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Supporting Online Material for
Ecological consequences of body size decline in harvested fish species: positive
feedback loops in trophic interactions amplify human impact
Asta Audzijonyte*, Anna Kuparinen, Rebecca Gorton and Elizabeth A.Fulton
*To whom correspondence should be addressed. E-mail: [email protected]
This file includes:
Feeding functional response equation
Details on the selectivity curve parameters
Figures S1, S2, S3 and S4
Tables S1, S2, S3, S4 and S5
Feeding functional response equation
The decrease in size-at-age was achieved by modifying the maximum growth rate (mum_predator)
values in the feeding functional response equation:
consumption_of_prey_x = available_biomass_of_prey_x * biomass_predator * clearance_rate_predator
/ (1.0 + total_available_prey_biomass * assimilation_efficiency_of_predator * clearance_rate_predator /
mum_predator)
Multiple functional responses are available in Atlantis. In this case a form of Holling Type II was used.
Other functional responses were not trialled in this case, as previous studies had shown that ecosystemlevel conclusions are typically robust to the selection of the functional form so long as extremes of
biomass are avoided. See E.A. Fulton et al. 2003. Ecological Modelling 169: 157 – 178
Selectivity curve and parameters
Fishing was done using logistic selectivity curve, where retention probability at length L is
1/(1 + exp(-b*(L-a)))
Here a is the inflection point (or 50% selectivity) and b is the shape parameter. The parameter values for
the five harvested species are:
a
b
Morwong
28.0
0.5
Warehou
21.0
0.25
Blue grenadier
50.0
0.35
Flathead
33.2
0.5
Ling
50.0
0.35
Figure S1: Map of the Atlantis-SE model domain. The polygons indicate individual geographic boxes,
each with its own vertical structure (one example column is provided for reference). Detailed description
of the processes are given in Fulton et al. 2004 (operational equations given as an electronic supplement
here) and Fulton et al. 2007 chapters 2.1-2.3 available http://atlantis.cmar.csiro.au/
Figure S2. Flowchart of the main physical, ecological and fisheries processes used in the Atlantis model.
Data sources used to parameterise the model are described in Fulton et al. 2007 chapters 3.1-3.4.
available http://atlantis.cmar.csiro.au/
Figure S3. Food-web diagram indicating links among the functional groups in the Atlantis model. The
matrices indicating the strength of the feeding interactions (maximum availability of a given prey to a
predator) from the two alternative parameter sets are given in Table S6).
Figure S4: Maps of the Atlantis-SE model domain showing long term changes in the spatial
distributions of grenadier juveniles between scenario with fast decrease in size-at-age (R4) and fishing at
0.2 (red), and scenario without directional size decline (R0) and same fishing level (blue).
Table S1: List of biological groups in Atlantis-SE and whether they are represented as biomass pools,
age structured biomass pool (i.e. biomass pools for juveniles separate to adults) or full age-structured
populations (where the size and numbers per age class are followed). Species that were fished and
decreasing in body size are highlighted in bold font
Group
Pelagic groups
Large phytoplankton
Small phytoplankton
Small zooplankton
Mesozooplankton
Large zooplankton
Gelatinous zooplankton
Pelagic bacteria
Cephalopods
Composition
Type
Diatoms
Picophytoplankton
Heterotrophic flagellates
Copepods
Krill and chaetognaths
Salps (pryosomes), coelenterates
Pelagic attached and free-living bacteria
Sepioteuthis australis, Notodarus gouldi
Biomass pool
Biomass pool
Biomass pool
Biomass pool
Biomass pool
Biomass pool
Biomass pool
Age structured biomass pool
Aerobic and anaerobic bacteria
Polychaetes
Holothurians, echinoderms, burrowing
bivalves
Sponges, corals, crinoids, bivalves
Mussels, oysters, sponges, corals
Pecten fumatus
Urchins, Haliotis laevigata, Haliotis rubra,
gastropods
Crustacea, asteroids, molluscs
Stomatopods, octopus, seastar, gastropod,
and non-commercial crustaceans
Jasus edwardsii, Jasus verreauxi
Meiobenthos
Kelp
Seagrass
Haliporoides sibogae
Biomass pool
Biomass pool
Biomass pool
Age structured
Age structured
Age structured
Age structured
Age structured
Age structured
Age structured
Age structured
Age structured
Age structured
Age structured
Age structured
Redfish
Morwong
Ling
Engraulis, Sardinops, sprat
Emmelichthyidae (Emmelichthys nitidus)
Trachurus declivis, Scomber australisicus
Myctophids
Sternophychids, cyclothene (lightfish)
Sillago
Barracouta, Arripis, , Seriola, leatherjackets
Seriolella brama
Seriolella punctata
Thunnus, Makaira, Tetrapturus, Xiphias
Rexea solandri
Flounder, Pagrus auratus, Labridae,
Chelidonichthys kumu, Pterygotrigla,
Sillaginoides punctata, Zeus faber
Neoplatycephalus richardsoni,
Platycephalus
Centroberyx
Nemadactylus
Genypterus blacodes
Blue grenadier
Blue-eye trevalla
Ribaldo
Orange roughy
Macruronus novaezelandiae
Hyperoglyphe Antarctica
Mora moro
Hoplostethus atlanticus
Age structured
Age structured
Age structured
Age structured
Benthic groups
Sediment bacteria
Carnivorous infauna
Deposit feeders
Deep water filter feeders
Other filter feeders
Scallops
Herbivorous grazers
Deep water megazoobenthos
Shallow water
megazoobenthos
Rock lobster
Meiobenthos
Macroalgae
Seagrass
Prawns
Fin-fish
Small pelagics
Red bait
Mackerel
Migratory mesopelagics
Non-migratory mesopelagics
School whiting
Shallow water piscivores
Blue warehou
Silver warehou
Tuna and billfish
Gemfish
Shallow water demersal fish
Flathead
Biomass pool
Biomass pool
Biomass pool
Biomass pool
Biomass pool
Biomass pool
Biomass pool
Biomass pool
Biomass pool
Biomass pool
Age structured biomass pool
Age structured
Age structured
Age structured
Age structured
Group
Dories and oreos
Cardinalfish
Sharks
Gummy shark
School shark
Demersal sharks
Pelagic sharks
Dogfish
Gulper sharks
Skates and rays
Mammals and Seabirds
Seabirds
Seals
Sea lion
Dolphins
Orcas
Baleen whales
Composition
Oreosomatidae, Macrouridae, Zenopsis
Cardinalfish
Type
Age structured
Age structured
Mustelus antarcticus
Galeorhinus galeus
Heterodontus portusjacksoni, Scyliorhinidae,
Orectolobidae
Prionace glauca, Isurus oxyrunchus,
Carcharodon carcharias, Carcharhinus
Squalidae
Centrophorus
Rajidae, Dasyatidae
Age structured
Age structured
Age structured
Albatross, shearwater, gulls, terns, gannets,
penguins
Arctocephalus pusillus doriferus,
Arctocephalus forsteri
Neophoca cinerea
Delphinidae
Orcinus orca
Megaptera novaeangliae, Balaenoptera,
Eubalaena australis
Age structured
Age structured
Age structured
Age structured
Age structured
Age structured
Age structured
Age structured
Age structured
Age structured
Table S2. Total proportional decrease in length-at-age (from year 1 to year 50) in the ten age bins of the
five harvested species as modelled in Atlantis. The twelve simulation scenarios are named according to
the fishing level (F) and rate of body size decrease (R = 0%, 2% or 4% in 50 years). For scenarios
without the directional change in body size (0%) the absolute change in length-at-age over 50 years is
shown; this change is caused by a range of fluctuating ecological processes. For scenarios with
simulated decrease in body size (2% and 4%) only the directional trend is shown (in italics). It is
calculated as the difference between length-at-age in a scenario with body size change and without the
change with the same fishing level.
____________________________________________________________________________________
F
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
___________________
___________________ __
____________________
__________________
R
0%
2%
4%
0%
2%
4%
0%
2%
4%
0%
2%
4%
_____________________________________________________________________________________________________
Jackass morwong
1
-0.06
-0.18
2
-0.46
-0.50
3
0.58
-0.71
4
1.32
-0.82
5
-0.63
-0.97
6
-0.91
-1.24
7
-1.10
-1.58
8
-1.13
-1.82
9
-1.16
-2.03
10
1.21
-2.16
Silver warehou
1
-1.54
-0.28
2
-0.91
-0.51
3
-0.52
-0.86
4
-0.38
-1.58
5
-0.24
-2.29
6
-0.19
-2.40
7
-0.15
-2.50
8
-0.13
-2.45
9
-0.14
-2.39
10
-0.15
-2.56
Blue grenadier
1
-0.86
-0.26
-0.79
-1.25
-1.57
-1.79
-2.24
-2.67
-3.20
-3.60
-3.96
-4.29
0.05
-0.35
0.63
1.21
-0.46
-0.56
-0.60
-0.61
-0.63
-0.67
-0.20
-0.51
-0.72
-0.78
-0.97
-1.28
-1.63
-1.85
-2.06
-2.20
-0.83
-1.27
-1.60
-1.73
-2.24
-2.72
-3.28
-3.66
-4.02
-4.36
0.07
-0.32
0.62
1.09
-0.40
-0.48
-0.48
-0.48
-0.49
-0.52
-0.20
-0.52
-0.72
-0.76
-0.97
-1.27
-1.63
-1.86
-2.07
-2.20
-0.84
-1.28
-1.60
-1.67
-2.23
-2.71
-3.28
-3.66
-4.02
-4.36
0.09
-0.31
0.62
1.01
-0.39
-0.47
-0.46
-0.45
-0.46
-0.48
-0.21
-0.52
-0.72
-0.73
-0.94
-1.25
-1.60
-1.85
-2.05
-2.20
-0.84
-1.28
-1.59
-1.61
-2.17
-2.67
-3.24
-3.64
-4.00
-4.35
-0.65
-0.91
-1.38
-2.54
-3.96
-4.49
-4.55
-4.69
-4.92
-5.19
-1.61
-0.95
-0.54
-0.39
-0.25
-0.20
-0.15
-0.13
-0.15
-0.16
-0.27
-0.51
-0.86
-1.58
-2.28
-2.39
-2.51
-2.45
-2.38
-2.56
-0.64
-0.89
-1.38
-2.53
-3.95
-4.48
-4.55
-4.69
-4.92
-5.18
-1.65
-0.97
-0.55
-0.40
-0.26
-0.20
-0.16
-0.14
-0.15
-0.16
-0.26
-0.50
-0.86
-1.58
-2.28
-2.39
-2.50
-2.44
-2.39
-2.56
-0.63
-0.89
-1.38
-2.53
-3.94
-4.49
-4.54
-4.68
-4.92
-5.18
-1.67
-0.98
-0.56
-0.41
-0.26
-0.20
-0.16
-0.14
-0.15
-0.16
-0.26
-0.50
-0.85
-1.57
-2.28
-2.40
-2.50
-2.44
-2.39
-2.56
-0.62
-0.89
-1.37
-2.52
-3.95
-4.49
-4.54
-4.68
-4.92
-5.18
-1.13
-0.62
-0.23
-0.80
-0.51
-0.20
-0.80
-0.43
-0.22
-0.83
2
-1.11
3
-1.15
4
-0.44
5
-0.16
6
0.00
7
0.17
8
0.27
9
-0.15
10
-0.96
Tiger flathead
1
-2.96
2
0.08
3
0.29
4
0.10
5
0.09
6
0.11
7
0.16
8
0.23
9
0.33
10
0.49
Pink ling
1
0.90
2
-0.53
3
-0.66
4
-1.40
5
-1.43
6
-1.39
7
-1.29
8
-1.18
9
-1.08
10
-1.02
-0.60
-0.67
-1.46
-1.94
-2.22
-2.36
-2.49
-2.55
-2.59
-1.28
-1.16
-2.25
-2.99
-3.51
-3.86
-4.21
-4.60
-4.91
-0.94
-0.84
-0.65
-0.51
-0.46
-0.38
-0.27
-0.26
-0.39
-0.53
-0.73
-1.26
-1.77
-2.14
-2.41
-2.60
-2.72
-2.74
-0.96
-1.31
-2.15
-2.92
-3.53
-4.02
-4.40
-4.75
-5.02
-0.93
-0.77
-0.65
-0.53
-0.50
-0.48
-0.44
-0.39
-0.37
-0.49
-0.81
-1.30
-1.77
-2.13
-2.41
-2.56
-2.66
-2.72
-0.91
-1.42
-2.16
-2.90
-3.52
-4.03
-4.38
-4.70
-4.99
-0.93
-0.77
-0.66
-0.54
-0.50
-0.50
-0.47
-0.43
-0.39
-0.47
-0.82
-1.29
-1.75
-2.12
-2.39
-2.57
-2.66
-2.71
-0.89
-1.41
-2.14
-2.86
-3.49
-4.00
-4.37
-4.69
-4.98
-0.26
-1.12
-1.79
-1.96
-2.25
-2.49
-2.76
-2.97
-3.13
-3.22
-0.68
-2.69
-3.39
-3.85
-4.25
-5.20
-5.31
-5.38
-5.57
-5.65
-1.57
-0.05
0.31
0.25
0.26
0.29
0.33
0.35
0.40
0.51
-0.27
-1.12
-1.76
-1.97
-2.29
-2.56
-2.83
-3.02
-3.17
-3.25
-0.92
-2.66
-3.38
-3.89
-4.31
-5.26
-5.39
-5.45
-5.62
-5.70
-0.59
-0.42
0.19
0.32
0.37
0.40
0.42
0.41
0.41
0.48
-0.27
-1.12
-1.75
-1.98
-2.32
-2.57
-2.84
-3.04
-3.19
-3.27
-0.70
-2.63
-3.36
-3.90
-4.35
-5.30
-5.41
-5.47
-5.65
-5.73
-0.46
-0.92
-0.15
0.21
0.26
0.36
0.42
0.36
0.30
0.34
-0.29
-1.06
-1.73
-2.00
-2.35
-2.60
-2.85
-3.04
-3.20
-3.29
-0.70
-2.57
-3.33
-3.94
-4.40
-5.33
-5.44
-5.50
-5.68
-5.75
-0.48
-0.60
-0.88
-1.38
-1.60
-1.79
-1.93
-2.11
-2.27
-2.38
-1.08
-1.14
-1.44
-2.04
-2.39
-2.72
-3.32
-3.87
-4.29
-4.73
0.28
-0.42
-0.46
-1.05
-1.09
-1.10
-1.06
-1.03
-0.97
-0.94
-0.57
-0.65
-0.93
-1.42
-1.64
-1.83
-1.97
-2.14
-2.30
-2.40
-1.20
-1.24
-1.52
-2.10
-2.46
-2.79
-3.37
-3.90
-4.33
-4.76
0.09
-0.34
-0.36
-0.91
-0.96
-0.99
-0.97
-0.96
-0.92
-0.91
-0.62
-0.68
-0.96
-1.44
-1.67
-1.85
-1.98
-2.15
-2.31
-2.41
-1.26
-1.28
-1.56
-2.14
-2.50
-2.82
-3.39
-3.92
-4.34
-4.77
0.13
-0.24
-0.29
-0.84
-0.91
-0.94
-0.93
-0.93
-0.90
-0.89
-0.62
-0.68
-0.96
-1.45
-1.67
-1.86
-1.99
-2.16
-2.32
-2.42
-1.29
-1.29
-1.57
-2.14
-2.50
-2.83
-3.39
-3.93
-4.35
-4.78
____________________________________________________________________________________________________
Table S3. Absolute and relative biomass, numbers and catches of five species in the year 50. The absolute
biomass is given as x103 of tons, numbers as x106 and catches as tons. The relative values (shown in bold
for the main parameterization of the model) for each scenario with decrease in body size are scaled by the
scenario without the decrease but same fishing level. The relative values from the conservative set of
parameters (P2) are shown in bold italics
_________________________________________________________________________________________
F
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
___________________
___________________ __
____________________
___________________
R
0%
2%
4%
0%
2%
4%
0%
2%
4%
0%
2%
4%
___________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Biomass
Morwong
P2
Warehou
P2
Grenadier
114.21 109.68 103.77
131.11 124.36 116.48
131.35 124.36 116.78
127.71 121.44 114.43
0.960
0.948
0.947
0.951
P2
Ling
0.888
0.889
0.896
0.904 0.826
499.47 388.46 321.61
0.933 0.870
369.00 285.02 236.85
0.949 0.894
257.23 201.13 169.75
0.956 0.904
180.81 144.05 123.67
0.778
0.644
0.772
0.642
0.782
0.660
0.797
0.684
0.869 0.792
103.30 101.71 117.26
0.873
71.00
0.800
70.47
0.877
46.14
0.808
45.11
0.881
32.34
0.816
31.91
1.021
1.013
0.980
0.985
P2
Flathead
0.909
69.57
33.07
0.958
0.978
0.965
0.920 0.866
1280.38 1024.92 861.65
0.933 0.888
511.00 411.00 349.80
0.946 0.911
215.35 179.09 155.16
0.959
71.16
0.932
63.44
0.800
0.673
0.804
0.685
0.832
0.721
0.836
0.745
0.848
47.28
0.741
44.96
0.852
54.97
0.749
50.63
0.839
47.64
0.738
43.66
0.867
38.09
0.796
35.01
0.955
0.908
0.909
0.837
0.893
0.818
0.892
0.820
0.918
0.868
0.920
0.872
0.923
0.877
0.925
0.881
49.51
P2
1.135
47.06
60.49
53.37
85.10
42.70
Numbers
Morwong
1562.34 1552.53 1541.12
0.994
P2
Warehou
P2
Grenadier
P2
Flathead
P2
Ling
P2
1693.24 1671.58 1651.26
0.986
0.987
1710.83 1686.43 1666.58
0.975
0.986
1697.92 1676.24 1658.41
0.974
0.987
0.977
0.976 0.982
389.64 370.99 358.51
0.983 0.988
339.39 323.12 312.45
0.989 0.991
293.05 280.34 271.94
0.992 0.992
256.55 246.41 239.59
0.952
0.920
0.952
0.921
0.957
0.928
0.960
0.934
0.970
39.24
0.970
44.42
0.971
32.35
0.971
33.30
0.979
26.19
0.980
26.49
0.982
22.07
0.983
22.32
1.057
1.196
1.066
1.097
1.026
1.038
1.015
1.026
37.13
30.36
25.53
21.74
0.989 0.991
273.91 266.25 261.12
0.994 0.998
192.20 187.45 185.45
0.989 0.992
151.22 149.01 148.20
0.996 1.000
127.43 125.57 124.34
0.972
0.953
0.975
0.965
0.985
0.980
0.985
0.976
0.990
16.02
0.990
16.46
0.977
19.16
0.936
19.19
0.991
18.51
0.993
18.41
0.987
16.94
0.980
16.84
1.054
1.083
1.017
1.019
1.002
0.997
0.999
0.993
0.991
0.992
0.993
0.994
0.994
0.995
0.996
0.997
15.20
18.83
18.47
16.95
Catches
Morwong
P2
Warehou
1898.0 1676.1 1435.3
3420.1 2996.0 2577.9
4340.2 3832.9 3315.0
0.883
0.876
0.883
0.866 0.753
33908.9 26055.1 21398.3
0.768
P2
Grenadier
P2
Flathead
P2
0.631
0.754
0.897 0.790
46693.3 36258.0 30273.6
0.777
0.648
0.764
0.907 0.803
48311.2 38159.4 32438.8
0.790
0.671
0.870 0.796
4124.6 4105.5 3981.7
0.874 0.803
5158.0 4860.1 4589.2
0.878 0.811
4943.1 4594.4 4350.9
0.995
0.942
0.929
0.965
0.871 0.784
38932.7 31256.6 26528.2
0.803
P2
Ling
0.756
0.681
0.890
0.878 0.795
32698.5 27014.7 23230.9
0.826
0.710
0.880
0.886 0.807
18546.6 15226.4 13357.3
0.821
0.720
0.839 0.725
2064.4 1872.1 1720.4
0.813 0.690
3634.7 3236.2 2958.0
0.833 0.728
4322.8 3843.6 3523.2
0.907
0.833
0.890
0.814
0.889
0.815
0.910
0.856
0.911
0.859
0.913
0.863
_________________________________________________________________________________________
Table S4. Relative total (all age bins) predation mortality at the end of the simulation period
(average of years 46-50). Predation mortality for each scenario with decrease in body size are scaled
by the scenario without the decrease but same fishing level. Only groups for which body size
decrease of five harvested/shrinking species changed predation mortality by ≥ 5% are shown.
Changes in the predation mortality from the conservative set of parameters (P2) are shown in italics
__________________________________________________________________________________
F
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
___________
___________
___________
___________
R
2%
4%
2%
4%
2%
4%
2%
4%
___________________________________________________________________________________________________
Harvested/evolving species
Morwong
P2
Warehou
P2
Grenadier
P2
Flathead
P2
Ling
P2
1.038
1.092
1.051
1.117
1.054
1.119
1.050
1.112
1.099
1.198
1.074
1.150
1.054
1.120
1.048
1.110
1.069
1.133
1.078
1.138
1.066
1.110
1.051
1.082
1.049
1.081
1.046
1.075
1.043
1.068
1.039
1.062
0.862
0.725
0.881
0.822
0.941
0.912
0.967
0.948
0.891
0.841
0.938
0.923
0.969
0.977
0.992
1.012
1.245
1.475
1.245
1.461
1.202
1.388
1.212
1.348
1.188
1.349
1.194
1.360
1.236
1.427
1.199
1.334
0.992
1.003
1.048
1.109
1.101
1.198
1.122
1.238
1.088
1.153
1.090
1.158
1.089
1.161
1.092
1.167
0.926
0.988
0.911
0.961
0.923
1.107
0.922
0.981
0.960
0.973
0.960
0.973
1.000
0.950
0.967
0.928
0.957
0.923
0.956
1.000
0.903
0.993
0.971
0.990
0.974
0.985
1.000
0.942
0.988
0.949
0.984
0.952
0.976
1.000
0.895
0.998
0.982
0.996
0.987
0.992
1.000
0.944
0.997
0.969
0.995
0.978
0.988
1.000
0.901
Other functional groups
Mackerel
0.956
Gemfish
0.954
School whiting
0.945
Dories and oreos
0.947
Shallow wat. demersals 0.955
Orange roughy
1.106
Prawns
0.964
__________________________________________________________________________________
Table S5. Relative total (all age bins) predation mortality (average of years 46-50) of five
harvested/shrinking species as caused by individual functional groups for two sets of parameter values.
Predation mortality is shown as a ratio of mortality in scenarios R0 to R4 (illustrated in Fig. 2). Values
from the main set of parameters are shown in bold, and those from the conservative set are shown in
regular font.
__________________________________________________________________________________
Morwong
Preyed species:
Warehou
Grenadier
Flathead
Ling
__________________________________________________________________________________
Predators:
Morwong
Cardinalfish
Gemfish
Barracouta
Tuna and billfish
0.94
0.88
1.11
1.17
1.25
1.23
1.14
1.14
1.06
1.10
School whiting
0.88
0.97
1.35
1.12
0.94
0.99
1.07
1.04
Dories and oreos
Redfish
1.60
2.08
0.94
1.07
0.41
0.49
Grenadier
Shallow water demersals
1.49
1.37
1.17
1.16
1.67
2.26
1.46
1.32
0.90
1.26
0.99
Flathead
0.96
1.03
0.71
0.81
Ling
1.06
1.03
0.72
0.83
Orange roughy
1.29
1.22
Blue-eye trevalla
Demersal sharks
0.90
0.98
0.88
0.98
1.11
1.17
1.23
1.14
1.21
1.17
Dogfish
Pelagic sharks
1.12
1.14
0.99
1.00
1.06
1.01
1.45
1.35
Gulper sharks
Skates and rays
Seabirds
Seals
Sea lions
Baleen whales
Dolphins
Orcas
Adult cephalopods
Juvenile cephalopods
Gelatinous zooplankton
1.19
1.02
1.02
1.11
1.14
1.11
1.14
1.14
1.18
1.32
1.48
1.12
1.14
1.13
1.15
1.18
1.18
1.12
1.15
1.12
1.19
1.05
1.00
0.89
0.99
0.98
1.00
0.87
0.99
0.91
0.99
1.42
1.32
1.47
1.38
1.35
1.32
1.03
1.45
0.96
1.00
1.02
1.00
1.06
1.03
1.06
1.01
1.06
1.02
0.89
0.99
0.92
0.99
0.90
0.99
0.91
0.99
0.90
0.99
1.39
1.32
1.44
1.34
1.45
1.38
1.44
1.43
1.48
1.35
1.44
1.16
1.24
1.14
1.25
1.14
0.99
0.82
1.23
1.15
1.25
1.15
1.28
1.22
1.21
1.21
1.27
1.14
__________________________________________________________________________________