period 2
Clear liquids 3
2h
Breast milk
4h
Infant formula
6h
Non-human milk 4
6h
Light meal 5
6h
1
These recommendations apply to healthy patients who are undergoing elective procedures. They are not
intended for women in labor. Following the guidelines does not guarantee a complete gastric emptying
has occurred.
2
The fasting periods noted above apply to all ages.
3
Examples of clear liquids include water, fruit juices without pulp, carbonated beverages, clear tea, and
black coffee.
4
Since non-human milk is similar to solids in gastric emptying time, the amount ingested must be
considered when determining an appropriate fasting period.
5
A light meal typically consists of toast and clear liquids. Meals that include fried or fatty foods or meat
may prolong gastric emptying time. Both the amount and type of foods ingested must be considered
when determining an appropriate fasting period.
Practice Guidelines for Sedation and Analgesia by Non-Anesthesiologists
14
Example III: Emergency Equipment for Sedation and Analgesia
Appropriate emergency equipment should be available whenever sedative or analgesic drugs capable of
causing cardiorespiratory depression are administered. The table below should be used as a guide, which
should be modified depending upon the individual practice circumstances. Items in brackets are
recommended when infants or children are sedated.
Intravenous Equipment:
Gloves
Tourniquets
Alcohol wipes
Sterile gauze pads
Intravenous catheters [24, 22 gauge]
Intravenous tubing [pediatric 'microdrip'--60 drops/ml]
Intravenous fluid
Assorted needles for drug aspiration, i.m. injection [intraosseous bone marrow needle]
Appropriately sized syringes [1 ml syringes]
Tape
Basic Airway Management Equipment:
Source of compressed O2 (tank with regulator or pipeline supply with flowmeter)
Source of suction
Suction catheters [pediatric suction catheters]
Yankauer-type suction
Face masks [infant/child face masks]
Self-inflating breathing bag-valve set [pediatric bag-valve set]
Oral and nasal airways [infant/child sized airways]
Lubricant
Practice Guidelines for Sedation and Analgesia by Non-Anesthesiologists
Advanced Airway Management Equipment (for practitioners with intubation skills)
Laryngeal mask airways [pediatric laryngeal mask airways]
Laryngoscope handles (tested)
Laryngoscope blades [pediatric laryngoscope blades]
Endotracheal tubes:
Cuffed 6.0, 7.0, 8.0 mm i.d.
[Uncuffed 2.5, 3.0, 3.5, 4.0, 4.5, 5.0, 5.5, 6.0 mm i.d.]
Stylet [appropriately sized for endotracheal tubes]
Pharmacologic Antagonists
Naloxone
Flumazenil
Emergency Medications:
Epinephrine
Ephedrine
Vasopressin
Atropine
Nitroglycerin (tablets or spray)
Amiodarone
Lidocaine
Glucose (50%) [10% or 25% glucose]
Diphenhydramine
Hydrocortisone, methylprednisolone, or dexamethasone
Diazepam or Midazolam
15
Practice Guidelines for Sedation and Analgesia by Non-Anesthesiologists
16
Example IV: Recovery and Discharge Criteria
Following Sedation and Analgesia
Each patient-care facility in which sedation/analgesia is administered should develop recovery and
discharge criteria which are suitable for its specific patients and procedures. Some of the basic
principles which might be incorporated in these criteria are enumerated below.
A. General Principles
1.
Medical supervision of recovery and discharge following moderate or deep sedation is the
responsibility of the operating practitioner or a licensed physician
2.
The recovery area should be equipped with or have direct access to appropriate
monitoring and resuscitation equipment
3.
Patients receiving moderate or deep sedation should be monitored until appropriate
discharge criteria are satisfied. The duration and frequency of monitoring should be
individualized depending upon the level of sedation achieved, the overall condition of the
patient, and the nature of the intervention for which sedation/analgesia was administered.
Oxygenation should be monitored until patients are no longer at risk for respiratory
depression.
4.
Level of consciousness, vital signs and oxygenation (when indicated) should be recorded
at regular intervals
5.
A nurse or other individual trained to monitor patients and recognize complications
should be in attendance until discharge criteria are fulfilled.
6.
An individual capable of managing complications (e.g., establishing a patent airway and
providing positive pressure ventilation) should be immediately available until discharge
criteria are fulfilled.
B. Guidelines for Discharge
1.
Patients should be alert and oriented; infants and patients whose mental status was
initially abnormal should have returned to their baseline. Practitioners and parents must
be aware that pediatric patients are at risk for airway obstruction should the head fall
forward while the child is secured in a car seat.
2.
Vital signs should be stable and within acceptable limits.
Practice Guidelines for Sedation and Analgesia by Non-Anesthesiologists
3.
Use of scoring systems may assist in documentation of fitness for discharge.
4.
Sufficient time (up to 2 hours) should have elapsed following the last administration of
17
reversal agents (naloxone, flumazenil) to ensure that patients do not become resedated
after reversal effects have worn off.
5.
Outpatients should be discharged in the presence of a responsible adult who will
accompany them home and be able to report any post-procedure complications.
6.
Outpatients and their escorts should be provided with written instructions regarding postprocedure diet, medications, activities, and a phone number to be called in case of
emergency.
Practice Guidelines for Sedation and Analgesia by Non-Anesthesiologists
Table 1:
18
Continuum of Depth of Sedation
Definition of General Anesthesia and Levels of Sedation / Analgesia
(Developed by the American Society of Anesthesiologists)
(Approved by ASA House of Delegates on October 13, 1999)
Minimal
Sedation
(“Anxiolysis”)
Moderate
Sedation /
Analgesia
(“Conscious
Sedation”)
Deep
Sedation /
Analgesia
General Anesthesia
Responsiveness
Normal
response to
verbal
stimulation
Purposeful*
response to verbal
or tactile
stimulation
Purposeful*
response following
repeated or painful
stimulation
Unarousable, even
with painful
stimulus
Airway
Unaffected
No intervention
required
Intervention may
be required
Intervention often
required
Spontaneous
Ventilation
Unaffected
Adequate
May be inadequate
Frequently
inadequate
Cardiovascular
Function
Unaffected
Usually maintained
Usually maintained
May be impaired
Minimal Sedation (Anxiolysis) is a drug-induced state during which patients respond normally to
verbal commands. Although cognitive function and coordination may be impaired, ventilatory and
cardiovascular functions are unaffected.
Moderate Sedation/Analgesia ("Conscious Sedation") is a drug-induced depression of consciousness
during which patients respond purposefully* to verbal commands, either alone or accompanied by light
tactile stimulation. No interventions are required to maintain a patent airway, and spontaneous
ventilation is adequate. Cardiovascular function is usually maintained.
Deep Sedation/Analgesia is a drug-induced depression of consciousness during which patients cannot
be easily aroused but respond purposefully* following repeated or painful stimulation. The ability to
independently maintain ventilatory function may be impaired. Patients may require assistance in
maintaining a patent airway, and spontaneous ventilation may be inadequate. Cardiovascular function is
usually maintained.
General Anesthesia is a drug-induced loss of consciousness during which patients are not arousable,
even by painful stimulation. The ability to independently maintain ventilatory function is often impaired.
Patients often require assistance in maintaining a patent airway, and positive pressure ventilation may be
required because of depressed spontaneous ventilation or drug-induced depression of neuromuscular
function. Cardiovascular function may be impaired.
Because sedation is a continuum, it is not always possible to predict how an individual patient will
respond. Hence, practitioners intending to produce a given level of sedation should be able to rescue
patients whose level of sedation becomes deeper than initially intended. Individuals administering
Moderate Sedation/Analgesia ("Conscious Sedation") should be able to rescue patients who enter a
state of Deep Sedation/Analgesia, while those administering Deep Sedation/Analgesia should be able
to rescue patients who enter a state of general anesthesia.
*Reflex withdrawal from a painful stimulus is NOT considered a purposeful response.