Download CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION 1.1 Drainage Basin Morphometry

CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Drainage Basin Morphometry
River basin and its characteristics are controlled by nature and its hydro-climatic
parameters are mostly interrelated with each other. Watershed managers require
understanding and synthesizing hydrologic response of such basin for which they have started
looking into its basin characteristics or morphologic features and establish connection of
fluvial geomorphology to hydrology.
Geomorphology is a collection of the Greek words:
‘geo’ (earth), ‘morpho’ (form), and ‘logoos’ (discourse). Geomorphology is the study of
landforms (valley, gorge, waterfall, cavity, sand-dunes).
Worcester (1949) defines
geomorphology, the interpretative description of relief features. According to Strahler (1968),
the science of geomorphology treats the origin and systematic development of all types of
landforms and is a major part of Physical Geography.
Geomorphology, the science of evolution of land forms in terms of lithology,
structure, climate and other climatic factors, had been mostly qualitative in its initial stage.
Now with the rational relation between the average response of a basin with given
geomorphic properties established, greater need for quantitative information is felt for. The
question arises why landscape study gets priority in geomorphology. Since the formation of
landforms is visible to man, one can observe them directly or feel their existence on the basis
of experience. Contrary to this evaluation, formation, development and deformation relief
features happen very slowly within a long period and this process is invisible to man.
Drainage basin is an ideal unit of the earth surface for the study of its landform
(Savindra Singh and R Srivastava, 1974). Therefore the present study deals with the
quantitative analysis of selected drainage basin. Drainage basin is the area drained by a single
river system. The ground surface which supplies rain and or melt water to a particular stream
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and its tributaries which drain that area is called drainage basin which is demarcated by well
defined perimeter on the basis of water divides.
The quantitative analysis of drainage system is an important aspect of characterization
of drainage basin or watersheds. Using drainage basin as a basic unit in morphometric
analysis is the most logical choice because all hydrologic and geomorphic processes occur
within the drainage basin. Morphometry is essentially quantitative, involving numerical
variables whose values may be recovered from topographic maps. The use of morphometric
variables is their usefulness for comparisons and statistical analyses. Measurement of shape,
or geometry, of any natural form- be it plant, animal, or relief feature- is termed as
morphometry (Strahler, 1975). The drainage basin morphometry, also at times referred to as
fluvial morphometry, is used to denote the measurement of geometrical properties of the land
surface of a drainage basin system or fluvial erosion system. The drainage basin is a landform
most commonly in morphometry.
The landscape as well as relief features play a dominant role to influence source of
transportation, location of cities and agriculture field so their study is great importance and
interest to geomorphologist. The aim of the watershed management is to conserve the soil
and water resources, so as to achieve improvement in the agriculture. So the emphasis is on
the development of regional resources. Drainage basins are commonly treated as physical
entities. For instance, flood control along a particular river invariably focuses on the drainage
basin of that river alone. Because drainage basins are discrete landforms suitable for
statistical, comparative, and analytical analyses, innumerable means of numerically and
qualitatively describing them have been proposed. This laboratory is an introduction to some
of the means by which drainage basins are described, particularly via drainage basin
morphometry. Therefore we should know about that drainage basin characteristic. This is
useful to minimize the requirement of energy, capital expenditure and heavy dependence of
extra regional factors.
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Drainage basin are the fundamental units of the fluvial landscape and a great amount
of research has focused on their geometric characteristics, including the topology of the
stream network, and the quantitative description of drainage texture, pattern, shape, and relief
(Abrahms,1984). Such type of quantitative analysis is called as morphometry which is
essential because every drainage basin unit differs in shape, size, area, relief and gradient
from other basins. If these features can be measured using some form of mathematical
analysis then it is possible to describe accurately the morphology of a region.
Systematic description of the geometry of a drainage basin and its stream channel
system requires measurement of linear, areal and relief aspect of drainage network.
Morphmetric analysis and studies have gained significance principally due to its applied
aspects and application in terrain and watershed evaluation, hydrology and economic
geography, agriculture, soil science, forestry, trade and transportation etc. In this way, the
geomorphic analysis may be said to be relevant to some of the most pressing environment
problem of the present day.
The development of morphometric techniques was a major advance in the quantitative
description of the geometry of the drainage basin and its network which helps in
characterizing the drainage network, comparing the characteristic of several drainage
networks and examining the effect of variables such as lithology, rock structure, rainfall etc.
Quantitative parameters first proposed by Horton, in 1945 are useful in characterizing river
basins and comparing their characteristics. The result of quantitative analysis would be useful
in determining the effect of catchment characteristics such as size, shape, slope of the
catchment and distribution of stream network within the catchment.
After completion of this research, its findings will be useful for water and soil
conservation. We shall get general idea of drainage basin in the study area, and then
implementation of watershed programme will be easy. It is useful for settlement, agriculture,
forestation and regional planning.
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1.2 Methodology
There are various concepts and methods to study the geomorphology of the earth
surface. Defining the nature of geomorphology Brown (1969) has remarked that
geomorphology has been characterized as the earth shape science. In geomorphic
interpretation, attention is largely concentrated on the development of landforms and
information necessary to this end can be obtained from three main sources (Gregory K.J. and
Walling, 1968). These include:
1. By mapping and by measurement, about the forms of the land and about the
spatial distribution of landforms.
2. By collecting information on the processes which fashion the surface of the
earth at the present time since these processes are responsible for giving rise to
particular type of landforms.
3. The analysis of deposits can provide considerable information about the
processes and about the chronology of events which occurred in the past.
In order to collect the geomorphologic information there are three methods developed
recently but information from the three sources is not always easily related. There is much
dichotomy between process and form in that in many areas the processes operating at present
are not the once that were responsible for fashioning the landforms of that area or at least the
present rate of operation of geomorphologic processes is not the same as the rates which
obtained in the past. Another difficulty is that the geomorphologic processes often require
instrumentation and their study may be more time consuming than the study of the landforms.
There can be little doubt that many of the problems posed by the surface of the earth
and by its landforms require, for their complete solution, methods of study which embrace all
three types of information.
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In the present investigation, the form approach has been mainly used to interpret and
study the various kinds of landform e.g. number of stream, length ratio, drainage density,
stream frequency.
This method follows the form approach very common quantitative and empirical
method followed by many American geomorphologists wherein various techniques have been
developed for measuring the geometry of the landscape. Such investigation is usually based
on a natural unit – the drainage basin being the most frequently selected and the relationship
that can be established between the variables have been referred as the laws of morphometry
(Chorely R.J.,1957).
The above mentioned laws of morphometry based on measurable quantities such as
number of stream, length ratio, drainage density, stream frequency and basin circularity ratio
which can be related to one another quantitatively and dimension lessly (King C.A.M., 1967).
1. Geological map for identifying various lithological formation and rock types.
2. Using a grid of 1 sq. km. the relief morphometry is obtained with the help of two
indices of absolute and relative relief (Smith, 1935, method).
3. Dissection method is obtained by Dove Nir’s (1957) formula (DI = Rr / Ar).
Profiles are analyzed through base lines drown upon contour line.
4. The stages of geomorphic development of basin are derived by Stralher’s (1952)
percentage hypsometric curve (indicate the proportion of the area of the surface at
various elevation above / below a given datum).
5. Slope conditions are averaged on the basis of Wentworth’s (1930) method.
6. Fluvial environment is examined under three major aspects.
a. Linear Aspects: Stream order, Stream number, bifurcation ratio, Stream
length ratio etc. The linear aspects are studied using the methods of Horton
(1945), Strahler (1953), and Chorley (1957).
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b. Areal Aspect: Basin area, Circularity ratio, Perimeter, Stream frequency,
Drainage density, Drainage texture, Elongation ratio, Length of overland flow.
The areal aspects are studied using the methods of Schumm (1956), Strahler
(1956, 1968), Chorley (1957), Miller (1953), and Horton (1932).
c. Relief Aspect: Relative and Absolute relief, Basin Slope, Basin length,
Channel gradients, Composite profile, Ruggedness number, Hypsometric
(Areal-Altitude) analysis, Clinographic (Slope-Altitude) analysis. The relief
aspects employing the techniques of Horton (1945), Broscoe (1959), Melton
(1957), Schumm (1954) and Strahler (1952).
7. Cartographic representation is done through the maps of location, lithology,
structure, relief slope and drainage and terrain units. Correlation and regression
models are illustrated through graphs.
8. Quantitative measurement: Central tendency mean, median, mode, dispersion,
quartile deviation, standard deviation, mean deviation, range, skewness and
kurtosis, correlation coefficients and regression models are computed by
computer. The variables of fluvial morphometry are interrelated with the help of
correlation analysis.
For the purpose of the morphometric analysis of the basin under study, the base map
and a drainage map of the basin was prepared with the help of Survey of India topographic
sheets on 1:50000 scale. The toposheets and digital data were geometrically rectified and
geo-referenced to world space coordinate system using digital image processing software
(ERDAS Imagine 9.1). Digitization work has been carried out for entire analysis of basin
morphometry using the ERDAS Imagine 9.1 and Arc GIS software ver. 9.3. The orders were
designated to each stream following Strahler (1964) stream ordering technique. The stream
numbers of various orders were counted, while the stream length, basin length, basin area and
perimeter of the basin were measured with the help of above software. The attributes were
assigned to create the digital data base for drainage layer of the basin. The fundamental
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parameters namely stream length, area, perimeter, number of stream, order and basin length
were derived from the drainage layer. Drainage network map, Contour map, Aspect map
Stream ordering map, Digital Elevation Map (DEM), Hillshade map, Location map of study
area, Slope map, Triangulated Irregular Network (TIN) maps prepared with the help of Arc
GIS software ver. 9.3, software was used for computing all morphometric parameter.
Table-1 Formula adopted for computation of morphometric parameters
Sr.
Morphometric Parameters
Formula
Reference
1
Stream order (μ)
Hierarchical rank
Strahler (1964)
2
Stream Number (Nμ)
Hierarchical rank
Strahler (1964)
3
Bifurcation ratio (Rb)
Rb=Nμ/Nμ+1
Schumn(1956)
4
Stream length (Lμ)
Length of the stream
Horton (1945)
5
Mean stream length (Lsm)
Lsm=Lμ/Nμ
Strahler (1964)
6
Stream Length Ratio (Rl)
Rl=Lsm1/Lsm2
Horton (1945)
No.
Mean
bifurcation
ratio Average of bifurcation ratios
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Strahler (1957)
(Rbm)
of all orders
8
Basin Area (A)
GIS Software Analysis
Schumm(1956)
9
Length of the Basin (Lu)
GIS Software Analysis
Schumm(1956)
10
Circularity ratio (Rc)
Rc = 4πA/P2
Miller (1953)
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Perimeter (P)
GIS Software Analysis
Miller (1953)
12
Stream Frequency (Fs)
Fs=Nμ+A
Horton (1932)
13
Drainage density (Dd)
Dd=Lμ/A
Horton (1932)
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Drainage Texture (Rt)
Rt = Nμ/P
Horton (1945)
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Elongation Ratio (Re)
Re = (2√(A/π))/Lu
Schumm(1956)
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Length of overland flow Lg = 1/2Dd
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Horton (1945) Chorley
(Lg)
(1969)
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Form Factor (Rf)
Rf = A/Lu2
Horton (1932)
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Compactness Factor (Cf)
Cf =P/2√ πA
Horton (1932)
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Drainage Intensity (Di)
Di = Fs/Dd
Faniran (1968)
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Infiltration Number (If)
If = Dd*Fs
Faniran (1968)
C = 1/Dd
Schumm(1956)
Constant
of
Channel
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Maintenance (C)
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Basin Relief (Br)
Br=H-h
Strahler (1952)
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Relief Ratio (Rh)
Rh= H/Lb
Schumm(1956)
24
Absolute Relief (Ra)
GIS Software Analysis
25
Relative Relief (Rhp)
Rhp = (H*100)/P
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Ruggedness Number (Rn)
Rn = Dd* (H/1000)
Patton & Baker (1976)
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Dissection Index (Dis)
Dis = H/Ra
Singh & Dubey (1994)
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Basin Slope (Bs)
GIS Software Analysis
Rich (1916)
29
TIN Map
GIS Software Analysis
-
30
Aspect Map
GIS Software Analysis
-
31
Hill Shade
GIS Software Analysis
-
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Channel Gradient (Cg)
Cg = H/ [(𝜋/2)*Clp]
Schumm(1956)
Broscoe (1959)
1.3 Aims and Objectives
The goal of the present study is “To understand the quantitative aspects of the
drainage basin”. In order to understand this goal following objectives were outlined,
 To investigate the lithology and structure of selected drainage basin.
 To analyze relief morphometry of the basin.
 Interpretation of slope condition of the area.
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 To examine fluvial environment under different morphometric attributes and the role
of lithology upon their development processes.
 To judge the impact of topography upon the drainage basin.
 To adopt various statistical techniques to standardize the morphometric parameter and
to define statistically the association between morphometric variable.
1.4 Study Area
Upper Nira river basin upto Vir dam has been considered for the present study. The
Nira River basin is part of the Bhima river basin situated in the Western part of Maharashtra
state in India. It is a tributary of Bhima river and flows through Pune District, Satara and
Solapur districts of Maharashtra. Karha is a tributary of Nira. The Basin of Nira river is begin
in the southern part of Pune district of Maharashtra. The river Nira arises in Sahyadri near
Shirgaon village at the height of 880 meters and runs eastward to meet Bhima river. Nira
meets Bhima Basin at Nira Narsingpur near Akluj. Then flows with Bhima water to Solapur
District. The Nira river joins the Bhima between Nira Narsingpur in Pune District and
Malshiras Taluka in Solapur district. The dams built on Nira river are Devdhar dam and Veer
dam in Pune District.
The geodetic location of the Nira basin is on the north western part of the Deccan shield. The
latitudinal and longitudinal extension of the study basin is from 18o 00’ 30’’ N to 18o 24’ 7’’ N
and 73o 31’ 47’’ E to 74o 7’14’’ E respectively. The study river basin has 1749.99 sq. km. total
geographical area. The eastern part of the basin is comparatively less rugged than Western part
and possesses flat rolling topography. Topographically the basin shows high degree of slopes,
high dissection index and typical features of Western Ghats.
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Figure. 1
1.5 Climate
The region experiences tropical type of climate and is characterized by monsoon
rains. The Rainfall pattern in the area is highly variable. Rainfall is generally concentrated in
the four months of monsoon. Rainfall is high in this region. About 85% of the rains occur in
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the months of June to September. The rainfall is above 1600 mm. Most of the rain falls from
south-west monsoon. The summer is characterized by very hot and dry period from March to
first week of June. Temperature is moderate in the basin area. It goes up-to 45 degrees in
summer and generally it varies between 20-30oC.
1.6 Geology and Soils:
The present study area is a part of Western Ghats. The Western Ghats are not true
mountains, but are the faulted edge of the Deccan Plateau. They are believed to have been
formed during the break-up of the super continent of Gondwana some 150 million years ago.
A huge eruption here some 65 mya (million years ago) is thought to have laid down the
Deccan Traps, a vast bed of basalt lava that covers parts of central India. These volcanic up
thrusts led to the formation of the northern third of the Western Ghats. These dome-shaped
uplifts expose underlying 200 mya rocks observed in some parts such as the Nilgiri Hills.
Basalt is the predominant rock found in the hills reaching a depth of 3 km approximately.
The entire river basin area rather the western ghat portion is mainly formed during the
Late Cretaceous to Palaeogene age (according to geological time scale). This patch of Basic
Volcanic Igneous rocks is called as Deccan Traps or Deccan Volcanic plateau. A number of
basaltic flows made the area very compact and hard. The prolonged weathering of these trap
rocks gave rise to residual sedimentary rock known as Laterite (at places bauxite). Also there
is residual sand deposition along the Nira river channel. Both the weathered products are
from Quaternary age. Broadly, In Nira basin area, at height up to 1000 m a thick layer of
Basalt can be observed while above 1000 m residual laterite formation occurs. Banks of
stream are covered with alluvium patches. Predominantly the area is covered with thick red
and black cotton soils. As the soils are the weathered product of rocks so there are main four
types of soils associated with this region or basaltic terrain.
1) Red soils, 2) Murmic-brown soils, 3) Laterite soils and 4) Black cotton soils.
The upper part is mainly covered with red-brown soil and at places lateritic soils
while the lower most portions is known for black cotton soil. The middle part of the basin
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mostly comprises of coarse shallow soils and alluvium. The lateritic soil is rich in Iron and
Alumina.
1.7 Drainage pattern:
Selected Nira basin covers an area of around 1749.99 sq km. This basin is mainly
drained by river Nira with its numerous tributary streams. The main river Nira originates in
the Sahyadri near Gajapur Shirgaon village in Pune District.
There are a number of interesting features of the river courses of the Nira and its
tributaries. All features are controlled by joint structure of the bedrock mainly. Many
drainage patterns are revealed by first, second, third and fourth order streams of the basin.
The most common patterns are dendritic drainage patterns. The drainage is not uniform over
the basin. Being less affected by tectonic activities, the drainage pattern is mainly controlled
by erosion activities and lithology. The basin’s individual drainage pattern is mostly
dendritic. Except a few streams in Western regions all major and minor streams are seasonal
and are fed by monsoon rains only. Therefore the period of recharge does not exceed more
than six months in a year (July to October).
1.8 Vegetation
The vegetation in any area is dependent on the geomorphic, climatic and soi1
characteristics of that area. Vegetative cover is one of the aspects of soi1 formation. It helps
check soil erosion. Decomposition of plant leaves, seeds and fruits helps increase the humus
content in the soil. Vegetative cover checks run-off. The weather elements like humidity and
temperature are also controlled by the evapo-transpiration processes of the tress or plants. On
the basis of soil, geomorphic and climatic criteria the vegetation in the Nira river basin can be
subdivided into the vegetative growth in the western hill sector, with laterite soils high
rainfall and low temperature, and the vegetation in the eastern part, with pediment slopes,
flood plains and brown grey to black cotton soil, low rainfall, and relatively high temperature
varying in the type, thickness and species of vegetation present in both the sectors of the
basin.
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The vegetation in the western hilly high rainfall zone (2500 to 6300 mm.) of the basin
is thick and greater diversity of varieties than the vegetation in the eastern relatively plain,
low rainfall zone of the basin. According to the classification of Indian forest the vegetation
in western sector of Bhima basin which occurs in the western ghat areas, is of sub-tropical
evergreen and semi-evergreen to moist deciduous forest. Owing to relative high temperature
and markedly dry summer the nature of vegetation in eastern part of the basin comes under
tropical dry deciduous and tropical thorny forest with interspersed grass (Champion, 1938).
The species in the western hill forest are economically important. The Teak wood is hard and
all weather resistant hence; it is widely used for building and furniture purposes. Khair,
Anjani, Palas are significant medicinal species and Amba, Jambhul, etc. are multipurpose
trees which gives fruits as well as wood for different purposes. The sub-tropical evergreen
forests of western part covers hill ridges, mesas, butte, plateau or table lands escarpments hill
slopes etc., especially those above 700 m elevation.
This forest consists the following species :
Anjani (Memecylon edule),
Jambhul (Eugenia Jambolana),
Hirda (Termlnalia chebula),
Apta ( Bauhinia),
Ain (Terminalia Tomentosa),
Surangi (Calophyllum inophyllum),
Ritha (Sapindus emarginata),
Phanas (Artocarpus integrifolia),
Nana (legesrstraemia lanceolata),
Teak ( Tectonagrandis),
Tembhurni(Orosylum indicum),
Palas ( Bhutea frondosa),
Amba ( Magnifera indica),
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Kinjal (Terminalia paniculata
Number of varieties of bamboos are sparcely distributed which are limited to small
pockets. Velu, kalak (Bamboosa arundinacea), Ranchiva (Oxytenanthera monostigma) and
Chiva Dendrocalnmus strictus) are most common varieties in this region. In shrubs
Karwand(Carrissa carendas) Karvi ( Stroitanthes callosus)Kanheri (Neriurn odorum),
Ghaneri( Lantana Camara), Rui (Catstropis giahtia) are the general types observed. There are
number of species of creepers or climbers are most common .In the ground flora of the region
Braken fern (Ptoris accuirina) and the grasses like Bhale Kusal, Kusali, Marvel, Rosha, Ballgrass, Hut grass, Shimpi, Pandhari Kusal and other types are observed. Narkya -Mappia
foetida (synonyms-othapodytes nimmoniana, Nothapodytes foetida). It contains the
anticancer compound camptothecin(CPT). It does have colourful flowers and fruit but known
for obnoxious smell while flowering. Smells like human excreta hence “narkya”. The
compound is also called Amruta and is the perhaps only known curative agent for breast
cancer. In the black soil in general the vegetation comprises of dry deciduous species, viz.
Palas (Butea Prondosa), Sissum (Dalbergia sisu), Teak (Tectona grandis), and Neem
(Azadirachta indica). Along with these species the area also consists of Sitaphal (Anonaj
squamosa), Wad (Ficus benagalensis), Chinch (Tamerindus indica), Tad (Borassus flabellifer)
and Pimpal (Ficus religlosa). The bushes are mostly; xerophytic or semixerophytic thorny
varieties. Fleshy Euphorbiaceae (Nivadung) and Calotropis species are conspicuous
xerophytes, Nagphani (Opuntia) has become naturalized over wide tracts, but is not
Indigenous. The genus Acacia (Babhul) with number of species and several allied genera are
the characteristic flora of black soil region. Though, timber is of a very poor quality and
meager, fire wood grasses are the main marketable products from this forest. Hirda is used
for the extraction of tanin. The other minor forest products, cashewnut cocumbs, mango
fruits, bibi fruits, palas leaves, Shikekai, Reeds, Watsol, Kuchala seeds, Temburai leaves ,
Silver cotton and Honey etc . The lack of understanding about forest and its Impact on the
whole ecosystem, unrestricted practice of nomadic cultivation, shifting of cultivation,
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excessive grazing, private ownerships, malpractices of wood contractors, unplanned
execution of irrigation projects, high demand for firewood, timber and grasses have resulted
in a general degradation of forest in the basin. The generations of vegetal cover on higher
landscapes have crowned them either with xerophytic or semixerophytic thorny bushes and
mixed dry deciduous biotic species. In western portion, the woods in most places are stunted
and very little coppice growth, if at all has remained on the original state of the growth over
the entire tract. The vegetation type in general resembles that of Khandala, Mahabaleshwar
and Radhanagari and can be classified as sub-tropical evergreen as well as moist deciduous
forest. It however, exhibits floristic variations and differences. The evergreen forests are
usually surrounded by patches of mixed evergreen and moist deciduous vegetation and show
stratification.
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CHAPTER II
LINEAR ASPECTS OF THE NIRA RIVER BASIN
Linear aspects of the basins are related to the channel patterns of the drainage network
wherein the topological characteristics of the stream segments in terms of open links of the
network system (streams) are analysed. The drainage network, which consists of all of the
segments of streams of a particular river, is reduced to the level of graphs, where stream
junctions act as points (nodes) and streams, which connect the points (junctions), become
links or lines wherein the numbers of all segments are counted, their hierarchical orders are
determined, the lengths of all stream segments are measured and their different
interrelationships are studied. The nature of flow paths in terms of sinuosity is equally
important in the study of linear aspects of the drainage basins.
The liner aspects of drainage network such as Stream Orders (µ), Stream Number
(Nµ), bifurcation ratio (Rb), Stream Length (Lu), Mean Stream Length (Lsm) and Stream
Length Ratio (RL) results have been presented in the present study.
2.1
Stream order (µ)
2.2
Stream number (Nµ)
2.3
Bifurcation ratio (Rb)
2.4
Stream Length (Lμ)
2.5
Mean Stream Length (Lsm)
2.6
Stream length ratio (RL)
These as follows,
2.1 Stream Orders (µ)
In the drainage basin analysis the first step is to determine the stream orders and is
based on a hierarchic ranking of streams. ‘Stream order is defined as a measure of the
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position of a stream in the hierarchy of tributaries’ (L.B. Leopold, M.G. Wolman and J.P.
Miller, 1969). Out of the four systems of ordering the streams that are available (Gravelius
1914; Horton 1945; Strahler 1957 and Scheidegger 1970), Strahler’s system, which has in
fact slightly modified Horton’s, was followed because of its simplicity.
In the present study, the stream segments of the drainage basin have been ranked
according to Strahler’s stream ordering system. Under the Strahler scheme of ordering all the
fingertip or headwater tributaries are designated as first order streams, when two first order
stream unite, they form a second order stream, when two second order stream join, they form
a third order stream and so on (A.N. Strahler, 1969). The trunk stream through which all
discharged of water and sediment passes is therefore the stream segment of the highest order.
According to Strahler’s method of ordering the Nira River Drainage basin with a
drainage area of 1749.99 sq. km. is a 7th order. It has observed that the maximum frequency is
in the case of first order streams. It has also noticed that there is a decrease in stream
frequency as the stream order increases (Fig. 2 to 8).
2.2 Stream Number (Nµ)
The order wise total number of stream segment is known as the stream number. Horton
(1945) states that the number of stream segments of each order form an inverse geometric
sequence with order number, (Table 1). The number of the stream segment present in each
order was counted and tabulated. The total number of 8688 streams were identified of which
6706 are 1st order streams, 1550 are 2nd order streams, 339 are 3rd order streams, 70 are 4th
order streams, 17 are 5th order streams, 5 are 6th order streams and 1 is indicating 7th order
streams. These figures show that, the number of the streams decreases as the stream order
increases.
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Figure 2. Drainage pattern of upper Nira river
Figure 3. Drainage pattern of upper Nira river for 1st to 6th order streams
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Figure 4. Drainage pattern of upper Nira river for 1st to 5th order streams
Figure 5. Drainage pattern of upper Nira river for 1st to 4th order streams
19
Figure 6. Drainage pattern of upper Nira river for 1st to 3th order streams
Figure 7. Drainage pattern of upper Nira river for 1st to 2nd order streams
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Figure 8. Drainage pattern of upper Nira river for 1st order streams
Table 2: Stream Order and Number of Stream
Stream Order
Number of Stream
1st
6706
2nd
1550
3rd
339
4th
70
5th
17
6th
5
7th
1
Total Number of Stream
8688
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2.3 Bifurcation Ratio (Rb)
Horton (1945) defined the bifurcation ratio (Rb) as the ratio between the numbers of
streams of any given order to the number in the next lower order. The term bifurcation ratio
(Rb) is used to express the ratio of the number of streams of any given order to the number of
streams in next higher order (Schumm, 1956). Bifurcation ratio characteristically ranges
between 3.0 and 5.0. For basins in which the geological structures do not distort the drainage
pattern (Strahler, 1964). Strahler (1957) demonstrated that bifurcation ratio shows a small
variation for different regions or for different environment dominates. The higher values of
Rb (>10) indicate strong structural control in drainage pattern while the lower values are
indicative of not affected by structural disturbances. According to Strahler (1960) the
theoretical minimum possible ratio is 2, whereas the natural drainage systems are generally
characterized by bifurcation values between 03 and 05.
Bifurcation ratio which is related to the branching pattern of the drainage network, is
defined as a ratio of the number of streams of a given order to the number of streams of the
next higher order and is expressed in terms of the following equation
Nμ
Rb= Nμ+1
Where Nμ = number of stream of a given order
Nμ + 1
= number of streams of the next higher order
For the present study, bifurcation ratio of the Nira river basin calculated and tabulated
as follows
22
Table 3: Stream Order, Stream Number and Bifurcation ratio
Stream
Order (μ)
Number of
Stream (Nμ)
Bifurcation ratio (Rb)
1st
6706
4.32
2nd
1550
4.56
3rd
339
4.77
4th
70
3.89
5th
17
2.83
6th
5
2.50
7th
1
-
Mean Bifurcation Ratio (Rbm)
3.81
The mean bifurcation ratio (Rbm) of the Nira river basin is 3.81, which indicates that
geological structure are less disturbing the drainage pattern.
2.4 Stream Length (Lμ)
The length of the stream channel is a dimensional property, which reveals the size of
the component of drainage lines. It is the total length of stream in a particular order. Stream
length is one of the most significant hydrological features of the basin as it reveals surface
runoff characteristics. Streams are relatively smaller length are characteristics of areas with
larger slopes and finer textures, longer lengths of streams are generally indicative of flatter
gradients. Generally, the total length of the stream segment is maximum in first order streams
and decreases as the stream order increases. The numbers of stream of various orders in a
basin were counted and their lengths are measured with the help of the software.
23
Table 4: Stream Order, Number of Stream and Length of Streams
Stream
Order
(μ)
Length of
Streams in km.
(Lμ)
Number of
Stream (Nμ)
Mean Stream
Length in km.
(Lsm)
1st
6706
3866.402
0.576559
2nd
1550
1096.152
0.707195
3rd
339
565.1306
1.667052
4th
70
284.9467
4.070666
5th
17
149.9746
8.822035
6th
5
74.20715
14.84143
7th
1
32.18965
32.18965
8688
6069.003
62.87459
Total
Relationship between logarithm of number of stream versus stream order and
logarithm of length of stream versus stream order were measured (fig. 9 and 10) and
calculated in Table 4. Plot of logarithm of stream length versus stream order (fig 10) showed
the linear pattern which indicates the homogenous rock material subjected to weathering
erosion characteristics of the basin. Deviation from its general behavior indicates that the
terrain is characterized by variation in lithology and topography.
2.5 Mean Stream Length (Lsm)
The mean length of a channel is a dimensional property and reveals the characteristic
size of drainage network components and its contributing basin surface (Strahler, 1964). The
mean stream lengths (Lsm) have been calculated by dividing the total stream of order (µ) and
number of stream of segment of order (Nµ). Table 4 indicates that Lsm values of the basin is
total 62.87 respectively.
24
Table 5: Relationship between logarithm of number of stream versus stream order and
logarithm of length of stream versus stream order
River Basin
Stream
Order
(μ)
Nira River
Basin
Number
of
Stream
(Nμ)
Log.
Number
of
Stream
(Nμ)
Total
Length
of
Streams
in km.
(Ls)
Log (Ls)
Stream
Length
1
6706 3.826464 3866.402 3.587307
2
1550 3.190332 1096.152 3.039871
3
339
2.5302 565.1306 2.752149
4
70 1.845098 284.9467 2.454764
5
17 1.230449 149.9746 2.176018
6
5
0.69897 74.20715 1.870446
7
1
0 32.18965 1.507716
4.5
Log(Number of Streams)
4
3.5
3
2.5
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
Stream order
Figure 9: Relationship between Logarithm of Number of Streams versus Stream order
25
4
Log(Length of Streams)
3.5
3
2.5
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
Stream order
Figure 10: Relationship between Logarithm of Length of Stream versus Stream order
Table 6: Stream Order and Stream Length Ratio
Stream
Order
(μ)
Number
of
Stream
(Nμ)
Length
of
Streams
(Ls)
Stream
Length
Ratio
(RL)
1st
6706 3866.402
2nd
1550 1096.152 0.283507
3rd
339 565.1306 0.515559
4th
70 284.9467 0.504214
5th
17 149.9746 0.526325
6
th
5 74.20715 0.494798
7
th
1 32.18965 0.433781
Total
8688 6069.003 2.758184
2.6 Stream Length Ratio (RL)
The stream length ratio, which is the ratio of the mean length of the streams of a given
order to the mean length of the streams of the next lower order (Horton, 1945). Horton’s law
of stream lengths refers that the mean stream lengths of stream segments of each of the
successive orders of a drainage basin tend to approximate a direct geometric sequence in
which the first term (stream length) is the average length of segments of the first order (Table
26
6). Changes of stream length ratio from one order to another order indicate that their late
youth stage of geomorphic development (Singh and Singh, 1997).
Table 7: Linear aspects of the drainage network of the study area
Sr. No.
Morphometric Parameters
Nira Basin
I
II
III
1
Stream order (μ)
IV
V
VI
VII
2
Total Number of Stream (N μ)
I
II
III
3
Stream length (Lμ)
IV
V
VI
VII
6706
1550
339
70
17
5
1
8688
3866.402
1096.152
565.1306
284.9467
149.9746
74.20715
32.18965
2
Total stream length
6069
3
Mean Stream Length (Lsm)
62.87
I/II
II/III
4
III/IV
Bifurcation ratio (Rb)
IV/V
V/VI
VI/VII
5
Mean Bifurcation Ratio (Rbm)
6
Stream Length Ratio (RL)
4.32
4.56
4.77
3.89
2.83
2.50
3.81
2.7581
27
CHAPTER III
AREAL ASPECTS OF NIRA RIVER BASIN
Area (A) and perimeter (P) of the watershed are the important parameters in
quantitative morphology. The area of the watershed is defined as the total area projected upon
a horizontal plane contributing to cumulate of all order of watershed. Perimeter is the length
of the boundary of the watershed which can be drawn from topographical maps. Basin
(watershed) area is the hydrologically important because it directly affects the size of the
storm hydrograph and the magnitudes of peak and runoff. It is interesting that the maximum
flood discharge per unit area is inversely related to size (Chorley, et. al., 1957). The areal
aspect of the drainage basin (watershed) such as Drainage density (Dd), Stream frequency
(Fs), Drainage Texture (Rt), Form Factor (RF), Elongation ratio (Re), Circularity ratio (Rc),
Length of overland flow (Lg), Constant of channel maintenance (C), Lemniscate (k),
Infiltration Number (If), Basin perimeter (P) were calculated and result have been given in
Table 8.
3.1
Basin area (A)
3.2
Length of the Basin (Lb)
3.3
Circularity Ratio (Rc)
3.4
Basin Perimeter (P)
3.5
Stream Frequency (Fs)
3.6
Drainage density (Dd)
3.7
Drainage texture (Rt)
3.8
Elongation ratio (Re)
3.9
Length of overland flow Lg)
3.10
Form Factor (Rf)
3.11
Compactness Factor (Cf)
3.12
Drainage Intensity (Di)
28
3.13
Infiltration Number (If)
3.14
Constant of Channel Maintenance (C)
These are explaining as follows:
3.1
Basin Area (A):
The area of the basin is another important parameter like the length of the stream drainage.
Schumm (1956) established an interesting relation between the total basin area and the total
stream lengths, which are supported by the contributing areas. The author has computed the
basin area by using Arc GIS 9.2 software, which is 1749.99 sq. kms.
3.2
Length of the Basin (Lb)
Several people defined basin length in different ways, such as Schumm (1956)
defined the basin length as the longest dimension of the basin parallel to the principal
drainage line. Gregory and Walling (1973) defined the basin length as the longest in the basin
in which are end being the mouth. Gardiner (1975) defined the basin length as the length of
the line from a basin mouth to a point on the perimeter equidistant from the basin mouth in
either direction around the perimeter. The author has determined length of the Nira river
drainage basin in accordance with the definition of Schumm (1956) that is 63.08 Kms.
3.3
Circularity Ratio (Rc)
It is the ratio of the area of the basin to the area of a circle having the same
circumferences as the perimeter of the basin (Miller, 1953). The value of circularity ratio
varies from 0 (in a line) to 1.0 (in a circle). Higher the value of Circularity ratio more circular
shape of the basin and vice-versa. The value of Circularity ratio is influenced by length and
frequency of streams, geological structure, land use / land cover, climate, relief and slope of
the basin.
Circularity ratio (Rc) =
Where,
4𝜋𝐴
𝑃2
A = Basin Area (1749.99 sq.kms.)
29
P = Basin Perimeter (224.24 kms.)
𝜋 = 3.14
Circularity ratio (Rc) =
4∗3.14∗1749.99
224.242
21979.87
Circularity ratio (Rc) = 50282.21
Circularity ratio (Rc) = 0.44
In the present study, the Circularity ratio value is 0.37. It indicating that the basin is
elongated in shape, low discharge of runoff and highly permeable of the sub soil condition.
3.4
Basin Perimeter (P)
Basin perimeter is the outer boundary of the drainage basin that enclosed its area. It is
measured along the divides between drainage basin and may be used as an indicator of
drainage basin size and shape. The author has computed the basin area by using Arc GIS 9.2
software, which is 224.24 kms.
3.5
Stream Frequency (Fs)
Stream frequency or drainage frequency is the measure of number of stream per unit
area. Stream frequency is refers to the number of the streams per unit area (Horton, 1945) and
is obtained by dividing the total number of stream (Nu) by the total drainage basin area (A).
Stream Frequency (Fs) =
Stream Frequency (Fs) =
Nu
A
Total Number of Stream (Nu)
Basin Area (A)
For present study,
8688
Stream Frequency (Fs) = 1749.99
sq.km.
Stream Frequency (Fs) = 4.96 streams / sq.km
30
The Nira drainage basin has stream frequency of 4.91 streams / sq.km. The value of
stream frequency for the basin exhibit positive correlation with the drainage density value of
the area indicating the increase in stream population with respect to increase in drainage
density. The high value of stream frequency indicates the basin possesses high relief and the
almost hilly topography. Due to non- permeable rocks the surface runoff is high and
infiltration capacity is low within the study area.
3.6
Drainage density (Dd)
Drainage density refers to total stream lengths per unit area. It indicates the closeness
of spacing of channels, providing a quantitative measure of the average length of stream
channel for the whole basin. Horton (1932), introduced the drainage density (Dd) is an
important indicator of the linear scale of land-form elements in stream-eroded topography. It
is the ratio of total channel segment lengths cumulated for all orders within a basin to the
basin area, which is expressed in terms of mi./sq.mi. or km./sq.km.
The measurement of Drainage density is a useful numerical measure of landscape
dissection and runoff potential (Chorley, 1969). On the one hand, the Drainage density is a
result of interacting factors controlling the surface runoff; on the other hand, it is itself
influencing the output of water and sediment from the drainage basin (Ozdemir and Bird,
2009). Dd is known to vary with climate and vegetation (Moglen et al., 1998), soil and rock
properties (Kelson and Wells, 1989), relief (Oguchi, 1997) and landscape evolution
processes.
In general, the low drainage density leads to coarse texture while high drainage
density leads to fine texture (Strahler, 1964). High drainage density is the resultant of weak
and impermeable subsurface material and sparse vegetation and mountainous relief. The
types of rock also affect the drainage density (Savindra Singh, 1978).
Drainage density (Dd) =
𝐿𝑢
31
𝐴
Where,
Lu = Total Number of stream length
A = Basin Area
For present study,
Lu= 6069 km.
A =1749.99 sq. km.
Drainage density (Dd) =
6069
1749.99
Drainage density (Dd) = 3.47 km / sq.km.
Drainage density (Dd) = 3.47 km / sq.km.
The drainage density (Dd) of the study area is 3.47 km/sq.km indicating moderate
drainage density. It is suggested that impermeable subsurface material and sparse vegetation
and mountainous relief.
3.7
Drainage Texture (Rt)
Drainage texture means that the relative spacing of drainage lines. It is an important
factor in drainage morphometric analysis which is depending on the underlying lithology,
infiltration capacity and relief aspect of the terrain. Drainage texture is total number of stream
segments of all orders per perimeter of that area (Horton, 1945). Smith (1950) has classified
drainage texture in to 5 different textures i.e. very coarse (< 2), Coarse (2 to 4), moderate (4
to 6), fine (6 to 8) and very fine (> 8). Drainage texture includes drainage density and stream
frequency.
32
According to Schumm (1956) under a given set of geologic and hydroclimatic
conditions, a minimum area is needed for maintaining a river channel of a given length. The
minimum area to sustain a channel is largely determined by lithology, climate and average
slope, and also rock type is an important control on the drainage texture and density. In
addition, the vegetation cover, its density and types also play an important role in determining
the drainage texture (Kale & Gupta, 2001).
Drainage Texture (Rt) =
Drainage Texture (Rt) =
Nμ
P
Total number of stream
Perimeter of the area
8688
Drainage Texture (Rt) = 224.24
Drainage Texture (Rt) = 38.74
In the present study, the drainage texture of the basin is 7.4452 respectively. It
indicates that category is fine drainage texture.
3.8
Elongation Ratio (Re)
Schumm, 1956 used an elongation ratio (Re) defined as the ratio between the diameter
of a circle of the same area as the drainage basin and the maximum length of the basin. The
value of elongation ratio varies from 0 (in highly elongated shape) to unity i.e. 1.0 (in the
circular shape). Thus higher the value of elongation ratio more circular shape of the basin and
vice-versa. The circular basin is more efficient in run-off discharge than an elongated basin
(Singh and Singh, 1997). The value of elongation ratio generally varies from 0.6 to 1.0 over
wide variety of climatic and geologic types. Values close to 1.0 are typical of regions of very
low relief, whereas that of 0.6 to 0.8 are usually associated with high relief and steep ground
slope (Strahler, 1964). These values can be grouped into 3 categories, namely circular (>0.9),
oval (0.9 to 0.8) and less elongated (<0.7).
33
Re =
2√A/𝜋
Lb
A= Basin Area (1749.99 sq. kms)
Lb = Basin Length (63.08 Km.)
Re =
Re =
Re =
2√1749.99/3.14
63.08
2√557.32
63.08
2∗23.61
63.08
47.22
Re = 63.08
Re = 0.75
The elongation ratio of the basin of the study area 0.75 indicates basin to be
elongated with high relief.
3.9
Length of overland flow (Lg)
This term refers to the length of the runoff the rain water on the ground surface before
it gets concentrated into definite stream channels (Horton, 1945). The length of overland
flow, considered as a dominant hydrologic and morphometric factor, is ‘the mean horizontal
length of flow- path from the divide to the stream in a first order basin and is a measure of
stream spacing and degree of dissection and is approximately one half the reciprocal of the
drainage density’ (R.J. Chorley, 1969). Length of overland flow is one of the most important
morphometric variables, which affects the hydrological and topographic development of the
basins. It is generally related to the stage of basin development, thus quantitatively it is
generally observed that the early stage is marked with maximum length of overland flow and
mature and old stages register marked reduction in length of overland flow. This factor
relates inversely to the average slope of the channel and is quite synonymous with the length
34
of sheet flow to large degrees. The length of overland flow (Lg.) approximately equals to half
of the reciprocal of drainage density (Horton, 1945).
Length of overland flow was calculated as one-half of the reciprocal of the drainage
density.
Lg =
1
2𝐷𝑑
Dd = Drainage Density, for present study it is 3.47 km / sq.km
Lg =
Lg =
1
2∗3.47
1
6.94
Lg = 0.14 km
Length of overland flow is referred to as the distance of flow of the precipitated water,
over the land surface to reach the stream. The result obtained for Nira river drainage basin
was 0.14 Km
3.10
Form Factor (Rf)
According to Horton (1932), form factor may be defined as the ratio of basin area to
square of the basin length. Basin shape may be indexed by simple dimensionless ratios of the
basic measurements of area, perimeter and lengths (Singh, 1998). The form factor value of
the basin is 0.3966 which indicate lower value of form factor and thus represents elongated in
shape. The elongated basin with low form factor indicates that the basin will have a flatter
peak of flow for longer duration. Flood flows of such elongated basins are easier to manage
than of the circular basin.
Form Factor (Rf) =
Form Factor (Rf) =
A
Lu2
basin area
basin length2
35
Form Factor (Rf) =
Form Factor (Rf) =
1749.99
63.082
1749.99
3979.09
Form Factor (Rf) = 0.4398
Compactness Factor (Cf)
Compactness factor is expressed as the shape of the basin that was used by Horton
and devised by Gravelius (Gupta, 1999). The compactness factor was obtained from the ratio
of the perimeter of the watershed or drainage basin or catchment to the circumference of a
circle whose area equal to that of the drainage basin (Gupta, 1999).
Where,
Compactness Factor (Cf) =
P
2√𝜋A
P = Perimeter of the basin (km)
A = Area of the basin (km2)
Compactness Factor (Cf) =
Compactness Factor (Cf) =
Compactness Factor (Cf) =
Compactness Factor (Cf) =
224.24
2√3.14∗1749.99
224.24
2√5494.97
224.24
2∗74.13
224.24
148.26
Compactness Factor (Cf) = 1.51
Compactness factor of the present study is 1.51
3.11
Drainage Intensity (Di)
36
Faniran (1968) defines the drainage intensity, as the ratio of the stream frequency to
the drainage density.
Fs
Di = Dd
Fs = Stream Frequency
Dd = Drainage Density
Di =
4.96
3.47
Di = 1.43
This study shows a low drainage intensity of 1.43 for the Nira river drainage basin.
This low value of drainage intensity implies that drainage density and stream frequency have
little effect (if any) on the extent to which the surface has been lowered by agents of
denudation. With these low values of drainage density, stream frequency and drainage
intensity, surface runoff is not quickly removed from the drainage basin, making it highly
susceptible to flooding, gully erosion and landslide.
3.12
Infiltration Number (If)
Infiltration number is determined by multiplying the value of drainage density (D) and
stream frequency (Fs). It is expressed by formula:
If = Dd*Fs
Where If = Infiltration number
Dd = Drainage density
Fs = Stream frequency
If = 3.47 * 4.96
If = 17.21
Thus higher the value of infiltration number greater the permeability of soil covers. In
the present basin value is 17.21 respectively.
3.13
Constant of Channel Maintenance (C)
37
Schumm (1956) has used the reciprocal of drainage density as a property termed
constant of channel maintenance. It is expressed in sq. km. / km.
1
C = 𝐷𝑑
Where, C = Constant of channel maintenance
Dd = Drainage density
C=
1
3.47 𝑘𝑚 / 𝑠𝑞.𝑘𝑚.
C = 0.288 km2 / km
Since it represents the drainage maintain one unit of channel length. Hence it is a
measure of basin erodibility. The values of basin are 0.30 km2 /km respectively
Table 8: Areal Aspects of Nira River Basin
Sr. No.
Morphometric parameters
Symbol / Formula
1
Basin Area (A)
A
2
Circularity Ratio (Rc)
3
Perimeter (P)
4
Stream Frequency (Fs)
Fs =
5
Drainage Density (Dd)
Dd =
6
Drainage Texture (Rt)
Rt =
7
Elongation Ratio (Re)
8
Basin Length (km.)
9
Form Factor (Rf)
Rf =
10
Length of Overland Flow (Lg)
Lg =
Rc =
1749.99 sq. kms.
4𝜋𝐴
𝑃2
P
Re =
0.44
224.24 kms.
Nu
A
𝐿𝑢
𝐴
Nu
P
2√A/𝜋
Lu
Lb
38
Nira River Basin
4.96 streams / sq.km
3.47 km / sq.km.
38.74
0.75
63.08
A
Lu2
1
2𝐷𝑑
0.4398
0.14 km
P
Cf =
11
Compactness Factor (Cf)
12
Drainage Intensity (Di)
13
Infiltration number (If)
14
Constant of Channel Maintenance (C)
2√𝜋A
Di =
Fs
Dd
1.43
If = Dd*Fs
39
1.51
1
C = 𝐷𝑑
17.21
0.288 km2 /km
CHAPTER IV
RELIEF ASPECT OF NIRA RIVER BASIN
Relief morphometry of river basin describes variation of elevation between highest
and the lowest point. This is significant to study the flow phenomena is the basin. The
potential energy of flowing water from high altitude gets converted to kinetic energy, which
is related to slope. Various losses of water like storage, infiltration, evaporation etc. and
travel times are inversely related to slope. The various parameters listed below defined by
different workers are estimated by creating DEM and slope map of the basin. Various losses
of water like storage, infiltration, evaporation etc., and travel time are inversely related to
slope.
Relief refers to the relative height of points on surface and lines with respect to the
horizontal base of reference. Relief properties can be thought of as relating to the third
dimension, perpendicular to the horizontal base of reference. Relief expresses the magnitude
of the vertical dimension of the landform. Another group of form elements relate to the
gradient of the stream channels. Such measurements tell the rate of drop of the runoff and are
measures of the intensity of the process of erosion and transportation. The parameters relating
to relief aspect of the drainage network are as follows.
4.1
Basin Relief (H)
4.2
Relief Ratio (Rh)
4.3
Absolute Relief (Ra)
4.4
Relative Relief (Rhp)
4.5
Ruggedness Number (Rn)
4.6
Dissection Index (Dis)
4.7
Basin Slope
4.8
TIN Map
40
4.9
Aspect Map
4.10
Channel Gradient (Cg)
These are as explain as follows.
4.1 Basin Relief (H)
Relief is the elevation difference between two reference points. Maximum basin relief
(H) is the elevation difference between the highest point in the catchment dived and the
catchment outlet. Methods of measurement of basin relief adopted by various investigators
are different. Schumm measured basin relief along the longest dimension of the basin parallel
to the principal drainage line. Basin relief may also be obtained by determining the mean
height of the entire basin perimeter above the mouth, thus minimizing the spurious effects of
sharply pointed out summits.
Figure 11. Contour pattern of upper Nira river basin
41
Another we can explain it, that the elevation difference the highest and lowest points
of the valley floor of sub-basin is known as the total relief of that sub basin. It is the elevation
between the highest point of a river basin and the lowest point on the valley floor is known as
the total relief of the basin. The elevation varies from 568 m. to 1186 m. (Fig. 11). Total
basin relief is (1186-568) 618 m. (Strahler 1952).
4.2 Relief Ratio (Rh)
Relief ratio is the ratio of the maximum basin relief (H) to the catchments longest
horizontal straight distance measured in a direction parallel to that of the principal water
course. Schumm (1956) explained that taking vertical and horizontal distances as legs of a
right angled triangle, relief ratio is equal to the tangent of the lower acute angle and is
identical with the tangent of the angle of slope of the hypotenuse with respect to the
horizontal. According to him, there is direct relationship between the relief and channel
gradient. The relief ratio is normally is increase with respect decreasing the drainage area and
size of sub-basin of a given drainage basin (Gottschalk, 1964). The relief ratio thus measures
the overall steepness of a drainage basin and is an indicator of the intensity of erosion
processes operating on slopes of the basin.
The possibility of a close correlation between relief ratio and hydrologic
characteristics of a basin suggested by Schumm who found that sediments loose per unit area
is closely correlated with relief ratios.
Rh = H/Lb
Rh = Relief Ratio
H = Basin Relief (618 m.)
Lb = Length of the basin (63.08 Km = 63080 m.)
618 𝑚.
Rh = 63080 𝑚.
Rh = 0.0098
42
In the study area the value of relief ratio is 0.0098. It is observed that high values of
relief ratio indicate steep slope and high relief. While low values may indicate the lower
degree of slope and small ridges.
4.3 Absolute Relief (Ra)
The difference in elevation between a given location and sea level. Absolute relief of
the present study is 1186 meters.
4.4 Relative Relief (Rhp)
The maximum basin relief was obtained from the highest point on the river basin
perimeter to the mouth of the stream. Using the basin relief (618m.), a relief ratio was
computed as suggested by Schumm (1956), which is 0.0098. Melton’s (1957) relative relief
was also calculated using the formula:
Rhp = (H*100)/P,
Where,
P = is perimeter in meters.
Rhp = (H*100)/P
Rhp = Relative Relief
H = Basin Relief
P = Basin Perimeter
Rhp = (618*100)/ 224240
Rho = 61800 / 224240
Rhp = 0.2756
This comes to 0.2756 for Nira river basin.
4.5 Ruggedness Number (Rn)
Strahler’s (1968) ruggedness number is the product of the basin relief and the drainage
density and usefully combines slope steepness with its length.
Rn = Dd* (H/1000) …………. (Patton & Baker)
Rn = Ruggedness Number
43
Dd = Drainage density
H = Basin Relief
Rn = 3.47 sq. km. (618m. / 1000)
Rn = 3.47 *0.618
Rn = 2.14
Calculated accordingly, the Nira river basin has a ruggedness number of 2.14. The
low ruggedness value of drainage basin implies that area is less prone to soil erosion and have
intrinsic structural complexity in association with relief and drainage density.
4.6 Dissection Index (Dis)
Dissection index is a parameter implying the degree of dissection or vertical erosion
and expounds the stages of terrain or landscape development in any given physiographic
region or watershed (Sing and Dubey, 1994). On average, the values of Dis vary between ‘0’
(complete absence of vertical dissection / erosion and hence dominance of flat surface) and
‘1’ (in exceptional cases, vertical cliffs, it may be at vertical escarpment of hill slope or at
seashore).
H
Dis. = Ra
Where,
Dis = Dissection Index
H = Basin Relief
Ra = Absolute Relief
Dis. =
618 m
1186 m
Dis. = 0.52
Dissection Index value of Nira river basin is 0.43, which indicate the watershed or
drainage basin is a moderate dissected.
44
4.7 Basin Slope
Slope are defined as angular inclinations of terrain between hilltops and valley
bottom, resulting from the combination of many causative factors like geological structure,
climate, vegetation cover, drainage texture and frequency, dissection index, relative relief etc.
(Singh, 1998). Slopes are significant geomorphic attributes in the study of a drainage basin.
Morphological characteristics of a given region are determined by slopes of the region
because physical landscape are the result of the combination these slopes. Slopes not only
form an integral part of drainage system, but they also determine the occurrence and
thickness of the surface material in a particular material in a particular region. The slope map
of the Nira river basin is prepared with the help of Arc GIS software ver. 9.3. Figure 12 give
a general idea of slope condition in the Nira river basin. It can be observed from the slope
map that the lower reaches of the basin are characterized by the gentle slope and the upper
regions of the basin are exhibit moderate to steep slopes of >40 degree.
4.8 Aspect Map
Aspect is direction that a slope faces. It identifies steepness of down slope direction at
a location on a surface. It can be thought of a slope direction or the compass direction of a hill
face. Aspect is measured counter clockwise in degrees from 0 to 360. The value of each cell
in an aspect grid indicates the direction in which the cell slope faces. Flat slopes have no
direction and are given a value-1. The aspect map for the Nira river basin was derived from
the TIN generated with the help of Arc View GIS 9.3 (Figure 13). As mentioned so in the
index. It is evident from the map that the left bank slope of the Nira river stream has
dominantly South to South West slope.
In this region considerably less area is having due West slope. On the other hand the
right bank slopes are predominantly south facing. The right bank slopes at places also have a
tendency to slope in north-west directions. The upper catchment segment of the drainage
basin exhibits a varied aspects condition. This is mainly due to the fact that in this region not
45
Figure 12. Slop map of upper Nira river basin
Figure 13. Aspect map of upper Nira river basin
46
only the relief is comparatively higher but the intermittent gully formation must have resulted
in the varied aspect condition. In the northern part of the upper catchment the direction is
north east and south west. It is worth pointing out over here that as the aspect map is derived
from the TIN map, certain areas which appears to be flat or more or less like sinks are the
result of the shortcoming of the aspect generation process of the software.
4.9 Channel Gradient (Cg)
The total drops in elevation from the source to the mouth were found out for Nira
river basin, and horizontal distances were measured along their channels.
Cg = H/ [(𝜋/2)*Clp]
Where,
Cg = Channel Gradient
H = Total basin relief
Clp = Longest Dimension Parallel to the Principal Drainage Line Kms.
𝜋 = 3.14
Cg = 618/ [(3.14/2)*63.08]
Cg = 618/ [(1.57)*63.08]
Cg = 618/ [99.04]
Cg = 6.24 m/ km2
Channel gradient of Nira river basin are 6.24 m / sq. kms. It is seen from above that
the mean channel slope decreases with increasing order number.
4.10
Contours
Topographically, the basin possesses a complex topography and bears a transitional
character of Sahyadri and the Deccan plateau. The Eastern boundary of the basin is marked
by the flood plain of the river Kadavi. The general trend of the basin is from west to east. The
analysis of contour pattern of the area shows that in the upper reaches contours are very
closely spaced and forms an elongated close pattern which indicates a series of elongated
47
hillocks. In those area slope goes even more than 60 degrees (figure 12). It can be seen
clearly (figure 11) that the western half of the basin comprises of very dense contours
(undulating hilly and rugged terrain) while the eastern half is showing widely spaced
contours (almost flat terrain). The overall elevation in the basin area ranges from 568 to 1186
metres. But the contours derived from SRTM satellite data shows the elevation ranging from
600 to 1250 m.
Using contours, spot height, drainage line and drainage polygon data from toposheets
a Triangulated Irregular Network of the area has been prepared. It gives a bird's eye, visual
three dimensional, feel of the area. Also helps to get an idea about the morphological
dynamics like slope and aspect categorization of the basin as a whole.
Physiographically, the upper part of the basin shows features like 'V' shaped valleys,
hills, ridges, plateaus, and water-falls etc. These landforms are formed during the initial stage
of river, due to erosion and weathering of the underlying bedrock. As in the initial stage of
the river process, the intensity of flow is very high and river carries very less load so it cuts
the bed deeply and forms mostly 'V' shaped valleys. On contrary, meanders (loop in river
flow), ox-bow lakes are being developed during the mature and old stages of river channel
processes because of deposition of the material.
Moreover, it can be concluded that the area predominantly shows typical 5 types of
geo-morphological setup. High level plateaus are found in west direction and are restricted to
the fringes of the basin boundary whereas middle level plateaus covers most of the basin area.
Adjoining to the river banks there are flood plains in the lower half of the basin.
48
Table 9: Relief Aspects of Nira River Basin
Sr. No. Parameters
Formula
1
Basin Relief
GIS Software Analysis 618 m
2
Relief Ratio (Rh)
Rh = H/Lb
3
Absolute Relief (Ra)
GIS Software Analysis 1186 meters
4
Relative Relief (Rhp)
Rhp = (H*100)/P
0.2756
5
Ruggedness Number (Rn)
Rn = Dd* (H/1000)
2.14
6
Dissection Index (Dis)
Dis = H/Ra
0.52
7
Basin Slope
GIS Software Analysis Figure 12
8
Aspect Map
GIS Software Analysis Figure 13
9
Channel Gradient (Cg)
Cg = H/ [(𝜋/2)*Clp]
10
Contour Map
GIS Software Analysis Figure 11
49
Result
0.0098
6.24 m/ km2
CHAPTER V
RESULT AND DISCUSSION
Table 10: Quantitative Geomorphic Result of Nirai River Basin
Sr.
Morphometric Parameters
Formula
Result
1
Stream order (μ)
Hierarchical rank
1 to7
2
1st Order Stream Number (Nμ)
GIS Software Analysis
6706
3
2nd Order Stream Number (Nμ)
GIS Software Analysis
1550
4
3rd Order Stream Number (Nμ)
GIS Software Analysis
339
5
4th Order Stream Number (Nμ)
GIS Software Analysis
70
6
5th Order Stream Number (Nμ)
GIS Software Analysis
17
7
6th Order Stream Number (Nμ)
GIS Software Analysis
5
8
7th Order Stream Number (Nμ)
GIS Software Analysis
1
7
Total Stream Number (Nμ)
GIS Software Analysis
8688
8
1st Order Bifurcation ratio (Rb)
Rb=Nμ1/Nμ2
4.32
9
2nd Order Bifurcation ratio (Rb)
Rb=Nμ2/Nμ3
4.56
10
3rd Order Bifurcation ratio (Rb)
Rb=Nμ3/Nμ4
4.77
11
4th Order Bifurcation ratio (Rb)
Rb=Nμ4/Nμ5
3.89
5th Order Bifurcation ratio (Rb)
Rb=Nμ4/Nμ6
2.83
6th Order Bifurcation ratio (Rb)
Rb=Nμ4/Nμ7
2.5
No.
Average of bifurcation
12
Mean bifurcation ratio (Rbm)
3.81
ratios of all orders
13
Stream length (Lμ)
GIS Software Analysis
6069.003km
14
Mean stream length (Lsm)
Lsm=Lμ/Nμ
62.87459 km
15
Stream Length Ratio (Rl)
Rl=Lsm1/Lsm2
50
2.758184
16
Basin Area (A)
GIS Software Analysis
1749.99 sq. kms.
17
Length of the Basin (Lb)
GIS Software Analysis
63.08 kms
18
Circularity ratio (Rc)
Rc = 4πA/P2
19
Perimeter (P)
GIS Software Analysis
20
Stream Frequency (Fs)
Fs=Nμ+A
4.96 streams / km2
21
Drainage density (Dd)
Dd=Lμ/A
3.47 km/sq.km
22
Drainage Texture (Rt)
Rt = Nμ/P
38.74
23
Elongation Ratio (Re)
Re = (2√(A/π))/Lu
0.75
24
Length of overland flow (Lg)
Lg = 1/2Dd
0.14 km
25
Form Factor (Rf)
Rf = A/Lu2
0.4398
26
Compactness Factor (Cf)
Cf =P/2√ πA
1.51
27
Drainage Intensity (Di)
Di = Fs/Dd
1.43
28
Infiltration Number (If)
If = Dd*Fs
17.21
0.44
224.24 km.
Constant of Channel Maintenance
29
C = 1/Dd
0.288 sq.km/km
(C)
30
Basin Relief (H)
GIS Software Analysis
618 m
31
Relief Ratio (Rh)
Rh= H/Lb
0.0098
32
Absolute Relief (Ra)
GIS Software Analysis
1186 m.
33
Relative Relief (Rhp)
Rhp = (H*100)/P
0.2756m.
34
Ruggedness Number (Rn)
Rn = Dd* (H/1000)
2.14
35
Dissection Index (Dis)
Dis = H/Ra
0.52
36
Basin Slope (Bs)
GIS Software Analysis
Figure 12
37
Aspect Map
GIS Software Analysis
Figure 13
38
Channel Gradient (Cg)
Cg = H/ [(𝜋/2)*Clp]
51
6.24 m/sq. km.
Stream order and Stream number; the first step in drainage basin analysis is order
designation. In the present study, the channel segment of the drainage basin has been ranked
according to Strahler’s stream ordering system. According to Strahler (1964), the smallest
fingertip tributaries are designated as order 1. Where two first-order channels join, a channel
segment of order 2 is formed; where two of order 2 join, a segment of order 3 is formed; and
so forth. The trunk stream through which all discharge of water and sediment passes is
therefore the stream segment of highest order. The study area Nira river basin is a 7th order
drainage basin (Figure 2). The total numbers of 8688 streams were identified of which 6706
are 1st order streams, 1550 are 2nd order, 339 are 3rd order, 70 are 4th order, 17 are 5th order, 5
are the 6th order and one is indicating 7th order streams.
Bifurcation ratio of Nira river basin was 3.81 which indicate that geological
structure is less disturbing the drainage pattern. It also indicates whether a basin is elongated
or circular. Suresh (2000) has shown the high bifurcation ratio (Rb) is expected in the regions
of steeply dipping rock strata, where narrow strike valleys are confined between the ridges.
According to Kale & Gupta (2001), the results of the present study ranged from 3 to 5 for the
drainage basin indicating natural drainage system characteristics.
Stream length; the length of the various stream segments were measured order wise
and the total length as well as the mean length for each order were computed. Relationship
between logarithm of number of stream versus stream order and logarithm of length of stream
versus stream order were measured (fig. 9 and 10) and calculated. Plot of logarithm of stream
length versus stream order (fig. 10) showed the linear pattern which indicates the
homogenous rock material subjected to weathering erosion characteristics of the basin.
Deviation from its general behavior indicates that the terrain is characterized by variation in
lithology and topography.
The drainage basin area of Nira River is 1749.99 sq. kms. Drainage basin area also
called as catchment area. Catchment area is land areas that drain elements on Hydro Network.
52
According to Gregory & Walling (1985) almost every drainage basin or watershed
characteristics is correlated with the catchment area. Kale & Gupta, (2001) have stated that
the larger basins have large average discharge.
The length of the basin also indicates the lag time taken for the water to reach the
outlet of the basin from its longest distance in the catchment after the rainfall. Together with
mean slope, the basin length of the catchment affects the runoff to interact with the
catchment. In the present study, the value of 63.08 kms was indicated the catchment. Basin
length is expressed as “the distance from the outlet to the most remote point of the basin.”
Length of the basin was measured according to the above rule in the present study. Length of
the basin depends on the shape of the basin, which can be circular, elongated and curved;
most of these features are governed by morphological characteristics of the basin (Gupta,
1999).
Circulatory ratio of the present study was 0.44 which indicates shape of the basin
catchment, the value, which deviate from 1, indicate highly irregular basins. According to
Waugh (1995), shape of a basin has long been accepted that a circular basin is more likely to
have a shorter lag time and a higher peak flow than an elongated basin. Miller (1953) defined
a dimensionless circularity ratio (Rc) as the ratio of basin area to the area of circle having the
same perimeter as the basin. He described the basin of the circularity ratios range 0.4 to 0.5
which indicates strongly elongated and highly permeable homogenous geologic materials.
The circularity ratio of the basin is 0.44 corroborates the miller’s range which indicating that
the basin is elongated in shape, low discharge of runoff and highly permeability of the subsoil
condition.
Perimeter of the basin was 224.24 km; it varies with its irregularity, which is based
on the morphology of the area. Perimeter of the basin or catchment can be obtained from the
created outline of the basin, which is dependent upon the topography of the area. Perimeter of
the drainage basin was measured using Arc GIS software package.
53
Suresh (2000) has shown Elongation ratio ranges between 0.6 and 1.0 over a wide
variation of climate and geologic types, the value of elongation ratio is found very close to
1.0, while for the areas involving strong relief and steep ground slope, the elongation ratio
ranges from 0.6 to 0.8. The result of the present study indicated 0.75 which falls within 0.6 to
0.8 indicating strong relief and steep ground slope. Elongation ratio indicates how the shape
of the basin deviates from a circle (Schumm 1956). It is an index to mark the shape of the
drainage basin. The value of elongation ratio for the present study indicates that basin is
elongated in shape.
The length of over land flow is one of the most important variables affecting terrain
development of drainage basin. Length of overland flow is referred to as the distance of flow
of the precipitated water, over the land surface to reach the stream. The result obtained for
Nira river drainage basin was 0.14 km. The overland flow is higher in the semi arid regions
than in the humid and humid temperate regions, in addition absence of vegetation cover in the
semi arid regions is primarily responsible for lower infiltration rates and for the generation of
higher surface flow (Kale & Gupta, 2001). The overland flow of Nira river basin clearly
indicates the characteristic of the basin which extended within 99% of the wet zone indicating
well-developed stream network and heavy rainfall.
Form factor; if the basin is wider, the form factor will be comparatively higher.
Consequently, much narrower have low form factor values. The low form factor is indicated
in the elongated basin and high form factor is indicated in the wider basin (Gregory &
Walling, 1985). The calculated value of form factor for the catchment was 0.4398 (0.4). The
value falls in between narrower and wider. Form factor has been introduced by Horton (1932)
that shows shape of the basin. There is a low form factor in a basin that indicates less intense
rainfall simultaneously over its entire area than an area of equal size with a large form factor
(Gupta, 1999). According to Gregory & Walling, (1985) the form factor is the governing
factor of the water courses which entire the main stream.
54
Compactness factor of the basin is used to express the basin shape, which is
indicated by the deviation of the basin area from a circle having an equal area (Gupta, 1999).
The result of the Nira river drainage basin was indicated of 1.51, which reveals the in
between value for the drainage basin or catchment.
The order wise total number of stream segment is known as the stream number.
Horton’s (1945) laws of stream numbers states that the number of stream segments of each
order form an inverse geometric sequence with plotted against order, most drainage networks
show a linear relationship, with small deviation from a straight line. The plotting of logarithm
of number of streams against stream order is given in Figure 9, according to the law proposed
by Horton gives a straight line. This means that the number of streams usually decreases in
geometric progression as the stream order increases.
Drainage texture is one of the important concept of geomorphology which
means that the relative spacing of drainage lines. Drainage texture is on the underlying
lithology, infiltration capacity and relief aspect of the terrain. Drainage texture is total
number of stream segments of all orders per perimeter of that area (Horton, 1945). In the
present study, the drainage texture of the basin is 38.74 respectively. It indicates that category
is fine drainage texture (Smith, 1950).
Drainage texture includes drainage density and stream frequency. According to
Schumm (1956) under a given set of geologic and hydro-climatic conditions, a minimum area
is needed for maintaining a river channel of a given length. The minimum area to sustain a
channel is largely determined by lithology, climate and average slope, and also rock type is
an important control on the drainage texture and density. In addition the vegetation cover, its
density and types also play an important role in determining the drainage texture (Kale &
Gupta, 2001).
55
The main or trunk stream and its tributary streams that drain the basin area
collectively form the stream network. The spatial arrangement of a river and its tributary
streams in a drainage net work is referred to as the drainage pattern of a basin (Gregory &
Walling, 1985). Figure 2 illustrates the stream network of Nira river drainage basin, the
stream order varied from 1 to 7 and the total number of stream segments of all orders
recorded was 8688.
The stream frequency or channel frequency has been defined as the number of
streams per unit of area. It directly depends on the size of the drainage area. According to
Horton (1945), A large basin may contain as many finger tip tributaries per unit of area as a
small drainage basin, and in addition, it usually contains a large stream or streams. The
stream frequency value of the basin is 4.96 (no. of streams per km2).
Drainage density is the stream length per unit area in region of watershed or drainage
basin (Horton, 1945, p243 and 1932, p. 357; Strahler, 1952, and Melton 1958) is another
element of drainage analysis. Drainage density is a better quantitative expression to the
dissection and analysis of landform, although a function of climate, lithology and structure
and relief history of the region can finally use as an indirect indicator to explain, those
variables as well as the morphogenesis of landform.
The drainage density indicates the
closeness of spacing of channels, thus providing a quantitative measure of the average length
of stream channel for the whole basin. It has been observed from drainage density
measurements made over a wide range of geologic and climatic types that a low drainage
density is more likely to occur in regions of highly resistant of highly permeable subsoil
material under dense vegetative cover, and where relief is low. High drainage density is the
resultant of weak or impermeable subsurface material, sparse vegetation and mountainous
relief. Low drainage density leads to coarse drainage texture while high drainage density
leads to fine drainage texture (Strahaler, 1964). Author has calculated the drainage density by
using the spatial analysis tool in ArcGIS- 9.2, which are 3.47 km / km2.
56
Stream frequency & drainage density of the Nira river drainage basin were 4.96 (no.
of streams per km2) and 3.47 (km per km2). Acccording to Kale & Gupta, (2001) greater the
drainage density and stream frequency in a basin, the runoff is faster, and therefore, flooding
is more likely in basins with a high drainage and stream frequency. Smith (1950) and Strahler
(1957) have described drainage density values less than 5.00 as course, between 5 – 13.7 as
medium, between 13.7 – 155.3 as fine, and greater than 155.3 as ultra fine. In Britain values
are usually well below 5 and Dartmoor average 2.14 (Chorley & Morgan, 1962).
In the drainage basin, the drainage pattern reflects the influence of slope, lithology
and structure. Finally, the study of drainage pattern helps in identifying the stage in the cycle
of erosion. Drainage pattern presents some characteristics of drainage basins through
drainage pattern and drainage texture. It is possible to deduce the geology of the basin, the
strike and dip of depositional rocks, existence of faults and other information about
geological structure from drainage patterns. Drainage texture reflects climate, permeability of
rocks, vegetation, and relief ratio, etc. Howard (1967) related drainage patterns to geological
information. Author has identified the dendritic pattern in the study area. Dendritic pattern is
most common pattern is formed in a drainage basin composed of fairly homogeneous rock
without control by the underlying geologic structure. The longer the time of formation of a
drainage basin is, the more easily the dendritic pattern is formed. (Kuldeep et. al, 2011)
The slope of the drainage basin is resulted from the morphology of the area. The
effect of high slope result in high velocity of flow, therefore it takes lesser time for the
drainage basin or catchment runoff to reach the stream. Slope is the most important and
specific feature of the earth’s surface form. Maximum slope line is well marked in the
direction of a channel reaching downwards on the ground surface. There are many
contributions to slope-geomorphology and various methods of representing the slope, but the
contributions made by Rich (1960), Wentworth (1930), Raisz and Henry (1937), Smith
(1938-39), Robinson (1948), Calef (1950), Calef and Newcomp (1953), Strahler (1956),
57
Miller (1960), Eyles (1965) and Pity (1969), are very important. Slope can evaluated as
quantitatively parameter. Slope map (Figure 12) has created by using Surface Analysis Tool
in ArcGIS- 9.3 ver. And mean slope has computed, which is 10 to 30 degree.
This study shows a low drainage intensity of 1.43 for the Nira river drainage basin.
This low value of drainage intensity implies that drainage density and stream frequency have
little effect (if any) on the extent to which the surface has been lowered by agents of
denudation. drainage intensity
The infiltration number of a watershed or drainage basin is defined as the product of
drainage density and stream frequency and given an idea about the infiltration characteristics
of the drainage basin or watershed. The higher the infiltration number, the lower will be the
infiltration and the higher runoff. For the present study, infiltration number of the Nira river
drainage is 17.21. It indicates higher infiltration number.
Under a given set of geological and hydroclimatic conditions, a minimum area is
needed for maintaining a river channel of a given length. This has been defined as the
constant of channel maintenance (Schumm, 1956). The reciprocal or inverse of drainage
density is the constant of channel maintenance or the average distance between streams. The
constant expresses the number of square km of a drainage basin required to maintain qne km
of channel.
The minimum area to sustain a channel is largely determined by the lithology, climate
and average slope. For instance, in dry regions and over resistant rocks, all the streams
require large amounts of runoff and so the constant of channel maintenance is higher. In
contrast, in humid regions and over easily erodible rocks relatively less area is needed to
maintain a channel, and so the constant of channel maintenance is low.
Schumm (1956) used the inverse of drainage density or the constant of channel
maintenance as a property of landforms. The constant indicates the number of km 2 of basin
58
surface required to develop and sustain a channel 1 km long. The constant of channel
maintenance indicates the relative size of landform units in a drainage basin and has a
specific genetic connotation (Strahler, 1957). Channel maintenance constant of the Nira river
drainage basin is 0.30 km2 / km.
The elevation difference the highest and lowest points of the valley floor of sub-basin
is known as the total relief of that sub-basin. It is the elevation between the highest point of a
river basin and the lowest point on the valley floor is known as the total relief of the basin.
The elevation value varies from 568 m. to 1186 m. (Figure 11). Total basin relief is (1186568) 618 m. (Strahler 1952).
59
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