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! Sample ERQ: Discuss how and why particular methods are used at the biological level of analysis The two research methods are clearly identified in the introduction to the essay. Why its used. How cause and effect is established. However, the issue of controlling confounding (extraneous) variables is not addressed. An independent samples design was used. IV and DV are clearly identified. A clarification of the limitation of low ecological validity. Shows why biologists use this method in spite of the criticism. This comment tangentially addresses the often reductionist approach of experimental research. A very limited definition of the method. Focus is more on the participants. Case studies are usually longitudinal. They also employ method triangulation. There is usually no manipulation of variables. Psychologists at the biological level of analysis have tried to find specific biological correlates of behavior. Different methods are used to investigate how biological factors such as brain structures and hormone levels could influence behavior. Two research methods which are used could be the experiment and the case study. The experimental method is often used by researchers within the biological level of analysis. This is because this method can establish cause-effect relationship. In the experiment the researchers deliberately manipulate an independent variable to measure the effect of that on the dependent variable. In order to show how the experimental method has been applied a study by Newcomer et. al. (1999) could be used. The aim of the experiment was to see how different levels of cortisol affected verbal declarative memory in that the participants had to listen to and recall parts of a prose text. There were three experimental groups. Group one received a high dose of cortisol (160 mg) which is the same as a person experiencing a major stressor. Group two received a low dose of cortisol (40 mg) which is the same as a person experiencing slight stress. Group three was the placebo group which acted as control. After four days the participants were asked to recall the text. The IV was thus level of cortisol or placebo and the DV was scores on the verbal declarative memory test. The results showed that the participants on the high cortisol dose performed worst on the verbal declarative memory test. This indicates a relationship between the increased level of cortisol and performance on the verbal declarative memory test. By deliberately manipulating the IV the researchers could show that cortisol levels influence memory. Some methodological concerns arise, however. The experimental procedure is often said to suffer from low ecological validity due to artificiality. It could, therefore, be argued that such results do not give insight into how cortisol levels affect memory in real life situations. However, since biological processes are more or less similar in real life and in the lab so this argument could be refuted. The use of the experimental method indicates a clear cause-effect relationship between levels of cortisol and memory. It should be noted, though, that stress is a complex condition and that an experiment like Newcomer et al. (1999) can say something about biological correlates of stress but not really anything about what causes stress. Another method used at the biological level of analysis is the case study. This is an in-depth study of an individual – often with a particular condition such as brain damage. The researchers study a case in order to know more about how particular brain structures influence behaviour. In case studies it is only possible to observe what already exists and it is therefore not possible to establish cause-effect relationships. Scoville & Milner (1957) studied H.M. who due to epileptic attacks had tissue from the medial temporal ! © John Crane, InThinking www.tok-inthinking.co.uk 1 ! The results of the study are outlined, but how the study was done is not outlined in any detail. Why case studies are used, in spite of their lack of generalizability. This is an ethical consideration in the HM case study - but not necessarily a concern for case studies in general. Informed consent, however, is always a concern. Demonstrates understanding that though a case study cannot be replicated, there may be several similar cases which help researchers to reach more reliable conclusions. lobe, including the hippocampus, removed. The result was that H.M could not store new explicit memories at all - he suffered from permanent amnesia. This case study was a very important step for cognitive neuroscientists towards understanding the role of the hippocampus in memory and H.M. is one of the most studied cases. Knowledge from this case study was later used to perform experimental surgery on animals to establish the biological correlates of memory more specifically. This is the way case studies can spark off new research and why they are used by researchers. There are some ethical and methodological concerns in the case study of H.M. Case studies involving brain-damaged individuals could have ethical implications since consent from individuals who are not even able to remember that they are part of a study can be hard to get. In the case of H.M. who could not remember what happened 15 minutes ago, this is a problem but since so much knowledge that can benefit other humans has been gathered from this case it is justified. Another problem is that results from case studies cannot be used to make generalizations about human behavior because they represent unique individuals. However, there are other case studies which show that the hippocampus is very important in storage of memory. Put together they show important biological correlates of behavior on a more general level. In conclusion, it can be said that researchers within the biological level of analysis use different research methods but the overall focus is on how each method can reveal biological correlates of behavior. Case studies such as that of H.M. give invaluable insight into conditions that could not otherwise be studied and the experimental method can be used to establish cause-effect relationships between biological factors and behaviour. This is how the case study and the experiment can supplement each other. ! © John Crane, InThinking www.tok-inthinking.co.uk 2 ! Assessment Knowledge and comprehension Marks Level descriptor 5 The answer demonstrates limited knowledge and understanding relevant to the question or uses relevant psychological research to limited effect in the response. A more developed description of the case study method would push this into the higher markbands. Critical thinking: application, evaluation and synthesis Marks Level descriptor 7 The answer integrates relevant and explicit evidence of critical thinking in response to the question. The evaluation of the case study is too much focused on the specific case. Organization ! Marks Level descriptor 4 The answer is well organized, well developed and focused on the question © John Crane, InThinking www.tok-inthinking.co.uk 3