Download effects on wetlands and waterfowl habitat study

Yadkin-Pee Dee River Hydroelectric Project
FERC No. 2206
EFFECTS ON WETLANDS AND
WATERFOWL HABITAT
STUDY REPORT
Terrestrial Resources Working Group
Issue No. 4 - Operational Effects on Waterfowl Habitat and
Wetlands
PROGRESS ENERGY
APRIL 2006
© 2006 Progress Energy
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Section
Title
Page No.
ACRONYM LIST .................................................................................................... AL-1
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY ..........................................................................................ES-1
SECTION 1 - INTRODUCTION .................................................................................... 1-1
SECTION 2 - STUDY OBJECTIVES ............................................................................. 2-1
SECTION 3 - SITE DESCRIPTION ............................................................................... 3-1
3.1
3.2
3.3
General Description....................................................................................................... 3-1
3.1.1
Tillery Development ....................................................................................... 3-1
3.1.2
Blewett Falls Development ............................................................................. 3-3
General Ecological Description..................................................................................... 3-3
3.2.1
Piedmont Ecoregion ........................................................................................ 3-5
3.2.2
Southeastern Plains ......................................................................................... 3-5
Wetland Vegetation and Communities.......................................................................... 3-6
SECTION 4 - METHODS ............................................................................................ 4-1
4.1
4.2
4.3
General Wetland Information........................................................................................ 4-1
Determination of Wetland Characteristics .................................................................... 4-2
Determination of Project Effects ................................................................................... 4-4
SECTION 5 - RESULTS AND DISCUSSION .................................................................. 5-1
5.1
5.2
Wetland Information Collected ..................................................................................... 5-1
5.1.1
General Wetland Information ......................................................................... 5-1
5.1.2
Wetland Study Site Descriptions .................................................................... 5-6
Effects of Current Project Operations on Wetlands, Waterfowl, and Other Aquatic
Habitats........................................................................................................................ 5-14
5.2.1
Lake Tillery................................................................................................... 5-14
5.2.2
Blewett Falls Lake ........................................................................................ 5-22
SECTION 6 - SUMMARY ........................................................................................... 6-1
6.1
6.2
Lake Tillery ................................................................................................................... 6-1
Blewett Falls Lake......................................................................................................... 6-2
SECTION 7 - REFERENCES ........................................................................................ 7-1
i
TABLE OF CONTENTS
(Continued)
Section
Title
Page No.
APPENDICES
APPENDIX A - WILDLIFE SPECIES GUILDS
APPENDIX B - SELECTED WETLAND CROSS SECTIONS
APPENDIX C - INFORMATION ON REPRESENTATIVE AND IMPORTANT WETLAND
PLANT SPECIES
ii
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure
Figure 3-1
Figure 3-2
Figure 5-1
Figure 5-1
Figure 5-2
Figure 5-3
Figure 5-4
Figure 5-4
Figure 5-5
Figure 5-6
Figure 5-6
Title
Page No.
Project location map. ...............................................................................................2
Ecoregions associated with the Project area. ...........................................................4
Wetlands in the general area of the Project - Blewett Falls Lake (Sheet 1
of 2)..........................................................................................................................2
Wetlands in the general area of the Project - Blewett Falls Lake (Sheet 2
of 2)..........................................................................................................................3
Wetlands in the general area of the Project area - Lake Tillery. .............................4
Lake Tillery aquatic habitat and water level relationships. ...................................19
Lake Tillery aquatic habitat and water level relationships (shallow coves and
water willow habitats) (Sheet 1 of 2).....................................................................20
Lake Tillery aquatic habitat and water level relationships (shallow coves and
water willow habitats) (Sheet 2 of 2).....................................................................21
Blewett Falls Lake aquatic habitat and water level relationships..........................31
Blewett Falls Lake aquatic habitat and water level relationships (shallow
coves and water willow) (Sheet 1 of 2). ................................................................32
Blewett Falls Lake aquatic habitat and water level relationships (shallow
coves and water willow) (Sheet 2 of 2). ................................................................33
iii
LIST OF TABLES
Table
Table 5-1
Table 5-2
Table 5-3
Table 5-4
Table 5-5
Table 5-6
Table 5-7
Table 5-8
Table 5-9
Table 5-10
Table 5-11
Table 5-12
Title
Page No.
Wetland areas characterized in detail within the Project Boundary. .......................5
Zonal classification of bottomland hardwood forest wetlands within the
influence of Blewett Falls Lake. ............................................................................10
Normal Lake Tillery water levels during the winter waterfowl stop-over
period. ....................................................................................................................14
Normal Lake Tillery water levels during the summer waterfowl broodrearing period. ........................................................................................................15
Normal Lake Tillery water levels during the fall waterfowl migration period. ....15
Inundation parameters associated with important ecological periods at Lake
Tillery.....................................................................................................................16
Lake Tillery aquatic habitat water level relationships...........................................22
Normal Blewett Falls Lake water levels during the winter waterfowl stopover period. ............................................................................................................23
Normal Blewett Falls Lake water levels during the summer waterfowl broodrearing period. ........................................................................................................23
Normal Blewett Falls Lake water levels during the fall waterfowl migration
period. ....................................................................................................................23
Inundation parameters associated with important ecological periods at
Blewett Falls Lake. ................................................................................................24
Blewett Falls Lake aquatic habitat water level relationships.................................34
iv
Acronym List
Federal/State Agencies
Advisory Council on Historic Preservation (ACHP)
Federal Aviation Administration (FAA)
Federal Energy Regulatory Commission (FERC)
National Park Service (NPS)
National Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS)
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA)
National Resource Conservation Service (NRCS) formerly known as Soil Conservation Service
National Weather Service (NWS)
North Carolina Department of Environment and Natural Resources (NCDENR)
North Carolina Environmental Management Commission (NCEMC)
North Carolina Department of Natural and Economic Resources, Division of Environmental
Management (NCDEM)
North Carolina Division of Parks and Recreation (NCDPR)
North Carolina Division of Water Resources (NCDWR)
North Carolina Division of Water Quality (NCDWQ)
North Carolina Natural Heritage Program (NCNHP)
North Carolina State Historic Preservation Officer (NCSHPO)
North Carolina Wildlife Resources Commission (NCWRC)
South Carolina Department of Natural Resources (SCDNR)
South Carolina Department of Health and Environmental Control (SCDHEC)
State Historic Preservation Office (SHPO)
U.S. Army Corps of Engineers (ACOE)
U.S. Department of Interior (DOI)
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA)
U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS)
U.S. Geological Survey (USGS)
U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA)
U.S. Forest Service (USFS)
Other Entities
Alcoa Power Generating, Inc., Yadkin Division (APGI)
Progress Energy (Progress)
University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill (UNCCH)
Facilities/Places
Yadkin - Pee Dee River Project (entire two-development project including both powerhouses, dams
and impoundments)
Blewett Falls Development (when referring to dam, powerhouse and impoundment)
Blewett Falls Dam (when referring to the structure)
Blewett Falls Hydroelectric Plant (when referring to the powerhouse)
AL-1
Acronym List
Blewett Falls Lake (when referring to the impoundment)
Tillery Development (when referring to dam, powerhouse and impoundment)
Tillery Dam (when referring to the structure)
Tillery Hydroelectric Plant (when referring to the powerhouse)
Lake Tillery (when referring to the impoundment)
Documents
401 Water Quality Certification (401 WQC)
Draft Environmental Assessment (DEA)
Environmental Assessment (EA)
Environmental Impact Statement (EIS)
Final Environmental Assessment (FEA)
Initial Consultation Document (ICD)
Memorandum of Agreement (MOA)
National Wetland Inventory (NWI)
Notice of Intent (NOI)
Notice of Proposed Rulemaking (NOPR)
Preliminary Draft Environmental Assessment (PDEA)
Programmatic Agreement (PA)
Scoping Document (SD)
Shoreline Management Plan (SMP)
Laws/Regulations
Clean Water Act (CWA)
Code of Federal Regulations (CFR)
Electric Consumers Protection Act (ECPA)
Endangered Species Act (ESA)
Federal Power Act (FPA)
Fish and Wildlife Coordination Act (FWCA)
National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA)
National Historic Preservation Act (NHPA)
Terminology
Alternative Relicensing Process (ALP)
Cubic feet per second (cfs)
Degrees Celsius (C)
Degrees Fahrenheit (F)
Dissolved oxygen (DO)
Feet (ft)
Gallons per day (gpd)
Geographic Information Systems (GIS)
Gigawatt Hour (GWh)
Global Positioning System (GPS)
AL-2
Acronym List
Grams (g)
Horsepower (hp)
Kilogram (kg)
Kilowatts (kW)
Kilowatt-hours (kWh)
Mean Sea Level (msl)
Megawatt (MW)
Megawatt-hours (MWh)
Micrograms per liter (µg/L)
Milligrams per liter (mg/L)
Millimeter (mm)
Million gallons per day (mgd)
National Geodetic Vertical Datum (NGVD)
National Wetlands Inventory (NWI)
Non-governmental Organizations (NGOs)
Ounces (oz.)
Outstanding Remarkable Value (ORV)
Palustrine emergent wetland (PEM)
Palustrine scrub-shrub wetland (PSS)
Palustrine forested wetland (PFO)
Palustrine unconsolidated bottom (PUB)
Parts per billion (ppb)
Parts per million (ppm)
Pounds (lbs.)
Power Factor (p.f.)
Probable Maximum Flood (PMF)
Project Inflow Design Flood (IDF)
Protection, mitigation, and enhancement measures (PM&E)
Rare, Threatened, and Endangered Species (RTE)
Ready for Environmental Assessment (REA)
Resource Work Groups (RWG)
Revolutions per Minute (rpm)
Rights-of-way (ROW)
Stakeholders (federal and state resource agencies, NGOs, and other interested parties)
Volts (V)
AL-3
Executive Summary
Progress Energy is currently relicensing the Blewett Falls and Tillery hydroelectric developments
(i.e., Yadkin-Pee Dee River Hydroelectric Project No. 2206) with the Federal Regulatory
Commission (FERC). As part of the relicensing process, Progress Energy established Resource
Working Groups (RWGs) during May 2003 to identify environmental issues associated with Project
operations and develop study plans, if necessary, specific to Project lands and associated lakes and
tailwaters. The Terrestrial Resources Working Group was concerned that Project operations could
have a negative effect on reservoir waterfowl and wetland habitat within and directly adjacent to the
Project lands. It was suggested that water level fluctuation in the reservoirs, due to Project
operations, could potentially impact waterfowl habitat and wetland communities including vernal
pools with both the changes in water level and sediment transport around Blewett Falls Lake, Lake
Tillery, and along the lower Pee Dee River and its tributaries. Progress Energy agreed to conduct
wetland surveys, as well assess Project-related impacts, in 2004 as part of its relicensing process
(i.e., Terrestrial RWG Issue No. 4, “Operational Effects on Waterfowl Habitat and Wetlands”). This
study plan was developed based on input from the RWG and approved by the RWG.
The objectives of this study are to: (1) identify and map the wetland areas and associated significant
wildlife habitat areas within the zone of operational influence within the FERC Project boundaries;
(2) classify and characterize wetland communities including plant species composition, structure,
and wildlife importance; (3) qualify the relationship between existing wetland distribution and
structure with the current operating regime and assess the effects of current operations and options
for future Project operations (e.g., fluctuations and drawdowns) on the wetland areas and the
associated wildlife communities; and 4) provide information to assist in developing any potential
protection, mitigation, and enhancement (PM&E) measures.
Wetland acreages have been calculated within both Lake Tillery and Blewett Falls Lake. These
acreages include those within the Project Boundary. These calculations were derived from the
original NWI maps and verified or modified based on the field assessments. These acreages are as
follows for the Project:
Lake Tillery
Palustrine emergent wetland dominated classes
(includes water willow beds):
Palustrine scrub-shrub wetland dominated classes:
Palustrine forested wetland dominated classes:
Total Wetland Acreage
Blewett Falls Lake
Palustrine emergent wetland dominated classes
(includes water willow beds):
Palustrine scrub-shrub wetland dominated classes:
Palustrine forested wetland dominated classes:
Total Wetland Acreage
ES-1
Total within Project Boundary
298 acres
8 acres
140 acres
446 acres
66 acres
26 acres
780 acres
872 acres
Executive Summary
Palustrine wetlands are relatively common within and adjacent to the Project area. The majority of
the wetlands within the Project area are associated with the islands and shoreline floodplains of
Blewett Falls Lake. The various wetland types associated with the Grassy Islands Complex include
most of this wetland acreage, especially forested wetlands. The Grassy Islands also include large
coves of emergent southern wild rice. On Blewett Falls Lake, these wetlands are located in the
upper half of the lake. The lower portion of Blewett Falls Lake lacks wetlands because the
substrates are not conducive for wetland development (stiff clay and lack of organics and fines),
prevalent hardpan conditions, and relatively steep banks.
Lake Tillery
The existing wetlands, especially the water willow areas, are healthy and fully functioning due to a
relatively stable water level. Wetlands are uncommon along Lake Tillery. The majority of the
forested wetlands are associated with the upper part of the lake in the vicinity of the Uwharrie River.
The emergent wetlands are associated with the large, fringing water willow beds along the lake
shoreline (Progress Energy 2005). The scattered nature of most wetland types on Lake Tillery is due
to steep banks and conditions not conducive to wetland development.
The current Progress Energy license allows for drawdowns at Lake Tillery of up to 22 ft below full
pond. However, over the past several years, Progress Energy has voluntarily made its best efforts to
operate Lake Tillery within a 4-ft range under normal circumstances and much of the time operating
within a 2-ft range except during maintenance (12-ft drawdown) (Progress Energy 2003). Generally,
the existing wetland communities associated with Lake Tillery, though uncommon, were found to be
vigorous in growth, healthy, and appear to be in a state of equilibrium with the current operational
regime in association with the inundation duration, magnitude, frequency, and seasonal timing.
There are several other shallow water habitats within Lake Tillery that are important to the integrity
of the aquatic system. These habitats include coarse woody debris (e.g., brush piles, fallen trees) and
shallow coves having a depth of less than or equal to 6 ft in depth. Woody debris provides physical
habitat structure (e.g., cover and foraging substrate), beneficially alters water movement and flow,
and provides organic matter from the terrestrial ecosystems (e.g., forested wetlands) into the surface
waters and affects the transport of organic material within the aquatic environment. Shallow water
or cove habitats (i.e., less than 6 ft in depth and off the main stem of the lakes) provide important
functions in the aquatic environments. Several populations of fish and other organisms are
dependent on these habitats for completion of their life cycles. In the Project area, these shallow
water habitats provide breeding and spawning habitat for members of the sunfish family
(Centrachidae) and minnows (Cyprinidae), foraging habitat for a variety of species and life stages
(e.g., juvenile and adult largemouth bass), and cover habitat for a variety of species including
macroinvertebrates. This habitat is also contiguous to several other important aquatic habitats
including emergent wetlands and woody debris.
Approximately 0.10 acres (10 percent) of the woody debris areas are found from normal maximum
operating water levels to approximately 3.0 ft below the normal level. Thus, during water level
fluctuations below the normal operation lake level, these areas would lack surface inundation and
lose the attributed aquatic habitat functions. Also, approximately 403.0 acres of the shallow cove
habitat is found from the normal maximum operating level to approximately 6.0 ft below the normal
ES-2
Executive Summary
level. During water level fluctuations below the normal operating level, these areas will also lack
surface inundation and would lose the aquatic habitat functions.
The most important waterfowl use periods in the Yadkin Pee-Dee Project area are June through July
for brood rearing; September through November for fall migration foraging and stop-over; and
December through February for winter foraging and stop-over. Lake Tillery has relatively stable
water levels throughout these three important waterfowl periods. Mean daily, weekly and monthly
water levels are within 1 ft of the normal maximum operating levels for all three of the important
waterfowl periods and certainly throughout the growing season.
Based on the field assessment, there were no obvious Project-related impacts observed for the Lake
Tillery study area in relation to wetland resources. The range of water levels, (i.e., directly related to
Project operations) in Lake Tillery is such that the necessary hydrology for the adjacent wetlands is
not adversely affected. There is little lake level fluctuation during the growing season (i.e., May to
October) and throughout the rest of the year. There are neither excessive nor insufficient lake levels
to greatly impact the structure, composition or function of the wetland communities as a whole,
including but not limited to the monotypic water willow beds which flourish under relatively stable
water levels.
Blewett Falls Lake
The Blewett Falls Development is operated in coordination with the upstream Tillery Development.
The normal operation of the Blewett Falls Lake results in a daily drawdown of approximately 2 to
3 ft below the normal maximum operating level. This drawdown provides storage capacity needed
to regulate flows from Tillery Development. The Blewett Falls generating units normally begin
operation at the same time that the Tillery Plant begins generation (Progress Energy 2003).
Normal lake levels at Blewett Falls Lake, from the years 1997 through 2004, were reviewed for the
periods most important for wetland resources and the associated waterfowl use. The most important
waterfowl use periods in the Yadkin-Pee Dee River Project area again are June through July for
brood rearing, September through November for fall migration foraging and stop-over, and
December through February for winter foraging and stop-over. Blewett Falls Lake water levels vary
from one to 3 ft below the normal maximum operating level of 177.2 ft throughout the three
important waterfowl periods.
Generally, the existing and extensive wetland communities associated with Blewett Falls Lake (e.g.,
southern wild rice and bottomland hardwood forest) were found to be vigorous in growth, healthy,
and appear to be in a state of equilibrium with the current operational regime in association with the
inundation duration, magnitude, frequency and seasonal timing. Based on field assessment, there
were no obvious and significant Project-related impacts observed for the Blewett Falls Lake study
area in relation to the wetland resources. The range of water levels, (i.e., directly related to Project
operations) in Blewett Falls Lake is such that the hydrology for the adjacent wetlands is not affected
for more than a few hours on a daily basis. The daily water level fluctuation during the growing
season (i.e., May to October) and throughout the rest of the year is within a range of less than 1 ft to
a maximum of 3 ft. The Grassy Islands are located at approximately five miles upstream from
Blewett Falls Dam. The extent of change in surface water elevations at the Grassy Islands are less
ES-3
Executive Summary
than that expected at the dam. Based on field observations, there are neither excessive nor
insufficient lake levels to greatly impact the structure, composition or function of the wetland
communities as a whole. When the water level drops below 1.5 ft of normal maximum operation
level, Blewett Falls’ wetlands are temporarily exposed and the associated principal functions and
values are diminished until the hydrology is restored in several hours. However, this temporary loss
of hydrology does not affect the general health of the plants.
Approximately 0.27 acres (96 percent) of the woody debris areas are found from normal maximum
operating water levels to approximately 6.0 ft below the normal level. Thus, during water level
fluctuations below the normal maximum operation lake level, these areas would lack surface
inundation and lose the attributed aquatic habitat functions. Also, approximately 200.95 acres
(100 percent) of the shallow cove habitat is found from the normal maximum operating level to
approximately 6.0 ft below the normal level. During water level fluctuations below the normal
operating level, these areas will also lack surface inundation and would lose the aquatic habitat
functions.
In the emergent wetlands (i.e., southern rice beds), water levels falling more than 1.5 ft below the
normal maximum operating level for more than four hours during the waterfowl brood rearing
period of June and July, the fall migratory period of September through November, and the
wintering period of December through February can adversely affect waterfowl by reducing the
foraging availability of macroinvertebrates and seeds (e.g., smartweeds), reducing important cover
habitat, and exposing these birds to increased predation and hunting pressure. Based on the review
of Blewett Falls’ hourly headpond data from 1983 through 2000, approximately 60 percent of the
hourly lake levels at Blewett Falls Dam are at levels greater in depth than 175.7 ft (i.e., 1.5 ft below
the normal operating pool level). However, these low-water levels and associated impacts, usually
only occur during the periods when the Blewett Falls Dam flashboards are out for a period of time.
ES-4
Section 1 - Introduction
Progress Energy is currently relicensing the Blewett Falls and Tillery hydroelectric developments
(i.e., Yadkin-Pee Dee River Hydroelectric Project No. 2206) with FERC. As part of the relicensing
process, Progress Energy established RWGs during May 2003 to identify environmental issues
associated with Project operations and develop study plans, if necessary, specific to Project lands
and associated lakes and tailwaters. The Terrestrial RWG was concerned that Project operations
could have a negative effect on reservoir waterfowl and wetland habitat within and directly adjacent
to the Project lands. It was suggested that water level fluctuation in the reservoirs, due to Project
operations, could potentially impact waterfowl habitat and wetland communities including vernal
pools with both the changes in water level and sediment transport around Blewett Falls Lake, Lake
Tillery, and along the lower Pee Dee River and its tributaries. Progress Energy agreed to conduct
wetland surveys, as well assess Project-related impacts, in 2004 as part of its relicensing process
(i.e., Terrestrial RWG Issue No. 4, “Operational Effects on Waterfowl Habitat and Wetlands”). The
waterfowl/wetlands study plan was developed within and approved by the RWG.
1-1
Section 2 - Study Objectives
The objectives of this study are to: (1) identify and map the wetland areas and associated significant
waterfowl habitat areas within the zone of operational influence and within the FERC Project
boundaries; (2) classify and characterize wetland communities including plant species composition,
structure, and wildlife importance; (3) qualify the relationship between existing wetland distribution
and structure with the current operating regime and assess the effects of current operations and
options for future Project operations (e.g., fluctuations and drawdowns) on the wetland areas and the
associated wildlife communities; and (4) provide information to assist in developing any potential
protection, mitigation, and enhancement (PM&E) measures.
2-1
Section 3 - Site Description
3.1
General Description
The Project is located on the Yadkin-Pee Dee River in south central North Carolina (Figure 3-1).
The Yadkin-Pee Dee River basin is the second largest in North Carolina covering 7,213 square miles
as measured at the North Carolina-South Carolina state line (NCDWQ 1998). The Yadkin-Pee Dee
River originates near the town of Blowing Rock and flows northeasterly for approximately 100
miles from the Blue Ridge Mountains into the Piedmont physiographical region. As the river turns
southeast, it enters an area in Central North Carolina that has experienced considerable urban
growth. This growing urban area extends from Charlotte to Raleigh/Durham and is known as the
Piedmont Crescent (ASU 1999). Just to the south of the Piedmont Crescent, the region enters an
area known as the Uwharrie Lakes Region. This region is named for the chain of six reservoirs
located along this reach of the Yadkin-Pee Dee River, two of which are Lake Tillery and Blewett
Falls Lake. It is in this region that the Uwharrie River joins the Yadkin River at the upper end of
Lake Tillery to form the Pee Dee River.
The flow of the Yadkin-Pee Dee River is regulated by a federal flood control development and six
hydroelectric developments on the main stem of the river (Figure 3-1). The first development,
traveling downstream from the headwaters, is the W. Scott Kerr Dam, a federal flood control project.
The next four developments make up the Yadkin Project. These four hydroelectric developments,
High Rock, Tuckertown, Narrows, and Falls, are owned and operated by APGI and are located along
a 38-mile stretch of the river (river miles [RM] 272 to 234). High Rock Reservoir is operated as a
storage reservoir and serves as the principal storage and water regulation facility for the lower
Yadkin-Pee Dee River (APGI 2002).
The next two hydroelectric developments on the river, located at RM 218 and 188 are the Tillery and
Blewett Falls Developments, which constitute Progress Energy’s Yadkin-Pee Dee River Project.
The primary purpose of the Project is to provide peaking and load-following generation. Its ability
to provide such benefits and meet other flow-related needs is largely dependent on the schedule of
flows being released from upstream reservoirs. Currently, an agreement between APGI and
Progress Energy governs the release of waters from Alcoa Power Generating, Inc., Yadkin Division
(APGI) developments to the Progress Energy developments. Additional Project-related information
is discussed in the Initial Consultation Document for the Project (Progress Energy 2003).
3.1.1 Tillery Development
The Project began construction in 1926 and was completed in 1928. The Tillery impoundment (i.e.,
Lake Tillery) extends approximately 15 miles upstream to the tailrace of the Falls Project
powerhouse. At the normal maximum operating elevation of 277.3 ft, Lake Tillery is approximately
72 ft deep at the dam and has a reservoir surface area of approximately 5,697 acres. The lake has a
shoreline length of approximately 118 miles with 55 percent of the shoreline in residential or
commercial development (Progress Energy 2003). Besides the fringing water willow beds
throughout the lake, wetland areas within the reservoir are relatively uncommon.
3-1
Section 3
Figure 3-1
Site Description
Project location map.
3-2
Section 3
Site Description
The inflows into the Tillery Development consist primarily of the outflow from the APGI’s Falls
Development coupled with inflow from the Uwharrie River. The current Progress Energy license
allows for drawdowns at Lake Tillery of up to 22 ft below full pond. However, over the past several
years, Progress Energy has voluntarily made its best efforts to operate Lake Tillery within a 4-ft
range under normal circumstances and much of the time operating within a 2-ft range except during
maintenance (12-ft drawdown) (Progress Energy 2003). Outflows from the Tillery Development
flow into Blewett Falls Lake after passing through a 17-mile reach of the Pee Dee River. Under
normal circumstances, it takes approximately eight hours for releases from the Tillery Development
to be observed at the Blewett Falls powerhouse (Progress Energy 2003).
3.1.2 Blewett Falls Development
The Blewett Falls’ dam and powerhouse are located 17 miles upstream of the North Carolina/South
Carolina state border. The construction of this facility was begun in 1905 and finally brought into
service in 1912. The normal maximum pool elevation is 177.2 ft, and the reservoir extends
approximately 11 miles upstream. The surface area of the lake at normal operating level is
approximately 2,866 acres. The Blewett Falls shoreline is relatively undeveloped (Progress Energy
2003). Wetlands are common in the upper 50 percent of the impoundment.
The Blewett Falls Development is operated in coordination with the upstream Tillery Development.
The hydraulic capacity of Blewett Falls Lake is significantly less than Lake Tillery; therefore,
Blewett Falls Lake must anticipate flows from Lake Tillery generation and begin generating in
advance of flows reaching the lake. The normal operation of the Blewett Falls Lake results in a
daily drawdown of approximately 2 to 3 ft below the normal maximum operating level (Progress
Energy 2003). This drawdown provides storage capacity needed to regulate flows from the Tillery
Development. The Blewett Falls generating units normally begin operation at the same time that the
Tillery Plant begins generation. Generation at Blewett Falls is usually stopped by midnight to allow
the reservoir to refill. This operation is consistent year round and varies only with seasonal
availability of water (Progress Energy 2003).
Periodic maintenance can require the lowering of the reservoir levels at both developments. At
Tillery drawdowns are typically associated with the maintenance of the steel spillway gates, repairs
to the trashrack system, or repairs to the upstream slope of the earthen embankment. Drawdowns
required at Blewett Falls are similar to Tillery except that the most frequent maintenance
requirement is to service the 4-ft-high, wooden flashboards atop the spillway. During periods of
high flow, such as those encountered in September of 2004, damage or loss of these flashboards may
occur and repairs require the lake to be drawn down about 4 to 5 ft over a period of time (Progress
Energy 2003).
3.2
General Ecological Description
Most of the study area is located within the “Piedmont” Level III ecoregion (Figure 3-2) (Griffith et
al. 2002). The Piedmont ecoregion includes Lake Tillery downstream to the Blewett Falls Dam.
3-3
Section 3
Figure 3-2
Site Description
Ecoregions associated with the Project area.
3-4
Section 3
Site Description
The remaining area downstream of Blewett Falls is located within the Southeastern Plains ecoregion.
The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) defines ecoregions as areas of relative homogeneity in
ecological systems and their components. The EPA portrays areas within which there is similarity in
the mosaic of all biotic and abiotic components of both terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems. Factors
associated with spatial differences in the quality and quantity of ecosystem components, including
soils, vegetation, climate, geology, and physiography, are relatively homogeneous within an
ecoregion. These regions separate different patterns in human stresses on the environment and
different patterns in the existing and attainable quality of environmental resources. Ecoregion
classifications are effective for inventorying and assessing national and regional environmental
resources and for developing biological criteria and water quality standards (Griffith et al. 2002).
A description of the Level III ecoregions and the associated Level IV ecoregions (Figure 3-2) are
described below.
3.2.1 Piedmont Ecoregion
The northeast-southwest trending Piedmont ecoregion comprises a transitional area between the
mostly mountainous ecological regions of the Appalachians to the northwest and the relatively flat
coastal plain to the southeast. It is an erosional terrain of moderately dissected irregular plains with
some hills, with a complex mosaic of Precambrian and Paleozoic metamorphic and igneous rocks.
Most rocks of the Piedmont are covered by a thick mantle of saprolite, except along some major
stream valley bluffs and on a few scattered granitic domes and flatrocks. Rare plants and animals
can be found on the rock outcrops. Stream drainage in the Piedmont tends to be perpendicular to the
structural trend of the rocks across which they flow (Griffith et al. 2002).
The soils are generally finer-textured than those found in coastal plain regions with less amounts of
sand and a higher percentage of clay. Several major land cover transformations have occurred in the
Piedmont over the past 200 years, from forest to farm, back to forest, and now in many areas,
spreading urban and suburbanization. The historic oak-hickory-pine forest is now in planted pine or
has reverted to successional pine and hardwood woodlands, with some pasture in the landcover
mosaic (Griffith et al. 2002).
Within the Piedmont ecoregion, the Project area from Lake Tillery downstream to approximately the
Rocky Creek confluence is located within the Carolina Slate Belt “sub” ecoregion. This region
extends from southern Virginia through the Carolinas and includes mineral rich metavolcanic and
metasedimentary rocks with slatey cleavage. Streams tend to dry up and water yields to wells are
low in this region due to low water-bearing rock formations (Griffith et al. 2002). The Project area
from Rock Creek downstream to the Little River confluence is located with the Triassic Basin “sub”
region. This area is characterized by an unusual geology consisting of unmetamorphosed shales,
sandstones, mudstones, siltstones and conglomerates.
3.2.2 Southeastern Plains
The Southeastern Plains ecoregion is located between the Piedmont and Middle Atlantic Coastal
Plain ecoregions. The physiography consists of dissected irregular plains with moderate to steep
3-5
Section 3
Site Description
sides and low to moderate sandy bottomed streams (Griffith et al. 2002). The soils typically consist
of medium to coarse Cretaceous or Tertiary-age sand, loamy sand, and sandy loam. Seepage and
groundwater support steady streamflows and saturated wetlands (Griffith et al. 2002).
Red maple and evergreen shrubs are common in the wetland areas. Within the Southeastern Plain
ecoregion, from Blewett Falls Lake Dam downstream through part of South Carolina is located
within the Sand Hills “sub” ecoregion (Griffith et al. 2002).
3.3
Wetland Vegetation and Communities
Wildlife habitat, which includes wetlands, is frequently described as an area supporting a particular
type of vegetation for food and cover, in combination with other resources such as water and
environmental conditions including climate, predators and competition (Morrison et al. 1992).
According to Morrison et al. (1992), high quality wildlife habitat can be defined as those areas that
afford conditions necessary for relatively successful survival and reproduction over relatively long
periods when compared with other similar environments.
In general, the majority of terrestrial natural communities along the Yadkin-Pee Dee River shoreline
consists of hardwood and pine woodland. These deciduous areas can range from dry to mesic
hardwood forest to rather extensive piedmont bottomland forest (Schafale and Weakley 1990).
Planted and managed pine stands are also scattered throughout and adjacent to the shoreline areas.
According to Schafale and Weakley (1990), a natural community is a distinct and reoccurring
assemblage of populations of plants, animals, bacteria, and fungi naturally associated with each
other and their physical environment. A natural community is characterized by vegetation
composition and physiognomy, animal assemblages, topography, soils, hydrology, and other abiotic
factors (Schafale and Weakley 1990). Terrestrial natural communities, which include the wetland
types described below, are classified by the North Carolina Natural Heritage Program and found
within the study area.
Palustrine (i.e., freshwater) wetlands are relatively common within and adjacent to the waterbodies
associated with the Yadkin-Pee Dee study area. The majority of the wetlands within the study area
are associated with islands and the surrounding shoreline floodplains of Blewett Falls Lake. The
area known as the Grassy Islands is representative of these wetland areas. These islands are found in
the upper reaches of the impoundment and are approximately five miles upstream of the dam.
Emergent and scrub-shrub wetlands are also associated with several of the larger protected coves
distributed in the upper portion of Blewett Falls Lake and Lake Tillery (CP&L 2001a). Based on
observations, the wetland areas associated with Lake Tillery and Blewett Falls Lake are healthy and
adapted to the current operational conditions. Wetland natural communities that are classified by the
North Carolina Natural Heritage Program and found within the Project area include the following
types.
■
Piedmont Bottomland Forest - The bottomland forests consist of floodplain ridges and
second and third terraces adjacent to the river channel or at least open water of the reservoirs.
The hydrology in this system is typically seasonally flooded (i.e., surface water present for
extended periods at certain times of the year) to temporarily flooded. Although depending on
3-6
Section 3
Site Description
the terrace location, semi-permanently, and intermittently flooded areas are also found within
this community. The bottomland hardwood community in the Project area consists of a high
quality wetland and mature forest community. This community is diverse in vegetative
structure and species richness and is relatively undisturbed in most areas. Most of the
bottomland forest areas are associated with the Grassy Islands and surrounding floodplains of
Blewett Falls Lake. These islands and floodplains are found in the upper reaches of the
impoundment and support some of the best remaining bottomland forests in the piedmont of
North Carolina (Sorrie 2001). There are several areas where swamp chestnut oaks, willow
oaks, and loblolly pines are estimated to be at least 150 to 200+ years old and have a diameter
at breast height (dbh) from 3 to 4 ft. This area is an excellent representative of relatively
undisturbed Piedmont bottomland community, which has been classified as Rare (S3) in North
Carolina (Schafale and Weakley 1990). Smaller areas of bottomland forest can be found on
Lake Tillery in the vicinity of the Uwharrie River confluence.
The vegetation associated with the bottomlands forests consist of a mature canopy of various
trees such as sycamore, green ash (Fraxinus pennsylvanica), American elm (Ulmus
americana), red maple, lowland hackberry (Celtis laevigata), swamp chestnut oak, water oak,
willow oak, loblolly pine, and cottonwood (Populus deltoides). These mature canopy trees are
at least 80 to 100 years in age. In most of the bottomlands, the shrub and vine layer consisted
of muscadine (Vitis rotundifolia), poison ivy, greenbrier, cross vine (Bignonia capreolata),
black willow (Salix nigra), Chinese privet, and pawpaw. This shrub and vine layer varied in
density depending on the local hydrologic conditions. The typical herb layer consisted of false
nettle (Boehmeria cylindrica), Indian wild oats (Chasmanthium latifolium), fleabane species
(Erigeron spp.), violet species (Viola spp.), sedge species (Carex spp.), giant cane
(Arundinaria gigantea), Pennsylvania smartweed (Polygonum pensylvanicum), and marsh
pepper smartweed (P. hydropiper). The herb layer can be nonexistent to quite dense
depending on the duration of standing water and the extent of canopy closure.
In several areas, including some channel fringe and cove areas, dense, monotypic stands of
southern wild rice or giant cutgrass (Zizaniaopsis miliacea) are evident. Black willow and
crimson-eyed mallow (Hibiscus moscheutos) are also found in the higher portions of these
coves. These large, permanently to semi-permanently flooded areas are found in the vicinity
of Mountain Creek confluence, fringing the Grassy Islands, and along the west shoreline in
within several large coves.
■
Piedmont Levee Forest - This natural community is associated with natural levee and point
bar deposits on large floodplains, especially within Blewett Falls Lake (Schafale and Weakley
1990). The community is typically bordered by the river channel and grades into and is
closely associated with the bottomland hardwood community. The canopy is dominated by a
mixture of large trees including sycamore, river birch, lowland hackberry, boxelder,
sweetgum, American elm, and cottonwood. These mature canopy trees are typically at least
80 to 100 years in age. The shrub and vine layer consisted of muscadine, poison ivy,
greenbriar, cross vine, black willow, spicebush, and pawpaw. This shrub and vine layer varies
in density depending on the local hydrologic conditions. The typical herb layer consists of
false nettle, Indian wild oats, fleabane species, violet species, sedge species, giant cane, and
smartweed species (Polygonum spp). The Grassy Islands associated with Blewett Falls Lake
3-7
Section 3
Site Description
exhibit some of the best remaining levee communities in the piedmont of North Carolina
(Sorrie 2001).
■
Oxbow Lake - This natural community, locally known as Smith Lake, is associated with relic
river channel meanders with permanent to semi-permanent hydrology (Schafale and Weakley
1990). Within Blewett Falls Lake, this community is associated with an old oxbow/slough(s)
of the Little River just upstream of the Grassy Islands. These oxbows and sloughs are old
historical channels believed to have formed as the Little River migrated north to its present
location. A unique water tupelo (Nyssa aquatica) swamp community is located approximately
2,000 ft upstream of the confluence of the Pee Dee River and Smith Lake. Sorrie (2001)
believes that this specific Oxbow Lake community occurs nowhere else in the Piedmont
region of North Carolina and is of Statewide Significance. This community, including several
of the representative and rare plant species, is usually found only in the Coastal Plain
physiographic region.
■
Piedmont Alluvial Forest - This seasonally or intermittently flooded forested wetland
community is located along river and stream floodplains within the Project area. In the
Project area, the typical canopy species include the sycamore, red maple, river birch, and
willow oak. The understory species include red maple, spicebush, box elder (Acer negundo),
ironwood, and American holly. Shrubs and vines include brook-side alder, swamp rose,
common elderberry, southern arrowwood (Viburnum dentatum), poison ivy, and Virginia
creeper. Representative herbs include cane, southern lady fern, rattlesnake fern, fringed sedge
(Carex crinita), shallow sedge (C. lurida), Virginia dayflower (Commelina virginica), spotted
jewelweed (Impatiens capensis), fowl manna grass (Glyceria striata), Japanese grass
(Microstegium vimeneum), early meadowrue (Thalictrum dioicum), green dragon (Arisaema
triphyllum), and perfoliate bellwort (Bates 2002; Schafale and Weakley 1990). The invasive
Chinese privet and Japanese honeysuckle can be prevalent in several areas along the YadkinPee Dee River.
Associated with this community, as well as the other bottomlands, are scattered ephemeral or
vernal pool depressional areas. These pools are subject to periodic overbank flooding and
natural seasonal fluctuation and provide important breeding areas for several amphibian
species such as mole salamanders. Emergent hydrophytes such as lizard’s-tail (Saururus
cernuus), sedges (Carex spp.), rare Coastal Plain species such as water purslane (Didiplis
diandra), and peripheral stands of large water tupelo are associated with the vernal pools in
the upper reaches of Blewett Falls Lake.
■
Other Wetland Communities - Several other wetland communities are found throughout the
Project area. One of the more common emergent wetlands on Lake Tillery includes shoreline
fringing areas consisting of water willow (Justicia americana). The water willow beds are
located in water depths from 0.5 inches to approximately 4 ft in depth. The water willow beds
found on Lake Tillery are the most frequently mapped habitat types on the lake (CP&L
2001a). These semi-permanently flooded areas can be found at the mouth of the Uwharrie
River, the Richmond Creek confluence, and a fringe along the majority of the southern Lake
Tillery shoreline. Blewett Falls Lake has only small scattered areas of water willow, primarily
in the middle and lower lake areas.
3-8
Section 3
Site Description
Submergent and aquatic bed wetlands can also be found throughout study area, especially in
protected coves within Lake Tillery. Due to the turbid conditions within Blewett Falls Lake,
aquatic bed wetlands are uncommon. These permanently to semi-permanently flooded
wetlands include aquatic species such as pondweed (Potomogeton spp.), muskgrass (Chara
spp.), coontail (Ceratophyllum sp.), and brittle naiad (Najas minor).
3-9
Section 4 - Methods
The following section describes the methodologies associated with the wetland surveys conducted
within the Blewett Falls Lake and Lake Tillery Project area. The methods associated with the
wetland surveys were agreed upon during the various terrestrial RWG meetings in 2003 and 2004.
These methods follow conventional wetland survey techniques.
4.1
General Wetland Information
Existing conditions associated with the wildlife and wetland communities are well documented in
the Project area through several recent Progress Energy studies. Initial determination of wetland
areas were conducted through the use of existing information such as existing Progress Energy
information or site knowledge, National Wetland Inventory (NWI) maps, FEMA floodplain maps,
USGS 7.5-minute quadrangles, soil surveys associated with the pertinent counties, and through the
use of recent Progress Energy aerial photography. This information was transferred and digitized
into the Geographic Information System (GIS) and preliminary wetland maps were prepared.
Wetland types mapped in this study include aquatic beds, emergent and scrub-shrub wetlands,
vernal/ephemeral pools, and forested wetlands. The wetlands mapped were classified using the U.S.
Fish and Wildlife’s (USFWS) wetland classification system (e.g., PEM/FO1C) (Cowardin et al.
1979). The general wetland types described by Cowardin et al. (1979) include the following:
■
■
■
■
■
Palustrine (freshwater) forested (PFO)
Palustrine scrub-shrub (PSS)
Palustrine emergent (PEM)
Palustrine pond/unknown bottom (PUB)
Palustrine aquatic bed (PAB)
Wetland functions are defined as those physical, chemical, and biological processes that are vital to
the integrity of the wetland system (e.g., nutrient removal, wildlife diversity). Wetland values are
those attributes that are not necessarily important to the integrity of the wetland system, but are
perceived as important to society (e.g., floodflow attenuation, uniqueness/heritage). Principal
wetland functions and values (e.g., wildlife diversity, sediment retention, uniqueness/heritage), were
determined using professional judgment and based on rationale associated with the North Carolina
wetland value rating system (NCDENR 1995), Wetland Evaluation Technique (WET 2.0) (Adamus
et al. 1991) and the Hydrogeomorphic Classification method (Brinson 1993). Other information
such as wildlife observations and hydric conditions were also recorded at the time of the survey.
■
■
Floodflow Attenuation and Storage - This value refers to the storage, velocity attenuation,
and conveyance of floodwaters. A wetland area, for example bottomland hardwood, provides
high value because of the opportunity for overbank flood; physical evidence of overbank
flooding such as silt stained leaves, rafted debris, and scouring; the presence of
microtopographic relief such as depressional storage areas; the frictional resistance provided
by the woody vegetation; and the large size and storage potential associated with this
community (Adamus et al. 1991; NCDENR 1995).
Sediment Retention - This function is the process in which suspended solids are retained
before they are released in the deeper water habitats (Adamus et al. 1991). Wetland
vegetation can help retain and trap suspended sediment by anchoring the shoreline, reducing
4-1
Section 4
■
■
■
■
■
4.2
Methods
resuspension, increasing the flow path length, contributing organic matter, and slow down
water velocities (Adamus et al. 1991).
Shoreline Stabilization - This function consists of both shoreline anchoring and dissipation of
erosive forces. Shoreline anchoring is the stabilization of soil at the water’s edge by plant
roots and stems (Adamus et al. 1991). The dissipation of erosive forces is the lessening of
wave and flow energy, in addition to water level fluctuations. This function includes any
wetland induced anchoring or energy dissipation.
Primary Productivity and Export - This function refers to the carbon fixation production
and eventual flushing of a relatively large amount of organic material from the wetland to
downstream or adjacent deeper waters (Taylor et al. 1990). A wetland provides high value
because of the opportunity of overbank flooding and flushing; the large volume and evidence
of organic material produced by the community; and the evidence of organic export
downstream (e.g., large amounts of rafted leaf material along the banks).
Wildlife Diversity and Habitat - This function defines the support of on-site diversity and/or
abundance of wetland dependent wildlife species or at least species that use wetlands during
some period (Adamus et al. 1991; NCDENR 1995). The highest value of wetlands for wildlife
will have vegetation that provided wildlife food and cover which includes attributes such as
well developed wetland strata, the presence of snags and cavities, hardwood mast trees, and
trees with fleshy fruits (NCDENR 1995).
Aquatic Diversity and Habitat - This function is the support of aquatic diversity and/or
abundance of fish, amphibians, aquatic reptiles and invertebrates that are confined to water or
saturated conditions. Wetland vegetation such as water willow beds increase the
attractiveness of wetlands to fish and amphibian species by supplying cover and forage habitat
(Adamus et al. 1991; NCDENR 1995). Wetlands with the capacity to hold water at a depth of
approximately 2 ft of water over at least 10 percent of their area provide the best habitat for
aquatic species (NCDENR 1995). Bottomland forests that flood during the spring provide
essential spawning, and foraging areas for fish (NCDENR 1995).
Uniqueness/Heritage - This value includes wetlands that are used or potential used for
aesthetic enjoyment, nature study, scientific research, open space or preservation of rare or
significant resources (Adamus et al. 1991).
Determination of Wetland Characteristics
Additional information regarding the characterization of the significant and existing wetland
communities was necessary in certain wetland areas (e.g., vernal pools, and emergent wetlands)
important to wildlife and specifically waterfowl species. The methods associated with this task are
as follows:
Using the preliminary wetland maps, field assessments were conducted to classify and characterize a
sub-set of the wetland communities. These wetlands were representative in location, type, and
function. The NWI mapped wetland locations, types, and boundaries, within the Project area, were
verified and revised as necessary. Besides a few minor areas (such as expansion of southern wild
rice beds), the NWI maps were accurate throughout the Project area and consistent with the field
verification.
4-2
Section 4
Methods
The assessment included percent cover estimates for herb, shrub and tree layers, identification of
dominant species, documentation of hydric soils and hydrologic indicators. Information collected
followed the 1987 U.S. Army Corps of Engineers (ACOE) wetland delineation method
(Environmental Laboratory 1987). The “routine on-site” method was selected as the most
appropriate determination technique. Wetlands were considered present when observations of
hydrophytic vegetation, hydrology, and hydric soils indicated that the three-parameter criteria for
wetland identification were met. While this methodology was employed in characterizing the
wetlands, this information is not suitable for permitting. The field assessments were conducted, at
Blewett Falls Lake, in the summer (July) and early fall 2004 at both low (5 ft below normal
operating level of 172.2 ft) and the normal full pool level of 177.2 ft, respectively. Both of the Lake
Tillery field efforts were conducted at the normal pool full pool level of 277.3 ft.
To accomplish this task, vegetation transects and sample plots were established in representative
areas associated with the selected wetland areas. The representative transects were located in the
significant wetland areas for wildlife and waterfowl that are both floristically and structurally
diverse in an effort to gather the critical information and to provide an evaluation of cover types,
elevations, and relationships to hydrologic factors such as inundation magnitude, timing, duration
and frequency.
■
■
■
■
Magnitude: A measure of the availability or suitability of aquatic habitat. It defines such
habitat attributes such as wetted area, water depth, or areal extent of inundation in relation to
the wetland area (Richter et al. 1996; Washington State 2003).
Timing: The timing of occurrence of a particular water condition. This factor can determine
if certain life cycle requirements are met (e.g., waterfowl brood rearing). It can also influence
the degree of stress associated with a certain water event such as flooding or water level
fluctuations (Richter et al. 1996; Washington State 2003).
Duration: The length of time over which a specific hydrologic condition exists (Richter et al.
1996; Washington State 2003). In broad terms, a wetland community may be seasonally
flooded with surface water present for extended periods in the growing season (Cowardin et
al. 1979). Specifically, this factor can describe the length of time (or percentage of time) a
certain water level occurs during a daily operational cycle.
Frequency: This factor refers to the frequency of occurrence of specific hydrologic
conditions such as inundation or water level fluctuations (Richter et al. 1996; Washington
State 2003). Specifically, this factor can describe the frequency a certain water level occurs
during a daily, weekly or monthly operational cycle.
The vegetation transects were located perpendicular to the river flow and/or shoreline (normal pool
elevation) and started at the lowest elevation habitat (i.e., aquatic bed or shoreline) and extended
upslope the full extent of the wetland within the Project Boundary and/or zone of lateral influence.
Due to the extent of some monotypic wetland areas (e.g., southern rice beds), the transect was
terminated in the center of a large expansive area where wetland conditions and elevations were
similar over a long distance. The number of transects within each representative wetland area were
determined based on site conditions and were adequate to determine the variation in wetland type,
species composition and strata within each site. An Abney™ level and surveyor’s stadia rod and/or
GPS were used to measure the range in elevation and overall slope of the wetlands, as well as the
location, along each transect. Two different sample plots were used as follows:
4-3
Section 4
1)
2)
4.3
Methods
To collect information on tree and shrub species, canopy and sub-strata cover, and tree size
(dbh), a 200-square-meter rectangular plot was established along the transect. The
information collected, through use of a standard field form, included percent cover by strata,
dominant species, height of canopy and/or strata, elevation above shoreline, distance from
edge of bank, amount of seedling reproduction/recruitment, amount of downed woody
debris, and amount of leaf litter; and
A nested plot (1 meter by 4 meters), centered lengthwise to the transect was used to sample
the herbaceous vegetation.
Determination of Project Effects
The objective of this task was to evaluate and provide an understanding of the effects of the current
and any reasonable future operating regimes due to Project operations on the wetland areas and the
associated wildlife habitats within Project reservoirs. This task was accomplished through the
review of existing information, and the review of water level fluctuation and drawdown information
(e.g., hydrographs). Hydrologic parameters, as determined for the CHEOPS™ model, were
developed for wet year (2003), median year (1997), and dry year (2001) periods using a year period
(1997 to 2003). However, upon review of these years, it was determined that for the primary
waterfowl use periods of June through July (brood rearing), fall migration (September through
November), and winter stop-over (December through February), the data from these years did not
represent the median, and worst case years for these specific periods or specific maintenance
activities were being conducted during these periods. Thus, all the data from 1997 to 2004 was
reviewed for the periods mentioned above.
The effects of current and any alternative Project operations on the distribution, composition and
general health of wetland resources and wildlife communities was then evaluated based on the water
level information and through use of spatial analysis using GIS overlay maps, contours, and other
relevant information. This GIS wetland overlay was incorporated into an overall habitat or cover
type map detailing all the habitat areas found in the Project area or influenced by the Project. This
overall habitat map incorporates wildlife information gathered from the resource studies including
attribute list data on representative and indicator wildlife species for each habitat type, habitat
preference, and related wildlife guild (groups of species using the same habitats). An impact
analysis includes a summary of existing literature, a matrix of each habitat/wildlife guild (e.g.,
emergent wetland wildlife guild), and a discussion on the potential seasonal effects of the Project on
each guild.
Based on additional 2005 discussions with the North Carolina Wildlife Resources Commission
(NCWRC), several other key aquatic habitats types within the Project area were quantitatively
evaluated. These aquatic habitats include:
■
■
■
Significant water willow beds (i.e., minimum bed size of greater than 4 ft2).
Submerged timber and downed woody debris shoreline habitat areas. These habitat areas were
previously defined in the Tillery Shoreline Management Plan and the Blewett Falls Shoreline
Aquatic Habitat Mapping Study Plan.
Shallow coves as defined by having a depth of less that or equal to 6 ft in depth.
4-4
Section 4
Methods
Additional field data was obtained on these aquatic habitats and overlaid on the previously obtained
lake bathymetric data (i.e., similar to the analysis associated with the wetland resources). This
analysis was used to evaluate lake level effects on the relative exposure of these habitat types. GISderived maps were produced, and the area or habitat percentage decreases were provided.
Cross sections were also prepared for each of the transects depicting the normal pool elevation,
maximum/minimum drawdown levels, distance along the transect, vegetation relation were used as a
predictive model that relates water level, duration, seasonality (timing) to the specific wetland types.
For instance, the emergent wetlands are more likely to be affected by operational fluctuations and
subsequent exposure. Slopes and elevation data were also be used to calculate any lake-wide habitat
losses (acreage) associated with incremental decreases in lake elevation (i.e., how much wetland is
exposed and at what lake elevation) which was then presented in both graphic and tabular form.
4-5
Section 5 - Results and Discussion
5.1
Wetland Information Collected
Surveys for wetland resources were conducted in North Carolina from downstream of Blewett Falls
Lake north through to the headwaters of Lake Tillery just upstream of the Uwharrie River
confluence (Figures 5-1 and 5-2). Through field studies, there were seven wetland areas specifically
characterized within the Project area. To accomplish this task, vegetation transects and sample plots
were established in representative areas associated with the NWI mapped wetland areas. The
representative transects were located in the significant wetland areas and known waterfowl use areas
that are both floristically and structurally diverse (Table 5-1). These stations are located in habitats
within the Project Boundary.
The assessment included percent cover estimates for tree layers, identification of dominant species,
documentation of hydric soils and hydrologic indicators as well as wetland transect profile
information and lake level information. A description of the general Project-related wetland
information and the specific wetland study sites are as follows:
5.1.1 General Wetland Information
Palustrine wetlands are relatively common within and adjacent to the Project area. The majority of
the wetlands within the Project Boundary are associated with the islands and shoreline floodplains of
Blewett Falls Lake. The various wetland types associated with the Grassy Islands complex include
most of this wetland acreage, especially forested wetlands. The Grassy Islands also include large
coves of emergent southern wild rice. These wetland areas are well adapted to the current
hydrologic conditions and most likely created by Project operations. On Blewett Falls Lake, these
wetlands are located in the upper half of the lake. The lower portion of Blewett Falls Lake lacks
wetlands because the substrates are not conducive for wetland development (stiff clay and lack of
organics and fines), prevalent hardpan conditions, and relatively steep banks.
Wetlands are uncommon at Lake Tillery. The existing wetlands, especially the water willow areas,
are healthy and fully functioning systems due to a relatively stable water level. The majority of the
forested wetlands are associated with the upper part of the lake in the vicinity of the Uwharrie River.
The emergent wetlands are associated with the large, fringing water willow beds along the lake
shoreline (Progress Energy 2005). Several large, protected coves such as the Jacobs Creek arm also
have large localized areas of emergent wetlands. The scattered nature of most wetland types on
Lake Tillery is due to a relatively developed shoreline and steep banks.
Wetland acreages have been calculated within both Lake Tillery and Blewett Falls Lake. These
acreages include those within the Project Boundary. These calculations were derived from the
original NWI maps and verified or modified based on the field assessments. These acreages are as
follows for the Project:
5-1
Section 5
Figure 5-1
Results and Discussions
Wetlands in the general area of the Project - Blewett Falls Lake (Sheet 1
of 2).
5-2
Section 5
Figure 5-1
Results and Discussions
Wetlands in the general area of the Project - Blewett Falls Lake (Sheet 2
of 2).
5-3
Section 5
Figure 5-2
Results and Discussions
Wetlands in the general area of the Project area - Lake Tillery.
5-4
Section 5
Table 5-1
Wetland Study
Site No.
Results and Discussions
Wetland areas characterized in detail within the Project Boundary.
Location
Wetland Type
01
Smith Lake/Water
Tupelo Swamp
PFO1F-forested, semipermanently flooded
02
Lower Little River
PFO/EM1Aforested/emergent,
temporarily flooded
03
Grassy Islands (East
Bank)
PFO1C/A-forested,
seasonally
flooded/temporarily flooded
04
Grassy Islands/S. Rice
Beds (East Bank)
PFO/EM1C/Fforested/emergent,
seasonally flooded/semipermanently flooded
05
Grassy Islands/S. Rice
Beds (West Bank)
PFO/EM1C/Fforested/emergent,
seasonally flooded/ semipermanently flooded
06
Grassy Islands/S. Rice
Beds (West Shore
Islands)
PFO/EM1A/Fforested/emergent,
temporarily flooded/ semipermanently flooded
07
Lake Tillery /Lower
Uwharrie River
PEM/SS1F-emergent/scrubshrub, semi-permanently
flooded
5-5
Principle Functions and Values
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
1.
2.
3.
4.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Wildlife Diversity
Floodflow Attenuation
Sediment Retention
Uniqueness/Heritage
Productivity
Aquatic Diversity
Wildlife Diversity
Floodflow Attenuation
Sediment Retention
Uniqueness/Heritage
Wildlife Diversity
Floodflow Attenuation
Sediment Retention
Productivity
Uniqueness/Heritage
Wildlife Diversity
Floodflow Attenuation
Sediment Retention
Shoreline Stabilization
Productivity
Uniqueness/Heritage
Aquatic Diversity
Wildlife Diversity
Floodflow Attenuation
Sediment Retention
Shoreline Stabilization
Productivity
Uniqueness/Heritage
Aquatic Diversity
Wildlife Diversity
Floodflow Attenuation
Sediment Retention
Shoreline Stabilization
Productivity
Uniqueness/Heritage
Aquatic Diversity
Wildlife Diversity
Sediment Retention
Nutrient Removal
Uniqueness/Heritage
Aquatic Diversity
Section 5
Results and Discussions
Lake Tillery
PEM dominated classes (includes water willow beds):
PSS dominated classes:
PFO dominated classes:
Total Acreage
Total within Project Boundary
298 acres
8 acres
140 acres
446 acres
Blewett Falls Lake
PEM dominated classes (includes water willow beds):
PSS dominated classes:
PFO dominated classes:
Total Acreage
66 acres
26 acres
780 acres
872 acres
The total amount of wetland area within a 2-mile-wide corridor from Blewett Falls Dam upstream to
the Uwharrie River confluence is as follows. This acreage includes areas outside of the Project
Boundary.
Pee Dee River Corridor
PEM dominated classes (includes water willow beds):
PSS dominated classes:
PFO dominated classes:
Total Acreage
539 acres
567 acres
4,836 acres
5,942 acres
5.1.2 Wetland Study Site Descriptions
Using the field-verified NWI wetland maps as baseline information, field assessments were
conducted to classify and characterize a sub-set of the wetland communities. There are seven
specific wetland study areas within the Blewett Falls Lake and Lake Tillery Project area representing
several wetland types, elevational locations, and site characteristics (Figures 5-1 and 5-2).
5.1.2.1
Grassy Islands/Smith Lake/Water Tupelo Swamp Area
The area known as the Grassy Islands Complex occurs in the upper half of Blewett Falls Lake
approximately five miles upstream of the Blewett Falls Dam. This area supports a wide variety of
communities on the numerous islands, sloughs, rocky slopes, vernal pools, and expansive
bottomland floodplains that have formed naturally by river flows and sedimentation. These wetland
areas are large in extent, robust, healthy, and adapted to the current operational conditions. The area
has a mixture of managed loblolly pine plantation forests, slope forests, levee forests, emergent
wetlands, and bottomland hardwood forests along the Pee Dee River shoreline. The complex is
notable for its mixture of coastal plain and piedmont/mountain species co-existing side by side
(Sorrie 2001). The Grassy Islands Complex is a natural area of Statewide Ecological Significance as
designated by the North Carolina Natural Heritage Program. The North Carolina Natural Heritage
Program states that very few intact bottomlands of any significant size remain in the Piedmont
region. Thus, the Program has classified this system as rare (S3) in the Piedmont. Project lands
incorporate all Grassy Islands with greater acreage on the Richmond County side (east shoreline)
and only a narrow flowage easement along the west shore on the Anson County side. The majority
of this area is also incorporated within the NCWRC’s Gameland Program. The Grassy Islands
5-6
Section 5
Results and Discussions
Complex provides breeding and migratory habitat for several waterfowl, waterbird, and passerine
species. The area also provides important winter refuge and foraging habitat for species including
wood ducks, mallards, black ducks, buffleheads, and scaup.
The vegetated islands of varying sizes (the largest is over one mile long) occur in the transitional
area between the upstream, free-flowing Pee Dee River and Blewett Falls Lake. These islands
formed as the river meandered, changed channels, and accompanying sediment loads were
deposited.
Within these original bottomlands were geomorphic features known as point bar/swale and natural
levee deposits (Wharton et al. 1982). Most sediment deposition, characteristically high in Piedmont
rivers, occurs along the main channel waterways during the periodical overbank flooding. Materials
(e.g., alluvial sands and silts) are eroded along the concave sides of the channel meanders and
redeposited on the convex bends to form the point bars. During overbank flooding, small ridges of
bed load deposition form a natural levee on the convex side of the meanders. Currently, the majority
of the islands are the higher elevation areas of these original point bars and to some extent the
natural levee formations. The swale formations (in most cases the open water channels between
most of the islands) and the majority of the original point bars have been inundated and subsequently
changed by the existing impoundment.
The wetlands associated with the Grassy Islands and the associated floodplains along the mainland
shoreline (including tributary floodplains of streams such as Mountain Creek and Coleman Creek)
are generally classified as Piedmont Bottomland Forest and Levee Forest by the North Carolina
Natural Heritage Program (Sorrie 2001; Schafale and Weakley 1990). Although other specific
communities such as Piedmont Swamp Forest, emergent marsh, and Floodplain Pool appear to be
inclusions within this broader community type. Bottomland forests are floodplain ridges and
terraces adjacent to the river channel. The hydrology or water regime in this system is typically
seasonally flooded (i.e., surface water present for extended periods at certain times of the year).
Although, semi-permanently, intermittently, and temporarily flooded areas are found within these
bottomland areas. This area includes a series of ephemeral or vernal pools that occur within the
slight depressions of the bottomland terrace. These vernal pools are typically fringed by large water
tupelo and water hickory.
The vegetation associated with the bottomlands forests consist of a mature canopy of various trees
such as sycamore, green ash, American elm, red maple, lowland hackberry, and cottonwood. These
mature canopy trees were at least 80 to 100 years in age. No mature oaks were found on these
bottomlands. The stations at this site typically have approximately 75 percent forest canopy
coverage with an estimated average height of 65 to 70 ft. From 6 to 12 snags with large cavity
openings were observed in this specific study area.
In most of the bottomlands, the shrub and vine layer consisted of muscadine, poison ivy, greenbriar,
cross vine, black willow, and pawpaw. This shrub and vine layer varied in density depending on the
local hydrologic conditions. The typical herb layer consisted false nettle, Indian river oats, fleabane
species, Virginia dayflower, pennywort, violet species, sedge species, giant cane, Pennsylvania
smartweed, and marsh pepper smartweed. The herb layer can be nonexistent to quite dense
depending on the duration of standing water and the extent of canopy closure.
5-7
Section 5
Results and Discussions
Large monotypic areas of southern wild rice can be found among the islands in several protected
coves and backwaters. This is a unique plant community to the Piedmont of North Carolina (Sorrie
2001). Wetland shrubs such as crimson-eyed mallow, buttonbush, and black willow are found along
the fringes of these emergent areas. At the normal maximum operating level of 177.2 ft at Blewett
Falls Dam, these emergent wetlands typically have from 6 to 18 inches of inundation. Although
several beds such in the Mountain Creek area, may have as much as 24 inches of inundation. The
southern wild rice wetlands were most likely created under the current operational conditions, are
large in extent, and healthy under the current conditions. The daily fluctuations, without prolonged
drawdowns, keep the wetland substrate saturated.
Southern wild rice beds located within the Grassy Islands complex.
Connected to the Pee Dee River by a narrow canal, Smith Lake is thought to be an old historical
channel of the Little River which is presently located over 1.5 miles to the north. A mature water
tupelo stand at the northern end of Smith Lake, primarily along the west side of the oxbow, is a
unique habitat in the North Carolina Piedmont (Sorrie 2001). The changing river course has left
several channels or sloughs that are inundated and drained by the dynamic water level of the Pee
Dee River in conjunction with power plant operations and inflow from natural precipitation events
within the basin.
An estimated 300 water tupelos, with ages ranging from about 10 to 250+ years, populate the portion
of the area owned by Progress Energy and within the Project Boundary. In addition to the water
tupelo in and along the edges of the sloughs, red maple and water hickory on the slightly higher
5-8
Section 5
Results and Discussions
elevations characterize this wetland community. Although the shrub and herb layer is sparse within
the sloughs due to frequent water inundation (i.e., semi-permanent), several common herb species
(e.g., lizard-tail, clearweed, inflated sedge, and pennywort) were identified in this area. On either
side of Smith Lake is a broad flat terrace above the 5- to 10-ft bank that supports the adjacent
bottomland hardwood forest.
The community appears healthy with no dead trees and several areas of sapling regeneration (both
stump growth and new propagation). In 2004, there was a large quantity of drupes (fruits) produced
by these tupelos. The USDA (1965) estimates that the average 90-year stand of water tupelo
produces over 833,000 seeds/acre. These fruits are classified as an important wildlife and waterfowl
food. Seedfall typically begins in early September and runs through early December. The seeds
normally overwinter and germinate the following spring on exposed but saturated soils.
Germination does not take place under water, but the seeds do germinate once the water subsides
(USDA 1965).
This area, based on the floodplain zonation, is classified as a Type II community (i.e., intermittently
exposed with nearly permanent inundation and saturation) by the National Wetland Technical
Council (Wharton et al., 1982). These areas are the lowest in elevation of any of the wooded
floodplain communities and are only characterized by water tupelo and/or bald cypress. In general,
the zonation system ranges from Type I (open water) to Type V (intermittently saturated). This
ecological zonation classification and how it relates to the Project area is explained in Table 5-2
(Taylor et al. 1990):
The water tupelo swamp associated with the Smith Lake Oxbow.
5-9
Section 5
Table 5-2
Ecological
Zone
Type I
Type II
Type III
Type IV
Type V
Type VI
Results and Discussions
Zonal classification of bottomland hardwood forest wetlands within the
influence of Blewett Falls Lake.
Hydrology
Open Water:
Continuously
Flooded
Swamp:
Intermittently
Exposed
Lower
Hardwood
Wetlands:
Semiperm.
Flooded
Medium
Hardwood
Wetlands:
Seasonally
Flooded
Higher
Hardwood
Wetlands:
Temporarily
Flooded
Upland
Transition:
Intermittently
Flooded
Flooding Duration
(% of growing
season)
100
None
Yes, Oxbow slough (Smith
Lake)
90-100
Water Tupelo
Yes, water tupelo swamp
>25
Black Willow, Water
Hickory,
Cottonwood, and Red
Maple
Yes, lower bottomland
flats, Grassy Islands
12.5-25
Laurel Oak, Swamp
Chestnut Oak,
Sweetgum, Willow
Oak, American Elm,
Sycamore
Willow Oak, Swamp
Chestnut Oak, Water
Oak, Black Walnut,
most Hickories,
Loblolly Pine
White Oak, Shagbark
Hickory, White Ash
Yes, majority of
bottomlands in the upper
Project area of Blewett Falls
Lake
2-12.5
<2
Representative
Vegetation
Occurrence within Project
Area Wetlands
Yes, upper bottomland
terrace within Grassy
Islands
Yes, forested lands
bordering bottomlands
In general, the soils associated with these Piedmont bottomland wetlands are typically of the
Chewacla and Congaree soil series (USDA 1999). Chewacla soils are classified as hydric and
Congaree as floodplain soils (USDA 1999). These soils are formed from recent alluvium.
The hydrologic indicators associated with the bottomland areas include standing water and saturated
soils, silt stained leaves, obvious drainage patterns, scouring, buttressed trunks (e.g., green ash,
hackberry), watermarks on the trees, and crayfish chimneys. These indicators are evident in all the
areas except of the highest levee areas on the largest islands. It was estimated that seasonal
overbank floodflow reaches at least 4 ft above the normal water level at the bottomland wetland.
Most of the bottomland areas are inundated at approximately 2 ft above the normal operating pool.
The majority of the bottomlands are seasonally flooded with high flows occurring primarily from
October through March which is typical of Piedmont rivers. However, there are several areas such
as those found on the largest island that have a semi-permanent water regime. These sloughs and
floodplain pools typically run north and south and are probably associated with the original swale
geomorphology.
5-10
Section 5
Results and Discussions
The functions and values associated with the wetlands within this complex are provided in
Table 5-1. The Grassy Islands Complex is within the Project Boundary (includes flood easement)
and zone of operational influence (Figure 5-1 and Table 5-1).
5.1.2.2
Lower Little River Area
The Lower Little River is listed by the North Carolina Natural Heritage Program as regionally
significant primarily due to its large remaining natural tract of high quality bottomland with a high
canopy diversity of hardwoods mixed with loblolly pines in this river terrace community (Sorrie
2001). The Little River enters the Pee Dee River just upstream of Blewett Falls Lake. A seasonally
flooded Piedmont Levee Forest community with river birch, sycamore, hackberry, and box elder
along the shoreline gives way to a Piedmont Bottomland Forest inland and on the flat terraces about
8 to 15 ft above the river (Sorrie 2001). The bottomland forest consists of a canopy of red maple,
river birch, sycamore, hackberry, green ash, and sweet gum. Flowering dogwood, pawpaw,
ironwood (Carpinus caroliniana), American holly, giant cane, Japanese honeysuckle, muscadine,
poison ivy, and Chinese privet make up the subcanopy and understory. The station has
approximately 70 percent forest canopy coverage with an estimated average height of 65 ft. At least
nine snags with large cavity openings were observed in this specific area.
In general, the soils associated with these wetlands are typically of the Chewacla and Congaree soil
series (USDA 1999). Chewacla soils are classified as hydric and Congaree as floodplain soils
(USDA 1999). These soils are formed from recent alluvium.
The hydrologic indicators associated with the bottomland areas include standing water and saturated
soils, silt stained leaves, obvious drainage patterns, scouring, buttressed trunks, watermarks on the
trees, and crayfish chimneys. It was estimated that seasonal overbank floodflow reaches at least 4 ft
above the first terrace. The functions and values associated with the wetlands within this complex
are provided in Table 5-1.
The one study site within this wetland area is located adjacent to the Levee Forest community
(Figure 5-2 and Table 5-1). The Lower Little River is within Lake Tillery’s discharge zone of
influence (slight backwater affect). The lower Little River (and adjacent riparian corridor) provides
breeding and migratory habitat for several waterfowl, waterbird, and passerine species. The area
also provides important winter refuge and foraging habitat for species including wood ducks,
mallards, and black ducks.
5-11
Section 5
Results and Discussions
Photograph of the Lower Little River and the adjacent Levee Forest community.
5.1.2.3
Lake Tillery/Lower Uwharrie River Area
The part of the Uwharrie River corridor identified as State Significant by the North Carolina Natural
Heritage Program is upstream of the flowage easement or property of Progress Energy. Along the
lower Uwharrie River, just before the confluence with the Yadkin/Pee Dee River, residences line the
western shoreline. The eastern shoreline, which is within the zone of Project influence (slight
backwater), is primarily a narrow Piedmont Alluvial Forest with mature red maple, river birch,
willow oak, water oak, sweet gum, and sycamore. The understory layer is dominated with tag alder,
flowering dogwood, American holly, muscadine grape, poison ivy, crossvine, river oats, and
Christmas fern. The station has 75 percent forest canopy coverage with an estimated average height
of 60 ft with four observed snags.
Several large ephemeral or vernal pools within the floodplain and two backwater coves (locally
known as Hidden Lakes) are located to the south of the Uwharrie River. Dense layers of vegetation
lined the shores of these Hidden Lakes, from the dominant trees in this Piedmont Alluvial Forest
community of red maple, sugarberry, and tulip tree to the silky dogwood, buttonbush, green ash, and
tag alder understory. The herbaceous emergent layer is diverse and includes numerous sedge
species, broadleaf arrowhead, seedbox, lizard’s-tail, and pickerel weed. Dense submerged aquatic
vegetation consisting of muskgrass, fringes the emergent vegetation at this site.
5-12
Section 5
Results and Discussions
In general, the soils associated with these wetlands are typically of the Chewacla soil series (USDA
1999). Chewacla soils are classified as hydric or wetland soils (USDA 1999). These soils are
formed from recent alluvium.
The hydrologic indicators associated with area includes plant species with aerenchymatous tissue
(sponge-like), standing water and saturated soils, silt stained leaves, buttressed trunks (e.g., green
ash, hackberry), watermarks on the trees, and crayfish chimneys. The hydrology of this wetland
complex is permanently flooded and is relatively stable year-round, thus, accounting for the high
diversity of species and the wetland community structure (i.e., strata of aquatic bed, emergent, scrubshrub, and forested species). The functions and values associated with the wetlands within this
complex are provided in Table 5-1.
There is one specific wetland study site within this area. The study site is located on the Hidden
Lakes which is within the Project Boundary (Figure 5-2 and Table 5-1). The Lake Tillery/Uwharrie
area provides breeding and migratory habitat for several waterfowl species including Canada geese,
wood ducks and mallards. The area also provides important winter refuge and foraging habitat for
species including wood ducks, mallards, and black ducks.
Photograph of the Hidden Lakes emergent, scrub-shrub, and forested wetland.
5-13
Section 5
5.2
Results and Discussions
Effects of Current Project Operations on Wetlands, Waterfowl, and Other
Aquatic Habitats
The effects of current Project operations on the wetland resources and associated waterfowl use
including distribution, composition and general health of wetland resources was evaluated based on
literature review, water level information (i.e., fluctuation and drawdown), field studies, and GIS
analysis.
5.2.1 Lake Tillery
5.2.1.1
Lake Tillery Hydrology
As mentioned previously, the current Progress Energy license allows for drawdowns at Lake Tillery
of up to 22 ft below full pond. However, over the past several years, Progress Energy has voluntarily
made its best efforts to operate Lake Tillery within a 4-ft range under normal circumstances and
much of the time operating within a 1- to 1.5-ft range except during regularly-scheduled FERC
inspection maintenance of spillway gates every five years (12-ft drawdown) (Progress Energy 2003).
Lake levels at Lake Tillery, from the years 1997 through 2004, were reviewed for the periods most
important for wetland resources and the associated waterfowl use. The most important waterfowl
use periods in the Yadkin-Pee Dee Project area are from June through July for brood rearing, from
September through November for fall migration foraging and stop-over, and from December through
February for winter foraging and stop-over. The following tables were derived using hourly water
level for the daily, weekly and monthly periods from 2001 and 2004 (Tables 5-3 through 5-5). In
review of tables below, Lake Tillery has relatively stable water levels throughout the three important
waterfowl periods. Mean daily, weekly and monthly water levels are within 1 ft of the normal
maximum operating levels for all three of the important waterfowl periods and certainly through the
growing season. This fact was evident throughout the 2004 and 2005 field surveys. Even during
drought years such 2001, water levels at Lake Tillery were within 1 ft of the normal maximum
operating level except during periods of maintenance. The following lake level time periods were
selected for analysis because they reflect Project operations not during periods of maintenance or
relicensing study lake level changes (IFIM).
Table 5-3
Normal Lake Tillery water levels during the winter waterfowl stop-over
period.
Time Period
1/29/01
1/29/01-2/4/01
1/1/01-1/31/01
Normal Maximum
Operating Level
277.3 ft
277.3 ft
277.3 ft
Maximum
Water Level
278.0 ft
277.4 ft
278.1 ft
5-14
Minimum
Water Level
277.5 ft
277.4 ft
277.4 ft
Mean Water
Level
277.5 ft
277.9 ft
277.9 ft
Notes
Daily
Weekly
Monthly
Section 5
Results and Discussions
Table 5-4
Normal Lake Tillery water levels during the summer waterfowl broodrearing period.
Time Period
6/25/01
6/25/01-7/2/01
6/25/01-7/25/01
Table 5-5
Maximum
Water Level
279.9 ft
278.1 ft
278.2 ft
Minimum
Water Level
277.8 ft
277.4 ft
277.3 ft
Mean Water
Level
277.9 ft
277.8 ft
277.9 ft
Notes
Daily
Weekly
Monthly
Normal Lake Tillery water levels during the fall waterfowl migration period.
Time Period
10/15/04
10/15/04-10/22/04
1/15/04-11/15/04
5.2.1.2
Normal Maximum
Operating Level
277.3 ft
277.3 ft
277.3 ft
Normal Maximum
Operating Level
277.3 ft
277.3 ft
277.3 ft
Maximum
Water Level
277.9 ft
278.2 ft
278.2 ft
Minimum
Water Level
277.4 ft
277.2 ft
275.4 ft
Mean Water
Level
277.7 ft
277.8 ft
277.5 ft
Notes
Daily
Weekly
Monthly
Effects on Wetland Resources
The wetland locations investigated in the Lake Tillery study area were found to be consistent with
the NWI identified wetlands, except for the 289 acres of water willow beds that fringe the lake
shoreline (Progress Energy 2005) (Figure 5-1). The NWI maps do not depict these fringing
emergent wetlands.
Generally, the existing wetland communities associated with Lake Tillery were found to be vigorous
in growth, healthy, and appear to be in a state of equilibrium with the current operational regime in
association with the inundation duration, magnitude, frequency and seasonal timing. The species
richness and diversity of all wetland types in Lake Tillery reflected natural community expectations
for this area and in a southeastern reservoir environment.
Based on field observations and analysis, there were no apparent Project-related impacts to wetland
resources observed for the Lake Tillery study area. The range of water levels, (i.e., directly related
to Project operations) in Lake Tillery is such that the hydrology for the adjacent wetlands is not
adversely affected (refer to Tables 5-3 through 5-6). There is little lake level fluctuation during the
growing season (i.e., May to October) and throughout the rest of the year. There are neither
excessive nor insufficient lake levels to greatly impact the structure, composition or function of the
wetland communities as a whole, including but not limited to the monotypic water willow beds
which flourish under the relatively stable water levels encountered under the current power plant
operational scheme.
5-15
Section 5
Table 5-6
Results and Discussions
Inundation parameters associated with important ecological periods at Lake
Tillery.
Important
Ecologic Period
Time Period
Typical Inundation
Magnitude
Wetland Growing
Season
May-October
1 foot below normal
maximum operating
level of 277.3 ft
Waterfowl Winter
Stop-Over
(DecemberFebruary)
DecemberFebruary
1 foot below normal
maximum operating
level of 277.3 ft
Waterfowl Brood
Rearing (JuneJuly)
June-July
1 foot below normal
maximum operating
level of 277.3 ft
Waterfowl Fall
Migration
(SeptemberNovember)
SeptemberNovember
1 foot below normal
maximum operating
level of 277.3 ft
Typical Inundation
Duration
Complete wetland
inundation for 24 hours
with water levels <1.5 ft
below normal pool
Complete wetland
inundation for 24 hours
with water levels <1.5 ft
below normal pool
Complete wetland
inundation for 24 hours
with water levels <1.5 ft
below normal pool
Complete wetland
inundation for 24 hours
with water levels <1.5 ft
below normal pool
Typical Inundation
Frequency
Stable Water Levels
Stable Water Levels
Stable Water Levels
Stable Water Levels
Forested Wetlands
Based on field observations, in the forested wetlands in the upper portion of the lake, tree crowns in
the canopy did not show any unusually extensive dead wood or stressed trees. As mentioned in
Section of 5.1 of this report, the structure of the forested wetlands was typical of “Bottomland
Hardwoods” natural communities as described by Schafale and Weakley (1990). The principal
functions of these forested wetlands, based on observations and professional judgment, were found
to be wildlife diversity, floodflow attenuation, sediment retention, productivity, and aquatic diversity
(see Table 5-1). These functions were neither found to be impaired nor inhibited by current Project
operations in either the short term or long term due to the relatively stable water levels.
Scrub-shrub Wetlands
The scrub-shrub wetlands such as buttonbush and black willow, though uncommon, typically
demonstrated good densities of species, with full branching and leafing. The principal functions of
these scrub-shrub wetlands, based on observations and professional judgment, were found to be
sediment retention, shoreline stabilization, wildlife diversity, and aquatic diversity (see Table 5-1).
These functions were neither found to be significantly impaired nor inhibited by Project operations.
These scrub-shrub wetlands, the majority of the time, are in a permanent state of early succession
due to the stable reservoir levels and are not significantly modified by Project operations.
Emergent Wetlands
The emergent wetlands located along Lake Tillery, excluding water willow beds which were
typically found along the main lake shoreline, were generally located in backwater cove areas (e.g.,
Hidden Lake) as well as several of the larger tributaries. The Hidden Lakes area, adjacent to the
5-16
Section 5
Results and Discussions
Uwharrie River, is characterized by the most diverse and rich emergent/scrub-shrub wetlands of the
Lake Tillery Project area. The hydrology of this wetland complex is permanently flooded and is
relatively stable year round due to its location at the upper end of the lake and its physical setting,
thus accounting for the high diversity of species and the wetland community structure (i.e., strata of
aquatic bed, emergent, scrub-shrub, and forested species).
The monotypic, water willow beds located along the shoreline are the most extensive wetland
resource found along Lake Tillery. Water willow grows best in 6 to 20 inches of water and on
coarse substrates of sand and fine gravel. However, the species will grow on finer textured
sediments and at depths up to about 4 ft (ACOE-Environmental Laboratory 2004). The water
willow beds in Lake Tillery extend out to depths of 3 to 5 ft of water. The species obviously thrives
on Lake Tillery and is well adapted to the current water levels. Little competition from other
emergent plants (e.g., pickerelweed) was observed within the water willow beds although both
substrate and water levels are conducive for other obligate species. It is possible that the water
willow out-competes most other emergent species.
Water willow beds can be affected through changes in existing water levels. Water levels lower than
3.0 ft below the normal maximum operating level for more than a week during the growing season
(May through October) could impact this resource by causing desiccation. This would eliminate
important functions and values such as aquatic diversity and shoreline stabilization. Current Project
operations do not result in periods of drawdown of more than a couple of days, and are less than 3 ft
over 99 percent of the time. Future Project operations will be very similar to current operations,
except for winter periods, and even winter water level fluctuations will continue to be of short
duration (hours, not days).
The principal functions of these emergent wetlands, were found to be wildlife diversity, sediment
retention, nutrient retention, aquatic diversity, and uniqueness/heritage. These functions were
neither found to be impaired nor inhibited by current Project operations.
In association with periodic Project maintenance activities, drawdowns of more than 2 ft below the
normal maximum operating levels of 277.3 ft for more than one day in the growing season can
cause a temporary loss of wetland functions and values. With this decrease in hydrology,
approximately 298 acres of emergent wetland (including most of the water willow beds) and
8.0 acres of primarily black willow, scrub-shrub wetland will be temporarily exposed. With a
temporary loss of the flooding regime, these wetland areas temporarily reduce their ability to
effectively perform the principal functions such as aquatic diversity, shoreline stabilization, wildlife
diversity, and sediment retention. This temporary reduction of wetland functions ceases once water
levels are restored. Under current and future operations, water levels during the growing season will
normally fluctuate on a daily basis; thereby minimizing any permanent affect on these resources.
5.2.1.3
Effects to Waterfowl Resources
Based on field observations, flooding (i.e., 2.0 ft or more above adjacent emergent wetlands or
normal maximum operating level) during the nesting periods for waterfowl species such as Canada
geese and mallards, can potentially have a negative affect (although not significant affect) on the
ground nesting species. The primary nesting period for these waterfowl species is from May
5-17
Section 5
Results and Discussions
through June, which is the time when the species finding locations for nesting and construction of
the nest. Any excessive rise in reservoir levels could potentially destroy any nest that had been
constructed at the reservoirs edge (i.e., emergent wetlands). However, the waterfowl using the lake
are adapted to the normal operating water level cycle.
Based on field observations and analysis, water levels falling more than 1.5 ft below the normal
maximum operating level (for more than four hours) during the waterfowl brood rearing period of
June and July, the fall migratory period of September through November, and the wintering period
of December through February can potentially affect waterfowl by reducing the foraging availability
for macroinvertebrates and seeds (e.g., smartweed seeds), and by also reducing cover habitat and
exposing these birds to increased predation (Fredrickson 1982; Kadlec 1962; Smith et al. 1989;
Sousa and Farmer 1983; Sousa 1985) (Table 5-6). However, impacts to this resource during the
normal daily operations are not significant due to the relatively stable water levels.
At 1.5 ft below the normal maximum operating level, emergent wetlands (including approximately
50 percent of the water willow beds) such as those at Hidden Lake are dewatered and fully exposed.
Based on the review of Lake Tillery hourly headpond data from 1983 through 2000, approximately
91 percent of the hourly lake levels at the dam are at levels greater in depth than 275.8 ft (i.e., 1.5 ft
below the normal operating pool level). However, these low water levels, and the associated
impacts, only occur during the periods when the Tillery Development is undergoing periodic or
emergency maintenance.
5.2.1.4
Effects to Other Aquatic Resources
There are several other shallow water habitats within Lake Tillery that are important to the integrity
of the aquatic system. These habitats include coarse woody debris (e.g., brush piles, fallen trees) and
shallow coves having a depth of less than or equal to 6 ft in depth. Woody debris provides physical
habitat structure (e.g., fish and macroinvertebrate cover and foraging substrate), beneficially alters
water movement and flow, and provides organic matter from the terrestrial ecosystems (e.g., forested
wetlands) into the surface waters and affects the transport of organic material within the aquatic
environment.
Shallow water or cove habitats (i.e., less than 6 ft in depth and off the main stem of the lakes)
provide important functions in the aquatic environments. Populations of fish and other organisms
are dependent on these habitats for completion of their life cycles. In the Project area, these shallow
water habitats provide breeding and spawning habitat for members of the sunfish family
(Centrachidae) and minnows (Cyprinidae), foraging habitat for a variety of species and life stages
(e.g., juvenile and adult largemouth bass), and cover habitat for a variety of species including
macroinvertebrates. This habitat is also contiguous to several other important aquatic habitats
including emergent wetlands and woody debris.
An ArcInfo-GIS elevation model was developed from bathymetric data and upland topography and
shows the relationship between the areal extent of aquatic habitat on Lake Tillery and the various
water depths at 1-ft increments (Figures 5-3 and 5-4). Table 5-7 depicts the existing aquatic habitat
in relationship to the lake level elevations at Lake Tillery. As depicted in Table 5-7, approximately
5-18
Section 5
Figure 5-3
Results and Discussions
Lake Tillery aquatic habitat and water level relationships.
5-19
Section 5
Figure 5-4
Results and Discussions
Lake Tillery aquatic habitat and water level relationships (shallow coves and
water willow habitats) (Sheet 1 of 2).
5-20
Section 5
Figure 5-4
Results and Discussions
Lake Tillery aquatic habitat and water level relationships (shallow coves and
water willow habitats) (Sheet 2 of 2).
5-21
Section 5
Results and Discussions
0.10 acres (100 percent) of the woody debris areas are found from normal maximum operating water
levels to approximately 3.0 ft below the normal level. Thus, during water level fluctuations below
the normal operation lake level, these areas would lack surface inundation and lose the attributed
aquatic habitat functions (Table 5-7). Any woody debris located above the normal maximum
operating level was deemed not accessible to fish due to the fact that Lake Tillery water levels do
not exceed this level. Also, approximately 403.0 acres of the shallow cove habitat is found from the
normal maximum operating level to approximately 6.0 ft below the normal level. During water level
fluctuations below the normal operating level, these areas will also lack surface inundation and
would lose the aquatic habitat functions.
Table 5-7
Lake Tillery aquatic habitat water level relationships.
Water Level Elevation
(NAVD 88)
271.1 ft – 272.1 ft
272.1 ft – 271.1 ft
273.1 ft – 271.1 ft
274.1 ft-275.1 ft
275.1ft – 276.1 ft
276.1 ft – 277.1 ft
277.1 ft - 278.1 ft
Greater than 278.1 ft
TOTAL
Aquatic Habitat Area (acres)
Woody Debris
Shallow Coves
N/A
N/A
N/A
44.19 (11.0%)
N/A
51.05 (12.6%)
N/A
54.78 (13.6%)
0.06 (30%)
68.19 (17.0%)
0.03 (30%)
78.84 (19.6%)
0.01 (10%)
106.14 (26.3%)
N/A
N/A
0.1
403.19
5.2.2 Blewett Falls Lake
5.2.2.1
Blewett Falls Hydrology
The Blewett Falls Development is operated in coordination with the upstream Tillery Development.
The normal operation of the Blewett Falls Lake results in a daily drawdown of approximately 2 to
3 ft below the normal maximum operating level. This drawdown provides storage capacity needed
to accept flows discharged from Tillery Development. The Blewett Falls generating units normally
begin operation at the same time that the Tillery Plant begins generation (Progress Energy 2003).
Normal lake levels at Blewett Falls Lake, from the years 1997 through 2004, were reviewed for the
periods most important for wetland resources and the associated waterfowl use. The most important
waterfowl use periods in the Yadkin-Pee Dee Project area again are June through July for brood
rearing, September through November for fall migration foraging and stop-over, and December
through February for winter foraging and stop-over. The following tables were derived using typical
hourly water level for the daily, weekly, and monthly periods from 1999 and 2001 (Tables 5-8
through 5-10). In review of tables below, Blewett Falls Lake water levels vary from 1 to 3 ft below
the normal maximum operating level of 177.2 ft at the dam throughout the three important waterfowl
periods. For example, on June 26, 2001 the change in water levels over a 24-hour period was
approximately 1.0 ft. The lowest point in the water level elevation occurs every 12 hours with refill
up to near normal maximum operation level the next 12 hours. This fact was evident throughout the
2004 and 2005 field surveys. The following lake level time periods were selected for analysis
because they reflect Project operations not including periods of maintenance, relicensing study lake
level changes (IFIM).
5-22
Section 5
Results and Discussions
Table 5-8
Normal Blewett Falls Lake water levels during the winter waterfowl stopover period.
Time Period
1/29/01
1/29/01-2/4/01
1/1/01-1/31/01
Table 5-9
Maximum
Water Level
177.8 ft
178.0 ft
178.1 ft
Minimum
Water Level
176.9 ft
176.2 ft
176.2 ft
Mean Water
Level
177.3 ft
177.4 ft
177.5 ft
Notes
Daily
Weekly
Monthly
Normal Blewett Falls Lake water levels during the summer waterfowl broodrearing period.
Time Period
6/25/01
6/25/01-7/2/01
6/25/01-7/25/01
Table 5-10
Normal Maximum
Operating Level
177.2 ft
177.2 ft
177.2 ft
Maximum
Water Level
177.8 ft
178.0 ft
178.3 ft
Minimum
Water Level
176.9 ft
176.5 ft
176.1 ft
Mean Water
Level
177.3 ft
177.5 ft
177.5 ft
Notes
Daily
Weekly
Monthly
Normal Blewett Falls Lake water levels during the fall waterfowl migration
period.
Time Period
10/15/99
10/15/99-10/22/99
10/15/99-11/15/99
5.2.2.2
Normal Maximum
Operating Level
177.2 ft
177.2 ft
177.2 ft
Normal Maximum
Operating Level
177.2 ft
177.2 ft
177.2 ft
Maximum
Water Level
178.0 ft
178.0 ft
179.0 ft
Minimum
Water Level
176.3 ft
172.0 ft
172.0 ft
Mean Water
Level
177.3 ft
174.0 ft
176.0 ft
Notes
Daily
Weekly
Monthly
Effects on Wetland Resources
The wetland locations investigated in the Blewett Falls Lake study area were found to be consistent
with the NWI identified wetlands, except for the 65 acres of emergent wetland that are located in
several of the protected cove areas (Figure 5-1). The NWI maps depict these important wetlands,
such as the southern rice beds in the Mountain Creek area, as open water areas. The original NWI
maps were revised to reflect these relatively recent changes.
Based on field observations, generally the existing wetland communities associated with Blewett
Falls Lake were found to be vigorous in growth, healthy, and appear to be in a state of equilibrium
with the current operational regime in association with the inundation duration, magnitude,
frequency and seasonal timing. The range of water levels, (i.e., directly related to Project
operations) in Blewett Falls Lake is such that the hydrology for the adjacent wetlands is not affected
for more than a few hours on a daily basis (refer to Tables 5-8 through 5-10). The daily water level
fluctuation during the growing season (i.e., May to October) and throughout the rest of the year is
within a range of less than 1 ft to a maximum of 3 ft unless flashboards are out or operations and
maintenance is needed that requires a lower surface water elevation. There are neither excessive nor
insufficient lake levels to greatly impact the structure, composition or function of the wetland
communities as a whole. Table 5-11 depicts the inundation parameters as related to important
ecological periods on Blewett Falls Lake.
5-23
Section 5
Table 5-11
Important
Ecologic
Period
Wetland
Growing
Season
Results and Discussions
Inundation parameters associated with important ecological periods at
Blewett Falls Lake.
Time
Period
Typical Inundation
Magnitude
MayOctober
1 to 3 ft below
normal maximum
operating level of
177.2 ft
Waterfowl
Winter StopOver
(DecemberFebruary)
DecemberFebruary
1 to 3 ft below
normal maximum
operating level of
177.2 ft
Waterfowl
Brood Rearing
(June-July)
June-July
1 to 3 ft below
normal maximum
operating level of
177.2 ft
Waterfowl Fall
Migration
(SeptemberNovember)
SeptemberNovember
1 to 3 ft below
normal maximum
operating level of
177.2 ft
Typical Inundation
Duration
Complete wetland
inundation from 12 to 5
hours with water levels
<1.5 ft below normal
pool for every water
level cycle (approx. 12
hour cycle)
Complete wetland
inundation from 12 to 5
hours with water levels
<1.5 ft below normal
pool for every water
level cycle (approx. 12
hour cycle)
Complete wetland
inundation from 12 to 5
hours with water levels
<1.5 ft below normal
pool for every water
level cycle (approx. 12
hour cycle)
Complete wetland
inundation from 12 to 5
hours with water levels
<1.5 ft below normal
pool for every water
level cycle (approx. 12
hour cycle)
Typical Inundation
Frequency
Notes
Lowest water level
occurs one time
every 12 hours
Based on hourly
data - 1/1/1983 to
12/31/2003, the
daily fluctuation of
1.5 ft occurs less
than 1% of the time
Lowest water level
occurs one time
every 12 hours
Based on hourly
data - 1/1/1983 to
12/31/2003, the
daily fluctuation of
1.5 ft occurs less
than 1% of the time
Lowest water level
occurs one time
every 12 hours
Based on hourly
data - 1/1/1983 to
12/31/2003, the
daily fluctuation of
1.5 ft occurs less
than 1% of the time
Lowest water level
occurs one time
every 12 hours
Based on hourly
data - 1/1/1983 to
12/31/2003, the
daily fluctuation of
1.5 ft occurs less
than 1% of the
time.
Forested Wetlands
As mentioned in Section of 5.1 of this report, the structure of the forested wetlands was typical of
“Bottomland Hardwoods” natural communities as described by Schafale and Weakley (1990). In the
forested wetlands associated with the Grassy Islands area, tree crowns in the canopy did not show
any unusually extensive dead wood or stressed trees and natural recruitment and propagation was
normal.
The hydrology in this system is typically seasonally flooded (i.e., surface water present for extended
periods at certain times of the year) to temporarily flooded. Although depending on the terrace
location, semi-permanently, and intermittently flooded areas are also found within this community.
These wetlands benefit from overbank flooding. It is estimated (based on field observations) that
that the overbank floodflow, either seasonally or periodically depending on the terrace elevation,
typically inundates this community with at least 0.5 ft to 2.0 ft of water. The majority of the
bottomlands are seasonally flooded with high flows occurring primarily from October through April
but also may occur with the large rain events following tropical storms (e.g., September 2004).
5-24
Section 5
Results and Discussions
In association with the water tupelo swamp within Smith Lake, the community appears healthy, selfsustaining, and well adapted to the present conditions with no dead trees and several areas of sapling
regeneration (both stump growth and new propagation). Numerous drupes (fruits) were found
during the various wetland surveys in this area. This system is well adapted to water fluctuation and
even requires variable water levels to retain community health, vigor, and vegetation propagation.
The existing system also appears to have survived and functioned over the life of the Project.
Based on field observations and analysis, inundation frequency in the water tupelo area is influenced
by natural flooding from high rainfall events and daily/weekly operation of the Blewett and Tillery
hydroelectric plants. The hydrology associated with this community is typically intermittently
exposed to higher flows with semi-permanent inundation and permanent soil saturation (see
Appendix B - Wetland 1). This wetland system appears to have a fluctuating regime based on
hydrology from the hydropower operations and natural flooding events. Generation discharge from
Lake Tillery and natural high water events from the Rocky River and Little River appear to cause a
noticeable gradual rise in water level up through the entire oxbow lake similar to that of a freshwater
tidal event. During the majority of the year, approximately 1 to 2 ft of water is present in this
wetland area. Most of the lateral meander sloughs include a similar hydrologic regime. The
remainder of the lateral sloughs are hydrologically isolated from the majority of the surface flows
due to the presence of silt plugs and appear to be affected primarily by groundwater discharge. In
association with the various wetland indicators such as watermarks on trees, extent of the trunk
buttress swell, presence of specific bryophytes (i.e., mosses and liverworts), and surface scouring,
these wetlands regularly can experience temporary flooding from 5 to 10 ft above the ground
surface.
At the confluence of Smith Lake and the Pee Dee River, there is a silt sill or bar that is
approximately 10 to 20 inches below the water surface. However, during low flows, this sill
probably acts in maintaining and holding water within Smith Lake; although the high-water events
of September 2004 have reduced its effectiveness. Based on the current geomorphic knowledge on
the formation of oxbow lakes, this sill will eventually form the cut-off plug seen on several of the
lateral sloughs unless it is altered by an anthropogenic or some natural event (Sharitz and Mitch
1993).
Based on observations and professional judgment, the principal functions of the forested wetlands,
based on observations and professional judgment, were found to be wildlife diversity, floodflow
attenuation, sediment retention, productivity, uniqueness/heritage and aquatic diversity (see
Table 5-1). These functions were neither found to be impaired nor inhibited by current Project
operations in either the short term or long term.
Scrub-shrub Wetlands
The scrub-shrub wetlands such as buttonbush and black willow, though uncommon (26.0 acres),
typically demonstrated good densities of species, with full branching and leafing and healthy vigor.
These scrub-shrub wetlands, the majority of the time, are in a permanent state of early succession
due to the reservoir levels and are not significantly modified by Project operations.
5-25
Section 5
Results and Discussions
The principal functions of these scrub-shrub wetlands, based on observations and professional
judgment, were found to be sediment retention, shoreline stabilization, wildlife diversity and aquatic
diversity (see Table 5-1). These functions were neither found to be impaired nor inhibited by Project
operations during normal daily operations. Although when the water level drops below 1.5 ft of
normal maximum operation level due to operations, these wetlands are temporarily exposed and the
associated functions are diminished until the hydrology is restored in several hours (Washington
State 2005). Based on the review of Blewett Falls’ hourly headpond data from 1983 through 2000,
approximately 60 percent of the hourly lake levels are at elevation 175.7 ft at the dam or higher (i.e.,
1.5 ft below the normal operating pool level). Periods of lower water levels (i.e., greater than 4 ft
below normal maximum operating level) usually only occur during the periods when the Blewett
Falls Dam flashboards are out for a period of time. These do not appear to have affected the
character or longer term functioning of these wetlands.
Emergent Wetlands
The emergent wetlands, with the exception of the infrequently occurring shoreline fringing water
willow beds, were primarily associated with the persistent and monotypic southern rice beds in the
Grassy Islands area. The Grassy Islands’ rice beds are semi-permanently flooded and provide
important waterfowl foraging and cover habitat. Southern wild rice is an early and rapid colonizer
of mud bars and flats and often grows in dense and almost impenetrable colonies in shallow water
areas along south shorelines (Fox and Haller 2000). The species dominance can impede further
successional development of other emergent species, but it can also provide the substrate for
establishment of trees and shrubs (ACOE - Environmental Laboratory 2004). It is likely that this
species has essentially colonized the majority of the useable emergent wetland habitat along Blewett
Falls Lake leaving little habitat for other species. Southern wild rice is a persistent and robust
emergent that is adapted to fluctuating water conditions (Fox and Haller 2000). The current
operations, at Blewett Falls Lake, have little effect on the physical health or structure of this
rhizomatous and graminoid (i.e., grass) species. Although it was observed in September of 2004,
that the extend loss of flashboards and subsequent drawdown to 173.0 ft may have caused the
seasonal loss of seed-heads on the species.
Smaller areas of emergent wetlands consisting of lizard-tail, arrow-arum (Peltandra virginica), and
arrowhead form inclusions within the forested bottomland areas (e.g., sloughs and depressions).
These semi-permanently to seasonally flooded areas have at least saturated conditions throughout
the year and are not affected by Project operations. For the most part, the species richness and
diversity of all wetland types in Blewett Falls Lake reflected natural community expectations for this
area. Selected cross-sections have been prepared (see Appendix B - Wetlands 1 to 6) for the wetland
types characterized at Blewett Falls Lake, to depict the relationship of various water levels and the
associated wetland topography.
5-26
Section 5
Results and Discussions
Typical water levels within the southern wild rice beds (fall 2004).
The principal functions of these emergent wetlands, based on observations and professional
judgment, were found to be wildlife diversity, sediment retention, shoreline stabilization, nutrient
retention, aquatic diversity, and uniqueness/heritage (see Table 5-1). These functions were found to
be neither impaired nor inhibited by Project operations during normal daily operations. Although
when the water level drops below 1.5 ft of normal maximum operation level at Grassy Islands, these
wetlands are temporarily exposed and the associated functions are diminished until the hydrology is
restored in several hours (Washington State 2005). The Grassy Islands are located at approximately
five miles upstream from the Blewett Falls Dam. The extent of changes in surface water elevations
at the Grassy Islands are less than that experienced at the dam. With this decrease in hydrology,
approximately 66.0 acres of emergent wetland (including the small areas of water willow beds) and
26.0 acres of primarily black willow, scrub-shrub wetland will be temporarily exposed and the
principal functions affected. During periods of flashboard loss and the subsequent drawdown of 4 to
6 ft below the normal maximum operating level of 177.2 ft, the loss of these functions can extend
until the boards are restored. These temporary losses of hydrology has not resulted in an effect on
the general physical health of the plants.
Submergent Wetlands
There is a noticeable lack of submerged aquatic bed species such as native pondweeds and brittle
naiad. Water clarity is probably the most important factor affecting the abundance of submerged
macrophytes in lentic or lake situations (Kahl 1993). Blewett Falls Lake typically has turbid
conditions throughout the year which limits the abundance and species richness of this wetland type.
Furthermore, aerenchymatous (i.e., spongy tissued) and large rhizome, obligate wetland species such
as pickerelweed, arrowhead, and cattail are generally lacking along Blewett Falls Lake.
5-27
Section 5
5.2.2.3
Results and Discussions
Effects to Waterfowl Resources
Blewett Falls Lake and adjacent the wetlands attracts a wide variety of waterfowl throughout the
migratory, breeding, and wintering periods. Waterfowl species commonly observed in this area
include the wood duck (Aix sponsa), green-winged teal (Anas crecca), black duck (A rubripes),
mallard (A. platyrhynchos), and Canada goose (Branta canadensis). These species are especially
attracted to the flooded bottomlands and the southern wild rice beds within the larger coves and
island fringes. The Pee Dee River, including the Project area and the adjacent Pee Dee NWR, is
listed by the North American Waterfowl Management Plan (Atlantic Coast Joint Venture) as a North
Carolina Focus Area especially for the large numbers of wintering waterfowl (NAWMP undated).
The bottomland hardwood forests and adjoining upland buffers is listed as high value and critical
habitats for black duck, mallard and wood duck. Grassy Islands/Smith Lake also provides winter
refuge for numerous waterfowl species including wood ducks, mallards, buffleheads, and scaup.
During the waterfowl breeding season on Blewett Falls Lake, flooding (i.e., 2.0 ft or more above
adjacent emergent wetlands or normal maximum operating level) during the nesting periods for
waterfowl species such as Canada geese and mallard (i.e., dabblers), can have a negative affect
(although not significant affect) on the ground nesting species. The primary nesting period for these
waterfowl species is from April through June, which is the time when the species are finding
locations for nesting, construction of the nest sites, and egg laying. Based on field observations, any
excessive rise in reservoir levels during this period could potentially destroy any nest that had been
constructed at the reservoirs edge and typically above the normal maximum operating level of
177.2 ft (i.e., emergent wetlands). It should be noted, that the Blewett Falls Development, has little
control over large flooding flows (exceeding 9,000 cfs) on this section of the Pee Dee River.
In the emergent wetlands (i.e., southern wild rice beds), water levels falling more than 1.5 ft below
the normal maximum operating level for more than four hours during the waterfowl brood rearing
period of June and July, the fall migratory period of September through November, and the
wintering period of December through February can adversely affect waterfowl by reducing the
foraging availability of macroinvertebrates and seeds (e.g., smartweeds), reducing important cover
habitat, and exposing these birds to increased predation and hunting pressure (Fredrickson 1982;
Kadlec 1962; Smith et al. 1989; Sousa and Farmer 1983; Sousa 1985). During these three periods,
several factors including water permanence (semi-permanently flooded is optimal), vegetative cover
(persistent emergent and/or scrub-shrub), water depth (<10 inches optimal), and potential food
resources are important brood habitat components (Fredrickson 1991; Sousa 1985). During the fall
and winter field surveys, it was observed that the waterfowl species such as mallards and black
ducks (primarily dabblers) only use the emergent wetlands during periods of wetland inundation
(i.e., 6-18 inches of water). Diving ducks such as buffleheads, goldeneyes, and scaup are primarily
in the deeper water areas of the reservoir throughout this period.
Even during drought years such as 2001, water levels at Blewett Falls Lake were within 1 to 3 ft of
the normal full pool operating level except during infrequent periods of flashboard loss where the
water levels drop 4 to 6 ft below the normal operating pool. The flashboard loss is associated with
random, high-flow flood events which Progress Energy has no control except for re-installing the
flashboards. All areas of emergent wetland and the adjacent mud flats and bars are dewatered,
exposed and desiccated during this period. During the migratory and wintering periods, the
5-28
Section 5
Results and Discussions
waterfowl during the low lake level periods will move to and utilize other areas such as the upstream
river segments and Pee Dee NWR and Smith Lake. No waterfowl use in these areas was
documented during these low water periods with the majority of adult birds utilizing the sheltered
Smith Lake area and the Pee River area between Blewett Falls Lake and Lake Tillery as cover
habitat. Duck and geese broods, which use these wetlands for important cover and foraging, are
especially vulnerable at this time (Sousa and Farmer 1983; Sousa 1985). Because of the relatively
concentrated nature of the emergent wetlands, the loss of hydrology in these areas leaves broods
with little quality habitat and exposures them to increased predation and stress (Sousa 1985). A total
lack of wetland inundation provides no brood habitat suitability although this impact is not
significant.
Southern wild rice beds during 4- to 6-ft drawdown associated with fall flashboard loss
related to the storm flood events (October 2004).
5.2.2.4
Effects to Other Aquatic Resources
There are several other shallow water habitats within Blewett Falls Lake that are important to the
integrity of the aquatic system. These habitats include coarse woody debris (e.g., brush piles, fallen
trees) and shallow coves having a depth of less than or equal to 6 ft in depth.
An ArcInfo-GIS elevation model was developed from bathymetric data and upland topography and
shows the relationship between the areal extent of aquatic habitat on Blewett Falls Lake and the
various water depths at 1-ft increments (Figures 5-5 and 5-6). Table 5-7 depicts the existing aquatic
habitat in relationship to the lake level elevations at Blewett Falls Lake. As depicted in Table 5-12,
5-29
Section 5
Results and Discussions
approximately 0.27 acres (96 percent) of the woody debris areas are found from normal maximum
operating water levels to approximately 6.0 ft below the normal level. Thus, during water level
fluctuations below the normal maximum operation lake level, these areas would lack surface
inundation and lose the attributed aquatic habitat functions (Table 5-12). Also, approximately
200.95 acres (100 percent) of the shallow cove habitat is found from the normal maximum operating
level to approximately 6.0 ft below the normal level. During water level fluctuations below the
normal operating level, these areas will also lack surface inundation and would lose the aquatic
habitat functions.
5-30
Section 5
Figure 5-5
Results and Discussions
Blewett Falls Lake aquatic habitat and water level relationships.
5-31
Section 5
Figure 5-6
Results and Discussions
Blewett Falls Lake aquatic habitat and water level relationships (shallow
coves and water willow) (Sheet 1 of 2).
5-32
Section 5
Figure 5-6
Results and Discussions
Blewett Falls Lake aquatic habitat and water level relationships (shallow
coves and water willow) (Sheet 2 of 2).
5-33
Section 5
Table 5-12
Results and Discussions
Blewett Falls Lake aquatic habitat water level relationships.
Water Level Elevation
(NAVD 88)
Less than 171.1ft
171.1 – 172.1 ft
172.1- 173.1 ft
173.1-174.1 ft
174.1-175.1 ft
175.1-176.1 ft
176.1-177.1 ft
177.1-178.1 ft
greater than178.1 ft
TOTAL
Woody Debris
0.02 (7.1%)
0.02 (7.1%)
0.04 (14.2%)
0.11 (39.2%
0.06 (21.4%)
0.01 (3.6%)
0.01 (3.6%)
0.01 (3.6%)
0.01 (3.6%)
0.28
Aquatic Habitat Area (acres)
Shallow Coves
N/A
24.12 (12.0%)
31.07 (15.5%)
65.38 (32.5%)
57.97 (28.8%)
7.26 (3.6%)
6.44 (3.2%)
8.70 (4.3%)
N/A
200.95
5-34
Section 6 - Summary
Palustrine wetlands are relatively common within and adjacent to the Project area. The majority of
the wetlands within the Project area are associated with the islands and shoreline floodplains of
Blewett Falls Lake. The various wetland types associated with the Grassy Islands complex include
most of this wetland acreage, especially forested wetlands. The Grassy Islands also include large
coves of emergent southern wild rice. On Blewett Falls Lake, these wetlands are located in the
upper half of the lake. The lower portion of Blewett Falls Lake lacks wetlands because the
substrates are not conducive for wetland development (stiff clay and lack of organics and fines),
prevalent hardpan conditions, and relatively steep banks.
6.1
Lake Tillery
Generally, the existing wetland communities associated with Lake Tillery, though uncommon, were
found to be vigorous in growth, healthy, and appear to be in a state of equilibrium with the current
operational regime in association with the inundation duration, magnitude, frequency, and seasonal
timing.
Wetlands are uncommon along Lake Tillery. The majority of the forested wetlands are associated
with the upper part of the lake in the vicinity of the Uwharrie River. The emergent wetlands are
associated with the large, fringing water willow beds along the lake shoreline (Progress Energy
2005). The scattered nature of most wetland types on Lake Tillery is due to steep banks and
conditions not conducive to wetland development.
The current Progress Energy license allows for drawdowns at Lake Tillery of up to 22 ft below full
pond. However, over the past several years, Progress Energy has voluntarily made its best efforts to
operate Lake Tillery within a 4-ft range under normal circumstances and much of the time operating
within a 2-ft range except during scheduled FERC required maintenance (12-ft drawdown) (Progress
Energy 2003).
The most important waterfowl use periods in the Yadkin Pee-Dee Project area are June through July
for brood rearing, September through November for fall migration foraging and stop-over, and
December through February for winter foraging and stop-over. Lake Tillery has relatively stable
water levels throughout these three important waterfowl periods. Mean daily, weekly, and monthly
water levels are within 1 ft of the normal maximum operating levels for all three of the important
waterfowl periods and certainly throughout the growing season.
Based on field observations, there were no apparent Project-related impacts to wetland resources
observed for the Lake Tillery study area. The range of water levels, (i.e., directly related to Project
operations) in Lake Tillery is such that the necessary hydrology for the adjacent wetlands is not
adversely affected. There is little lake level fluctuation during the growing season (i.e., May to
October) and throughout the rest of the year. There are neither excessive nor insufficient lake levels
to greatly impact the structure, composition or function of the wetland communities as a whole,
including but not limited to the monotypic water willow beds which flourish under relatively stable
water levels.
6-1
Section 6
Summary
Approximately 0.10 acres (10 percent) of the woody debris areas are found from normal maximum
operating water levels to approximately 3.0 ft below the normal level. Thus, during water level
fluctuations below the normal operation lake level, these areas would lack surface inundation and
lose the attributed aquatic habitat functions. Also, approximately 403.0 acres of the shallow cove
habitat is found from the normal maximum operating level to approximately 6.0 ft below the normal
level. During water level fluctuations below the normal operating level, these areas will also lack
surface inundation and would lose the aquatic habitat functions.
Based on field observations, water levels falling more than 1.5 ft below the normal maximum
operating level (for more than four hours) during the waterfowl brood rearing period of June and
July, the fall migratory period of September through November, and the wintering period of
December through February can adversely affect waterfowl by reducing the foraging availability for
macroinvertebrates and seeds (e.g., smartweed seeds), and by also reducing cover habitat and
exposing these birds to increased predation. Based on the review of Lake Tillery hourly headpond
data from 1983 through 2000, approximately 91 percent of the hourly lake levels are at levels greater
in depth than 275.8 ft at the dam (i.e., 1.5 ft below the normal operating pool level). This occurrence
is expected to be even less upstream where most wetlands are located. At 2 to 3 ft below the normal
maximum operating level, emergent wetlands are dewatered and fully exposed. However, these
low-water levels, and the associated impacts, only occur during the periods when the Tillery
Development is undergoing periodic or emergency maintenance. Impacts to this resource during the
normal daily operations are not significant due to the relatively stable water levels.
6.2
Blewett Falls Lake
The Blewett Falls Development is operated in coordination with the upstream Tillery Development.
The normal operation of the Blewett Falls Lake results in a daily drawdown of approximately 2 to
3 ft below the normal maximum operating level. This drawdown provides storage capacity needed
to regulate flows from Tillery Development. The Blewett Falls generating units normally begin
operation at the same time that the Tillery Plant begins generation (Progress Energy 2003).
Normal lake levels at Blewett Falls Lake, from the years 1997 through 2004, were reviewed for the
periods most important for wetland resources and the associated waterfowl use. The most important
waterfowl use periods in the Yadkin Pee-Dee Project area again are from June through July for
brood rearing, from September through November for fall migration foraging and stop-over, and
from December through February for winter foraging and stop-over. Blewett Falls Lake water levels
vary from 1 to 3 ft below the normal maximum operating level of 177.2 ft throughout the three
important waterfowl periods.
Generally, the existing wetland communities associated with Blewett Falls Lake were found to be
vigorous in growth, healthy, and appear to be in a state of equilibrium with the current operational
regime in association with the inundation duration, magnitude, frequency and seasonal timing.
Based on field assessment, there were no obvious and significant Project-related impacts observed
for the Blewett Falls Lake study area in relation to the wetland resources. The range of water levels,
(i.e., directly related to Project operations) in Blewett Falls Lake is such that the hydrology for the
adjacent wetlands is not affected for more than a few hours (i.e., up to eight to 10 hours) on a daily
basis. The daily water level fluctuation during the growing season (i.e., May to October) and
6-2
Section 6
Summary
throughout the rest of the year is within a range of less than 1 ft to a maximum of 3 ft. There are
neither excessive nor insufficient lake levels to greatly impact the structure, composition or function
of the wetland communities as a whole. When the water level drops below 1.5 ft of normal
maximum operation level, Blewett Falls’ wetlands are temporarily exposed and the associated
principal functions and values are diminished until the hydrology is restored in several hours. Based
on the review of Blewett Falls hourly headpond data from 1983 through 2000, approximately 60
percent of the hourly lake levels at the dam are at levels greater in depth than 175.7 ft at the dam
(i.e., 1.5 ft below the normal operating pool level). This occurrence is expected to be even less
upstream at the Grassy Islands area where most wetlands are located. However, these low-water
levels, and associated impacts, usually only occur during the periods when the Blewett Falls Dam
flashboards are out for a period of time or operations and maintenance requiring a lower surface
water elevation.
In the emergent wetlands (i.e., southern rice beds), water levels falling more than 1.5 ft below the
normal maximum operating level in the wetlands for more than four hours during the waterfowl
brood rearing period of June and July, the fall migratory period of September through November,
and the wintering period of December through February can adversely affect waterfowl by reducing
the foraging availability of macroinvertebrates and seeds (e.g., smartweeds), reducing important
cover habitat, and exposing these birds to increased predation and hunting pressure. Although based
on observations, this effect is not significant.
Approximately 0.27 acres (96 percent) of the woody debris areas are found from normal maximum
operating water levels to approximately 6.0 ft below the normal level the extent of the woody debris.
Thus, during water level fluctuations below the normal maximum operation lake level, these areas
would lack surface inundation and lose the attributed aquatic habitat functions. Also, approximately
200.95 acres (100 percent) of the shallow cove habitat is found from the normal maximum operating
level to approximately 6.0 ft below the normal level. During water level fluctuations below the
normal operating level, these areas will also lack surface inundation and would lose the aquatic
habitat functions.
It is at the period of infrequent flashboard loss when the impacts to brood-rearing, migratory, and
wintering waterfowl are most evident and most significant. All areas of emergent wetland and the
adjacent mud flats and bars are dewatered, exposed and desiccated during this period. During the
migratory and wintering periods, the waterfowl (during the low water level periods) move to and
utilize other habitat such as Smith Lake, the upstream river segment, and the Pee Dee NWR.
6-3
Section 7 - References
Adamus, P.L., E.J. Clairain, Jr., R.D. Smith, and R.E. Young. 1987. Wetland Evaluation Technique
(WET): Volume II Methodology. U.S. Army Engineer Waterways Experiment Station,
Vicksburg, MS.
Alcoa Power Generating, Inc., Yadkin Division. 2002. Yadkin Hydroelectric Project FERC No.
2197 NC Project Relicensing, ICD, September, 2002. ALCOA Power Generating Inc.,
Yadkin Division, Badin, NC.
Appalachian State University. 1999. North Carolina’s Central Park: assessing tourism and outdoor
recreation in the Uwharrie Lakes region. Appalachian State University, September 1999.
Bates, M. 2001. Montgomery County Natural Heritage Inventory. In association with: The Land
Trust for Central North Carolina, Salisbury, NC. The North Carolina Natural Heritage
Program, Division of Parks and Recreation, Department of Environment and Natural
Resources, Raleigh, NC.
Brinson, M.M., F.R. Hauer., L.C. Lee, W.L. Nutter,. R.D. Rheinhardt, R.D. Smith, and D.
Whigham. 1995. A Guidebook for Application of Hydrogeomorphic Assessments to
Riverine Wetlands. Technical Report WRP-DE-11, U.S. Army Engineer Waterways
Experiment Station, Vicksburg, MS.
Carolina Power & Light. 2001a. Terrestrial resource report associated with the Smith Lake Oxbow
and adjacent bottomlands. Yadkin-Pee Dee Hydroelectric Project (FERC No. 2206). New
Hill, NC.
Cooperrider, A.Y., R.J. Boyd, and H.R. Stuart (eds.). 1986. Inventory and Monitoring of Wildlife
Habitat. U.S. Dept. Inter., Bur. Land Manage. Denver, CO. pp. 858.
Cowardin, L.M., V. Carter, F.C. Golet, and E.T. LaRoe. 1979. Classification of Wetlands and
Deepwater Habitats of the United States. U.S. Dept. of Interior, Fish and Wildlife Service.
FWS/OBS-79/31. pp. 131.
EA Engineering, Science, and Technology. 2000. Botanical and terrestrial wildlife resources study:
Blewett Falls Hydroelectric Plant. Prepared for Carolina Power & Light Company. EA
Engineering, Science, and Technology, Baltimore Branch. Sparks, Maryland.
Environmental Laboratory. 1987. Corps of Engineers Wetlands Delineation Manual. Technical
Report Y-87-1, U.S. Army Engineer Waterways Experiment Station, Vicksburg, MS.
Fox, A.M. and W.T. Haller. 2000. Production and Survivorship of the Functional Stolons of Giant
Cutgrass, Zizaniopsis miliacea. A. Journal of Bot. 87:811-818.
Framatome ANP, Inc. 2002. Terrestrial resources report associated with the survey of Smith Lake
oxbow swamp and adjacent bottomland wetlands. Yadkin-Pee Dee Hydroelectric Project
7-1
Section 7
References
(FERC Project No. 2206). Prepared for CP&L—A Progress Energy Company. Framatome
ANP DE&S. Charlotte, NC.
Fredrickson, L.H. 1991. Strategies for Water Level Manipulations in Moist-Soil Systems. Fish and
Wildlife Leaflet 13.4.6 in Waterfowl Management Handbook. U.S. Fish and Wildlife
Service. Washington D.C.
——.
1982. Management of Seasonally Flooded Impoundments for Wildlife.
Publication 148. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. Washington D.C.
Resource
Griffith, G.E., J.M. Omernik, J.A. Comstock, M.P. Schafale, W.H. McNab, D.R. Lenat, T.F.
MacPherson, J.B. Glover, and V.B. Shleburne. 2002. Ecoregions of North Carolina and
South Carolina (color poster). Reston, Virginia, U.S., Geological Survey (map scale
1:1,500,000).
LeGrand, H.E., S.E. McRae, S.P. Hall, and J.T. Finnegan. 2004. 2004 Natural Heritage Program
list of rare animal species in North Carolina. North Carolina Natural Heritage Program.
Kahl, R. 1993. Aquatic macrophyte ecology in the Upper Winnebago Pool Lakes, Wisconsin.
Technical Report Bulletin No. 182. Wisconsin Dept. of Nat. Res. pp. 60.
Kadlec, J.A. 1962. Effects of a drawdown on a waterfowl impoundment. Ecology, Vol. 43. No. 2.
Martin, W.H., S.G. Boyce, and A.C. Echternacht (eds.). 1993. Biodiversity of the Southeastern
United States: Lowland Terrestrial Communities. John Wiley and Sons. New York, New
York. 502 pp.
Morrison, M.L., B.G. Marcot, and R.W. Mannan. 1992. Wildlife-Habitat Relationships: Concepts
and Applications. The University of Wisconsin Press. pp. 342.
North American Waterfowl Management Plan. Undated. Atlantic Coast Joint Venture Plan. pp.
106.
North Carolina Department of Environment and Natural Resources. 1995. Guidance for Rating the
Values of Wetlands in North Carolina: Fourth Addition. Division of Environmental
Management, Water Quality Section.
Platts, W.S., W.F. Megahan, and G.W. Minshall. 1983. Methods for evaluating stream, riparian,
and biotic conditions. USDA- Intermountain For. and Range Exp. Station. General
Technical Report INT-138. Ogden UT. 70 pp.
Progress Energy. 2005. Lake Tillery Shoreline Management Plan: Water Willow Bed Assessment
Study. March 2005.
——. 2003. Initial Consultation Document. Section 4.6, Wildlife Resources, Rare, Threatened, and
Endangered Species. Submitted by Progress Energy, Raleigh, NC. February 2003.
7-2
Section 7
References
Schafale, M.P. and A.S. Weakley. 1990. Classification of the natural communities of North
Carolina. North Carolina Natural Heritage Program. Raleigh, NC
Sharitz, R.R. and W.J. Mitsch. 1993. Southern Floodplain Forests. Pages 311-372 in W.H. Martin,
S.G. Boyce, and A.C. Echternacht (eds.) Biodiversity of the Southeastern United States:
Lowland Terrestrial Communities. John Wiley and Sons. New York, NY.
Sorrie, B.A. 2001. Natural Areas Inventory for Richmond County. Sponsored by: The Land Trust
for Central North Carolina, Salisbury, NC, and Sandhills Area Land Trust. The North
Carolina Natural Heritage Program, Division of Parks and Recreation, Department of
Environment and Natural Resources, Raleigh, NC.
Smith, L.A., R.L. Pederson, and R.M. Kaminski. 1989. Habitat Management for Migrating and
Wintering Waterfowl in North America. Texas Tech University Press. pp. 560.
Sousa, P.J.
1985.
Habitat suitability index models:
USFWS.FWS/OBS-82/10.114. pp. 34.
blue-winged teal (breeding).
Sousa, P.J., and A.H. Farmer. 1983. Habitat suitability index models: wood duck. USFWS.
FWS/OBS-82/10.43. pp. 27.
Taylor J.R., M.A. Cardamone, and W.J. Mitch. 1990. Bottomland Hardwood Forests: Their
Functions and Values. Pages 13-86 in J.G. Gosselink, L.C. Lee, and T.A. Muir (eds.)
Ecological Processes and Cumulative Impacts: Illustrated by Bottomland hardwood Wetland
Ecosystems. Lewis Publishers.
U.S. Army Corps of Engineers Environmental Laboratory. 1987. Corps of Engineers wetland
delineation manual. Waterways Experimental Station. Vicksburg, MS. Technical Report
Y-87-1. pp. 100.
U.S. Department of Agriculture (Natural Resources Conservation Service). 1999. Soil Survey of
Richmond County, North Carolina. In cooperation with the NCDENR, NC Agricultural
Research Service, NC Cooperative Extension Service, Richmond Soil and Water
Conservation District.
——. 2004. The PLANTS Database, Version 3.5. National Plant Data Center, Baton Rouge, LA
70874-4490 USA. Available:
■
(Juncus effusus) http://plants.usda.gov/cgi_bin/plant_attribute.cgi?symbol=JUEF
■
(Panicum virgatum) http://plants.usda.gov/cgi_bin/plant_attribute.cgi?symbol=PAVI2
■
(Peltandra virginica)
http://plants.usda.gov/cgi_bin/topics.cgi?earl=plant_profile.cgi&symbol=PEVI
■
(Saururus cernuus) http://plants.usda.gov/cgi_bin/topics.cgi?earl=fact_sheet.cgi
■
(Zizaniopsis miliacea)
http://plants.usda.gov/cgi_bin/topics.cgi?earl=plant_profile.cgi&symbol=ZIMI
7-3
Section 7
References
U.S. Department of Agriculture. 1965. Silvics of Forest Trees of the United States. Division of
Timber Management Research, U.S. Forest Service. Washington D.C. Agriculture
Handbook No. 271.
Washington Department of Ecology and Washington Department of Fish and Wildlife. 2003.
Wetlands in Washington State. Volume 1, Chapter 4- A synthesis of the science.
Wharton, C.H., W.M. Kitchens, and T.W. Sipe. 1982. The Ecology of Bottomland Hardwood
Swamps of the Southeast: A Community Profile. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Biological
Services Program, Washington, D.C. FWS/OBS-81/37. pp. 133.
Wilcox, D.A. and J.E. Meeker. 1991. Disturbance effects on aquatic vegetation in regulated and
unregulated lakes in northern Minnesota. Can. J. Bot. 69:1542-1551.
7-4
APPENDICES
APPENDIX A
WILDLIFE SPECIES GUILDS
YADKIN-PEE-DEE TERRESTRIAL WILDLIFE SPECIES GUILDS
WITH SEASONALITY OF HABITAT USE
x
x
x
Seasonal use of
Habitat
x
Relative
Abundance
Known from
study area? (x)
BOTTOMLAND HARDWOOD FLOODPLAIN WETLANDS (PIEDMONT)
c
Sp
Su
F
W
c
Sp
Su
F
W
c
Sp
Su
F
W
c
Sp
Su
F
W
Scientific Name
Odocoileus virginianus
Procyon lotor
Castor canadensis
Sciurus carolinensis
Common Name
White-tailed Deer
Habit Requirements / Notes
Potential Project Impacts
White-tailed deer are at home in many
of the natural communities of the
region. Prime habitat is broken areas
of re-generating forest with cropland
interspersed throughout.
Associated with wetland habitats and
stream corridors.
High water events have the potential to push
individuals from bottomlands to more upland areas
on a temporary basis.
Raccoon
Beaver
Gray Squirrel
Typically found along small wooded
streams which it dams to form small
impoundments called beaver ponds.
Also found in large rivers and lakes
where it often forms bank dens as
opposed to open water lodges when it
forms an impoundment of its own.
The preferred habitat of gray squirrels
is extensive tracts of mature forests of
oaks, hickories, and beeches mixed
with other hardwoods and various
species of conifers.
Appendix A - 1
High water events have the potential to reduce the
available suitable habitat for this species impacting
food and den site availability. Low water levels can
temporarily reduce potential aquatic prey species.
The daily changes in water levels have no affect on
the species.
Extremely low water events (2.0 ft below normal
maximum operating level) have the potential to dewater bank den sites. This could expose this species
to additional predation lowering population levels.
The daily changes in water levels have no affect on
the species.
High water events during the winter months could
potentially inundate stored food sources causing
increased mortality rates and lowered reproductive
success.
x
x
x
Seasonal use of
Habitat
Relative
Abundance
Known from
study area? (x)
x
c
Sp
Su
F
u
Sp
Su
F
W
c
c
Sp
Su
F
W
Sp
Su
F
W
Scientific Name
Eptesicus fuscus
Sorex longirostris
Anas platyrhynchos
Common Name
Big Brown Bat
Southeastern Shrew
Mallard
Habit Requirements / Notes
Potential Project Impacts
This species is normally a forest
dweller, but it does not hesitate to
utilize attics and crevices in buildings,
caves, and crevices in rocks for
daytime retreats. Favorite roosts are
under the loose bark of dead trees and
in cavities of trees. These bats emerge
rather early in the evening and feed
among the trees, often following a
regular route from one treetop to
another and back again.
The Southeastern Shrew prefers
floodplain forests and the borders of
swamps. It has also been found in dry
upland locations, including fields and
pastures.
Typically found in marshes, rivers,
lakes, wooded swamps and bays with
shallow water where it is able to
dabble
Extremely dry years could lower water levels within
the Project area causing lower production of
preferred food sources forcing this species to
abandon roost sites within the Project area and
relocate to areas with better food sources. The daily
changes in water levels have no affect on the species.
This species is typically found in
wooded swamps, rivers and ponds.
Aix sponsa
Wood Duck
Appendix A - 2
High water events have the potential to inundate the
tunnel system used by this species forcing relocation
to higher ground outside the Project Boundary.
High water events can inundate food sources
necessary for this dabbling duck also inundate nest
sites; Low water (de-watering) events can cause food
sources to be unavailable for both broods and adults.
Low water levels also expose the broods to
increased predation due to lack of wetland cover.
The daily changes in water levels have no affect on
the species.
Water levels below normal maximum operating pool
for extended periods of time can cause a reduction in
foraging and cover habitat. This can also concentrate
birds on the remaining suitable habitat exposing
larger concentrations of birds to predators. The
daily changes in water levels have no affect on the
species.
Relative
Abundance
Seasonal use of
Habitat
Known from
study area? (x)
x
c
Sp
Su
F
W
c
Sp
Su
F
W
c
Sp
Su
F
x
c
Sp
Su
F
x
u
x
x
x
c
Sp
Su
Sp
Su
F
W
Scientific Name
Meleagris gallopavo
Common Name
Wild Turkey
Habit Requirements / Notes
Potential Project Impacts
This is a species of woods, especially
hardwood forests, and wooded
swamps.
High water events in bottomlands can have a
potential negative impact on this species by
inundating favored food sources such as seeds, nuts,
acorns, buds, and berries; especially during the fall.
The daily changes in water levels have no affect on
the species.
This raptor can be negatively impacted by the Project
in an indirect way; by high water levels affecting its
prey including small mammals, the largest of these
being rabbits and squirrels as well as reptiles, such as
snakes, amphibians, including toads, frogs and
lizards, small birds and large insects. The daily
changes in water levels have no affect on the species.
This species is typically found in
woodlands, wooded rivers, and
timbered swamps.
Buteo lineatus
Protonotaria citrea
Red-shouldered Hawk
Prothonotary Warbler
Typically found in wooded swamps
and river riparian areas with shallow
water inundation during breeding
season. Cavity nester
Typically found in large, forested
hardwood tracts and bottomlands
Seiurus aurocapillus
Ovenbird
Empidonax virescens
Acadian Flycatcher
This species can be found in deciduous
forests, bottomlands, ravines, swampy
woods, and beech groves.
Northern Water Snake
This species of snake is at home in
almost any aquatic habitat including
swamps, marshes, bogs, streams,
ponds, lakes and their adjacent
habitats.
Nerodia sipedon sipedon
Appendix A - 3
Water levels below normal operating pool, for
extended periods of time during breeding season, can
expose nest cavities to increased predation. The
daily changes in water levels have no affect on the
species.
High water levels due to flooding in the
breeding/nesting season can inundate bottomland
ground nest sites. The daily changes in water levels
have no affect on the species.
No impacts to the species are expected. The daily
changes in water levels have no affect on the species.
Water levels below normal operating pool for
extended periods of time can cause a reduction in
foraging and aquatic habitat. The daily changes in
water levels have no affect on the species.
x
Relative
Abundance
Seasonal use of
Habitat
Known from
study area? (x)
x
c
Sp
Su
F
W
c
Sp
Su
F
W
Scientific Name
Ambystoma maculatum
Rana palustris
Common Name
Spotted Salamander
Pickerel Frog
Habit Requirements / Notes
Potential Project Impacts
Usually found in forested swamps, wet
ditches, and vernal pools in forested
floodplains throughout the Piedmont
High water levels due to flooding in the spring can
inundate and scour away egg masses and larvalstages within the bottomland vernal pools. The daily
changes in water levels have no affect on the perched
vernal pools within the Project.
High water levels due to flooding in the spring can
inundate and scour away egg masses and larvalstages within the bottomland vernal pools and
wetland areas. The daily changes in water levels
have no affect on the perched vernal pools and
wetlands within the Project.
Pickerel frogs commonly inhabit cool,
wooded streams, seeps and springs
although they are also found in many
other habitats. In the South, it can also
be found in the relatively warm, turbid
waters of floodplain swamps. These
frogs tend to wander far into grassy
fields or into weed-covered areas in
the summer.
Appendix A - 4
x
x
x
x
Seasonal use of
Habitat
x
Relative
Abundance
Known from
study area? (x)
EMERGENT WETLANDS
c
Sp
Su
F
W
c
Sp
Su
F
W
c
Sp
Su
F
W
r
Sp
Su
F
W
c
c
W
Sp
Su
F
W
Scientific Name
Mustela vison
Common Name
Mink
Habit Requirements / Notes
Potential Project Impacts
Never far from water (Semi-aquatic);
has associated with most types of
wetlands.
High water events have the potential to reduce the
available suitable habitat for this species impacting
food and den site availability. Low water levels can
temporarily reduce potential aquatic prey species.
The daily changes in water levels have no affect on
the species.
High water events have the potential to reduce the
available suitable habitat for this species impacting
food and den site availability. Low water levels can
temporarily reduce potential aquatic prey species.
The daily changes in water levels have no affect on
the species.
Extremely low water events (2.0 ft below normal
maximum operating level) have the potential to dewater bank den sites. This could expose this species
to additional predation lowering population levels.
The daily changes in water levels have no affect on
the species.
High water events have the potential to reduce the
available suitable habitat for this species impacting
food and nest site availability. The daily changes in
water levels have no affect on the species.
Low water (de-watering) events can cause food
sources and winter cover to be unavailable. The
daily changes in water levels have no affect on the
species.
High water events can inundate food sources
necessary for this dabbling duck also inundate nest
sites; Low water (de-watering) events can cause food
sources to be unavailable for both broods and adults.
Low water levels also expose the broods to
increased predation due to lack of wetland cover.
The daily changes in water levels have no affect on
the species.
Associated with wetland habitats and
stream corridors.
Procyon lotor
Ondatra zibethicus
Sylvilagus palustris
Anas crecca
Anas platyrhynchos
Raccoon
Muskrat
Marsh Rabbit
Green-winged Teal
Mallard
Emergent wetlands dominated by
rushes and cattails as well as open
water areas.
Typically found in marshes and
swamps as well as wooded
floodplains.
Typically found in marshes, rivers and
bays with shallow water where it is
able to dabble.
Typically found in marshes, rivers,
lakes, wooded swamps and bays with
shallow water where it is able to
dabble.
Appendix A - 5
Relative
Abundance
Seasonal use of
Habitat
Known from
study area? (x)
x
c
Sp
Su
F
W
Scientific Name
Ardea herodias
Common Name
Great Blue Heron
Habit Requirements / Notes
Potential Project Impacts
Associated with marshes, swamps,
shores as well as bottomland
hardwood forests and pine stands for
nesting.
Low water levels in the Project have the potential to
de-water the normally shallow water areas needed by
this species for feeding causing negative impacts.
The daily changes in water levels have no affect on
the species.
High water events or flooding can negatively affect
this species indirectly by causing lower population
levels in some prey species especially in small
mammals; causing this species to relocate to areas
with better hunting opportunities.
The daily
changes in water levels have no affect on the
species.
Prolonged low water events have the potential to
reduce the available habitat within the Project area;
causing this species to relocate to other areas with
high quality preferred habitat available. High water
levels due to flooding during the nesting season can
inundate nests within the wetland.
The daily
changes in water levels have no affect on the
species.
Prolonged low water events have the potential to
reduce the available habitat within the Project area;
causing this species to relocate to other areas with
high quality preferred habitat available. The daily
changes in water levels have no affect on the
species.
Low water levels can reduce available foraging and
cover habitat. Also exposure and subsequent
freezing and desiccation of substrates during the
winter can cause freezing of individuals. The daily
changes in water levels have no affect on the
species.
Marshes, fields and other open areas
suitable for hunting techniques.
x
u
SP
F
W
Circus cyaneus
Northern Harrier
Prefers swamps, marshes and wet
thickets.
x
x
x
c
Sp
Su
F
W
c
Sp
Su
F
W
c
Sp
Su
F
W
Geothlypis trichas
Agelaius phoeniceus
Chrysemys scripta
Common Yellowthroat
Red-winged Blackbird
Yellow-belly Slider
Breeds in marshes, brushy swamps,
hayfields; forages also in cultivated
land, along edges of water.
Prefers quiet water with a muddy
bottom and a profusion of vegetation.
Often basks on logs and masses of
vegetation.
Appendix A - 6
x
Seasonal use of
Habitat
x
Relative
Abundance
Known from
study area? (x)
x
u
Sp
Su
F
W
c
Sp
Su
F
W
c
Sp
Su
F
W
Scientific Name
Nerodia sipedon
Notophthalmus viridescens
viridescens
Rana catesbeiana
Common Name
Northern Water Snake
Red-spotted Newt
Bullfrog
Habit Requirements / Notes
Potential Project Impacts
Found in all types of freshwater
habitats, including streams, ponds,
lakes and marshes
Low water levels can reduce available foraging and
cover habitat and could potentially reduce its prey
species; lowering reproductive success or forcing
individuals to find alternative living locations. The
daily changes in water levels have no affect on the
species.
Extreme water events, both high and low, have the
potential to affect this species. Low water events
could dry out breeding and/or resting areas, and high
water events could scour away egg masses lowering
reproductive success. . The daily changes in water
levels have no affect on the species.
Water levels 2-3 ft below the normal maximum
operation level for more than one day can adversely
affect the species by limiting habitat and increasing
predation. The daily changes in water levels have no
affect on the species.
Often found in ponds, small lakes,
marshes or other permanent or semipermanent bodies of unpolluted water.
Aquatic and preferring larger bodies of
water than most other frogs. A
resident of lakes, ponds, bogs,
sluggish portions of streams; usually
seen at waters edge or amidst
vegetation or snags among which it
can hide from predators.
Appendix A - 7
x
x
x
x
x
Seasonal use of
Habitat
x
Relative
Abundance
Known from
study area? (x)
SCRUB-SHRUB WETLANDS
c
Sp
Su
F
W
c
Sp
Su
F
W
r
Sp
Su
F
W
c
Sp
Su
F
W
c
Sp
Su
F
W
c
Sp
Su
F
W
Scientific Name
Odocoileus virginianus
Felis rufus
Mustela vison
Sylvilagus floridanus
Cardinalis cardinalis
Agelaius phoeniceus
Common Name
White-tailed Deer
Bobcat
Mink
Eastern Cottontail
Habit Requirements / Notes
Potential Project Impacts
White-tailed deer are at home in many
of the natural communities of the
region. Prime habitat is broken areas
of re-generating forest with cropland
interspersed throughout.
Typically prefers forests where there
are areas of dense thickets associated
with forest re-generation.
High water events have the potential to push
individuals from bottomlands to more upland areas
on a temporary basis.
Never far from water (Semi-aquatic);
has associated with most types of
wetlands.
Typically found in areas of disturbed
habitat preferring old fields, brushy
edges and other habitats characterized
by mixtures of herbaceous and
shrubby plants.
Typically found in thickets, suburban
gardens and woodland edges.
Northern Cardinal
Red-winged Blackbird
Breeds in marshes, brushy swamps,
hayfields; forages also in cultivated
land, along edges of water.
Appendix A - 8
High water events have the potential to push
individuals from bottomlands to more upland areas
on a temporary basis. The daily changes in water
levels have no affect on the species.
The dewatering of wetland habitats would reduce the
total available usable habitat in the Project area;
thereby reducing the total number of individuals.
The daily changes in water levels have no affect on
the species.
High water events have the potential to reduce the
available suitable habitat for this species impacting
food and nest site availability. The daily changes in
water levels have no affect on the species.
Prolonged periods of high water could adversely
affect this species by limiting production of
preferred foods (seeds/insects) and/or inundation of
nest sites. The daily changes in water levels have
no affect on the species.
Prolonged low water events have the potential to
reduce the available habitat within the Project area;
causing this species to relocate to other areas with
high quality preferred habitat available. The daily
changes in water levels have no affect on the
species.
x
x
x
x
Seasonal use of
Habitat
Relative
Abundance
Known from
study area? (x)
x
c
Sp
Su
F
W
c
Sp
Su
F
W
c
Sp
Su
F
W
c
Sp
Su
F
W
c
Sp
Su
F
W
Scientific Name
Geothlypis trichas
Thamnophis sirtalis sirtalis
Desmognathus fuscus fuscus
Eurycea cirrigera
Bufo americanus
Common Name
Habit Requirements / Notes
Potential Project Impacts
Prefers swamps, marshes and wet
thickets.
Prolonged low water events have the potential to
reduce the available habitat within the Project area;
causing this species to relocate to other areas with
high quality preferred habitat available. High water
levels due to flooding during the nesting season can
inundate nests within the wetland.
The daily
changes in water levels have no affect on the
species.
High water levels due to flooding in the spring and
summer can inundate and wash away individuals and
prey within the bottomland vernal pools and wetland
areas. The daily changes in water levels have no
affect on the perched vernal pools and wetlands
within the Project.
High water events can have a potential negative
impact on this species by inundating its preferred
habitat forcing it to find other suitable locations that
are not inundated.
Common Yellowthroat
This snake occupies a wide variety of
habitats including meadows, marshes,
woodlands, hillsides, along streams
and brushy areas while in search of
prey.
Eastern Garter Snake
Northern Dusky Salamander
Southern
Salamander
American Toad
Two-lined
Found in many different habitat types
including brooks, near springs, and in
seepage areas. Perhaps most common
along edges of small woodland
streams where stones, chunks of wood,
and miscellaneous debris provide
ample shelter both for the salamanders
and their food.
Typically found hiding beneath all
types of objects including masses of
wet leaves in river or creek swamps.
Occurs in an extremely wide variety of
habitats including damp thickets with
a dependable supply of water during
the breeding season.
Appendix A - 9
High water events can have a potential negative
impact on this species by inundating its preferred
habitat especially in winter when it retreats under
ground to wait for warmer weather. The daily
changes in water levels have no affect on the
species.
High water levels due to flooding in the spring can
inundate and wash away egg masses and larvalstages within the bottomland vernal pools and
wetland areas. The daily changes in water levels
have no affect on the perched vernal pools and
wetlands within the Project.
APPENDIX B
SELECTED WETLAND CROSS SECTIONS
Appendix B - 1
Appendix B - 2
APPENDIX C
INFORMATION ON REPRESENTATIVE AND IMPORTANT WETLAND
PLANT SPECIES
The following discussion provides information on the commonly occurring and representative
wetland and floodplain plant species documented in the study area occurring in Region 2 –
Southeast, which includes the entire Yadkin-Pee Dee Project area. Each of these plants is assigned
an indicator status. The indicator status shows the plants tendency to grow in wetland locations.
These are as follows:
■
■
■
■
■
■
OBL – Obligate Wetland: Plant species assigned this indicator status occur with 99 percent
probability in wetlands
FACW – Facultative Wetland: Plant species assigned this indicator status occur with 67-99
percent probability in wetlands
FAC – Facultative: Plant species assigned this indicator status occur with 34-66 percent
probability in wetlands
FACU – Facultative Upland: Plant species assigned this indicator status occur with 67-99
percent probability in non-wetlands; 1-33 percent in wetlands
UPL – Obligate Upland: Plant species assigned this indicator status occur with 99 percent
probability in non-wetlands in this region
NI – No Indicator: Insufficient information available to determine an indicator status
Positive or negative signs are used to more specifically define frequency of occurrence in wetlands.
A positive sign (+) indicates a frequency toward the higher end of a category (more frequently found
in wetlands), and a negative sign (-) indicates a frequency toward the lower end of a category (less
frequently found in wetlands) (USFWS 1988).
SPECIES: Acer rubrum (Red Maple) - FAC
GENERAL BOTANICAL CHARACTERISTICS
Red maple is a deciduous, medium to large-sized tree that grows 30 to 90 ft (9 to 28 m) tall and up to
4 ft (1.6 m) in diameter (Tirmenstein 1991). The bark is smooth and light gray on young trees,
similar in appearance to other maples; older trees are darker gray bark with long, narrow scaly plates
and shallow fissures (Brown and Kirkman 1990). Twigs are stout and shiny red to grayish brown
with terminal buds.
The small, red, fragrant flowers are borne in slender-stalked, drooping, axillary clusters. The fruit is
a paired, winged samara, approximately 0.75 inch (1.9 cm) long. Samaras are red, pink, or yellow
(Tirmenstein 1991).
REGENERATION PROCESSES
Red maple can bear seed as early as 4 years of age and produces good or better seed crops over most
of its range in one out of two years. Bumper seed crops do occur. Trees are extremely prolific;
individual trees 2 to 8 inches (5 to 20 cm) in diameter commonly produce 12,000 to 91,000 seeds
annually, and trees 12 inches (30 cm) in diameter can produce nearly 1,000,000 seeds. Seed is wind
dispersed. Up to 95 percent of viable seed germinates with the first 10 days; some seed survives
within the duff and germinates the following year (Tirmenstein 1991). Seedbed requirements for red
maple are minimal, and a bank of persistent seedlings often accumulates beneath a forest canopy.
Seedlings may number more than 11,000 per acre (44,534/ha) and can survive for three to five years
under moderate shade (Tirmenstein 1991).
Appendix C - 1
Vegetative regeneration: Red maple sprouts vigorously from the stump, root crown, or “root
suckers” after fire or mechanical damage. Lees observed that at least three generations of stump
sprouts can “thrive on the same regenerating root system.” Buds located at the base of stems
commonly sprout two to six weeks after the stem is cut (Tirmenstein 1991).
SITE CHARACTERISTICS
Red maple grows throughout much of the deciduous forest of eastern North America and into the
fringes of the boreal forest. It occurs on a variety of wet to dry sites in dense woods and in openings.
Red maple grows in low, rich woods, along the margins of lakes, marshes, and swamps, in
hammocks, wet thickets, and on floodplains and stream terraces. Red maple also occurs in drier
upland woodlands, low-elevation cove forests, dry sandy plains, and on stable dunes. Red maple is a
common dominant in many forest types and is considered a major species or associate in more that
56 cover types (Tirmenstein 1991). Red maple grows in association with more than 70 important
tree species. Red maple is found in virtually every county of the Carolinas (Radford et al. 1968).
Red maple does well on a wider range of soil types, textures, moisture regimes, and pH than does
any other forest species in North America. It develops best on moist, fertile, loamy soils but also
grows on a variety of dry, rocky, upland soils. Red maple grows on soils derived from a variety of
parent materials, including granite, shales, slates, gneisses, schists, sandstone, limestone,
conlgomerates, and quartzites. It also occurs on a variety of lacustrine sediments, glacial till, and
glacial outwash (Tirmenstein 1991). Red maple grows from sea level to 3,000 ft (0 to 900 m) in
elevation.
SUCCESSIONAL STATUS
Red maple is characterized by wide ecological amplitude and occupies a wide range of succession
stages. It is moderately tolerant of shade in the North but intolerant of shade in the Piedmont. Red
maple commonly grows as a subclimax or mid-seral species, but characteristics such as vigorous
sprouting, prolific seeding, and ability to compete enable it to pioneer on a variety of disturbed sites.
This tree lives longer than most seral species but generally does not persist in late succession stages.
In even-aged stands which develop after clear cutting, red maple is commonly overtopped by faster
growing species such as northern red oak. In a few locations in the Southeast, it grows as a climax
dominant in wet-site communities (Tirmenstein 1991).
Red maple commonly increases after disturbances such as windthrow, clear cutting, or fire. In many
locations, red maple has increased in importance since presettlement times. Dutch elm disease and
chestnut blight have led to increases in the number of red maple stems in many stands. In many
parts of the East, red maple has increased in gaps resulting from oak decline and gypsy moth
infestations (Tirmenstein 1991).
SEASONAL DEVELOPMENT
Red maple is one of the first trees to flower in early spring. In the Carolinas, red maple can flower
as early as January, and will continue to flower through March. Fruiting occurs April through July
(Radford et al. 1968).
Appendix C - 2
GENERAL DISTRIBUTION
Red maple is one of the most widely distributed trees in eastern North America. Its range extends
from Newfoundland and Nova Scotia west to southern Ontario, Minnesota, Wisconsin, and Illinois;
south through Missouri, eastern Oklahoma, and southern Texas; and east to southern Florida
(Tirmenstein 1991).
HABITAT TYPES AND PLANT COMMUNITIES
Red maple occurs in low wet areas, along streams, floodplains, in deciduous woods, and on drier
sites (Brown and Kirkman 1990). It is a dominant or codominant in several eastern deciduous
forests and deciduous swamp communities with black ash (Fraxinus nigra), yellow birch (Betula
alleghaniensis), northern red oak (Quercus rubra), black oak (Q. velutinus), aspen (Populus
tremuloides), and elm (Ulmus spp.). In mesic upland communities of the Southeast, it grows as an
overstory dominant with sweetgum (Liquidambar styraciflua) and water oak (Quercus nigra)
(Tirmenstein 1991).
COVER AND WILDLIFE VALUE
Maples provide cover for many species of wildlife. The screech owl, pileated woodpecker, and
common flicker nest in cavities in many species of maple. Cavities in red maples in river floodplain
communities are often well suited for cavity nesters such as the wood duck (Tirmenstein 1991).
SPECIES: Betula nigra (River Birch) - FACW
GENERAL BOTANICAL CHARACTERISTICS
River birch is a medium-sized, native, deciduous tree, usually 60 to 80 ft (18 to 24.4 m) in height,
typically with a short trunk and forked, spreading crown. The bark of younger specimens is reddish
to gray-brown, peeling into papery layers; older trees are darker grayish brown with coarser, shreddy
plates (Brown and Kirkman 1990).
REGENERATION PROCESSES
Good seed crops are usually produced annually. The winged seeds are wind or water disseminated.
Water dissemination is probably more important because water deposits the seeds on moist shores
favorable to germination and establishment. The seeds germinate rapidly in moist alluvial soil, often
in large numbers, forming thickets on sandbars. The seeds are apparently viable only a few days.
River birch does not spread vegetatively, but multiple stems arising from stump sprouts are common.
Because of this, river birch is resilient to flood damage (Sullivan 1993).
SITE CHARACTERISTICS
River birch is typically a floodplain species, usually located along streambanks and in wet
bottomlands (Brown and Kirkman 1990). Typical sites also include sandbars and new land near
streams, inside the natural levee or front. It is occasionally found on scattered upland sites, and it is
found extensively throughout the Carolinas (Radford et al. 1968). It is positively associated with
clay soils. Soils can be either well- or poorly drained, as long as they are at or near field capacity
Appendix C - 3
year-round. River birch often occurs on soils that are too acid for most other hardwoods (pH range
two to four), but also occurs on soils of higher pH (Sullivan 1993).
River birch is moderately tolerant to flooding; it can occur in soils that are waterlogged about
50 percent of the time (Sullivan 1993).
SUCCESSIONAL STATUS
River birch is intolerant of shade. It is an early pioneer on stream bank alluvium, and requires high
soil moisture coupled with no shade for germination and establishment. River birch may be the
initial colonizer of sandbars, or may establish after sandbars are stabilized by more flood-tolerant
alders (Alnus spp.) or willows (Salix spp.). It readily establishes on the soils exposed by stream
channelization projects and remains important for a number of years, even after canopy closure.
River birch usually follows willows and is replaced by other hardwoods, generally oaks (Sullivan
1993). It is fairly short-lived.
SEASONAL DEVELOPMENT
Male catkins are formed on twig tips in the fall and mature the following April or May. Female
catkins appear with the leaves and open in early spring. In the Carolinas, river birch flowers March
to April; fruiting occurs May through June (Radford et al. 1968).
GENERAL DISTRIBUTION
River birch is found throughout the southeastern United States; local distributions are closely
associated with alluvial soils. It is found from southern New York, eastern Pennsylvania, and
Maryland west to eastern Indiana; north in the Mississippi Valley to Wisconsin and southeastern
Minnesota; south to Missouri, Arkansas, eastern Oklahoma, and eastern Texas; and east to northern
Florida (Sullivan 1993).
HABITAT TYPES AND PLANT COMMUNITIES
River birch is found in virtually every bottomland cover type, and its associates can be considered
almost all bottomland plants in the eastern United States (Sullivan 1993).
COVER AND WILDLIFE VALUE
The riparian areas in which river birch occurs are of prime value for wildlife, and this species
provides some nesting habitat, but it is considered of little value as a wildlife food source.
SPECIES: Celtis laevigata (Sugarberry or Lowland Hackberry) - FACW
GENERAL BOTANICAL CHARACTERISTICS
Sugarberry or hackberry is a medium-sized, native, deciduous tree up to 80 ft tall (24 m), with a
well-formed straight trunk that occasionally reaches 36 inches (92 cm) in dbh. The crown is open
and rounded. The bark of young trees is gray and smooth; mature trees develop corky protuberances
that are scattered to dense with smooth areas in between (Brown and Kirkman 1990). The roots of
Appendix C - 4
sugarberry are relatively shallow; it does not form a distinct taproot and has only average resistance
to windthrow. Sugarberry has a moderately long life span, not usually living over 150 years
(Sullivan 1993).
REGENERATION PROCESSES
Sexual reproduction: Sugarberry is polygamo-monoecious. Individual’s usually first produce seeds
at 15 years; optimum seed bearing years are from 30 to 70 years of age. Good seed crops are
produced most years, some individuals produce good crops every year. Sugarberry seeds are
dispersed by mammals, birds and by water. Seedlings are intolerant of flooding.
Sugarberry tends to grow slowly; the average 10-year diameter increase in natural stands is
1.5 inches (3.8 cm) (Sullivan 1993).
SITE CHARACTERISTICS
Sugarberry is found in moist alluvial woods and slough margins (but not deep swamps) up to 600 ft
(180 m) elevation. It also occurs on upland sites, although rarely. It occurs on any soil type with
fair drainage, from sandy loams and rocky or alluvial soils to heavy black clay. Sugarberry is most
often found on clay soils in the orders Iceptisols and Entisols on broad flats or shallow sloughs
within the floodplains of major rivers, and on deep moist soils derived from limestone, but will grow
under a considerable range of soil and moisture conditions (Sullivan 1993).
Sugarberry cannot tolerate prolonged flooding or water-saturated soils. In forested wetlands
sugarberry grows best in the drier areas. Rising water levels (due to flooding, impoundments etc.)
will reduce sugarberry basal area in these forests (Sullivan 1993).
SUCCESSIONAL STATUS
Seedlings of sugarberry can establish under most stands of southern bottomland hardwoods;
sugarberry is shade tolerant. It will respond when released, and can outgrow more desirable forest
species. When established in the understory it has a very poor form (limby, short-boled, crooked or
forked) (Sullivan 1993).
Sugarberry commonly follows eastern cottonwood (Populus deltoides var. deltoides) and black
willow (Salix nigra) in succession on new land created by rivers. Old-growth stands may include
sugarberry as an important overstory species. However, sugarberry regeneration might not occur at
a rate sufficient to maintain its numbers. Once the canopy is mature and other tolerant hardwoods
are recruited, sugarberry numbers will decrease (Sullivan 1993).
SEASONAL DEVELOPMENT
In the Carolinas, sugarberry flowers from April through May, and fruits from August to October
(Radford et al. 1968). The fruit is sometimes retained on the tree until midwinter.
Appendix C - 5
GENERAL DISTRIBUTION
Sugarberry is native to the southeastern part of the U.S., ranging south from southeastern Virginia to
southern Florida; west to central Texas and including northeastern Mexico; north to western
Oklahoma and southern Kansas; and east to Missouri, extreme southern Illinois, and Indiana. It
occurs locally in Maryland (Sullivan 1993).
HABITAT TYPES AND PLANT COMMUNITIES
In many areas, sugarberry occurs as scattered individuals. After disturbances, a seral sugarberryAmerican elm (Ulmus americana)-green ash (Fraxinus pennsylvanica) forest cover type may
develop, with sugarberry as a codominant. This type intermixes with sweetgum (Liquidambar
styraciflua)-willow oak (Quercus phellos) types, which contain essentially the same species in
different densities. The sugarberry-American elm-green ash type occurs often along major river
basins (Sullivan 1993).
COVER AND WILDLIFE VALUE
The fruits of sugarberry are eaten by many birds, including: ring-necked pheasant, waterfowl, quail,
and ruffed grouse. They are a preferred food of turkeys in fall and winter. Squirrels occasionally eat
the fruit, and will also consume buds and bark, but do so rarely. Other game and nongame animals
consume the fruit. White-tailed deer will browse sugarberry, but it has a low preference rating
(Sullivan 1993).
SPECIES: Cephalanthus occidentalis (Buttonbush) - OBL
GENERAL BOTANICAL CHARACTERISTICS
Buttonbush is a deciduous, warm-season, tall shrub or small tree that can reach up to 18 ft (6 m) in
height. Its base is often swollen. Branches are usually green when young but turn brown at
maturity. Buttonbush has opposite, lanceolate-oblong leaves about 7 inches (18 cm) long and
3 inches (7.5 cm) wide. Tiny, white flowers occur in dense, spherical clusters at the ends of the
branches. Fruits are a round cluster of brown, cone-shaped nutlets (Snyder 1991).
REGENERATION PROCESSES
Buttonbush regenerates by seed, which have a low germination rate (Snyder 1991).
SITE CHARACTERISTICS
Buttonbush grows along swamps, marshes, bogs, ditches, and other riparian areas that are inundated
for at least part of the year. It grows in alluvial plains that experience intermittent flooding, but can
be damaged by spring flooding (Snyder 1991).
Appendix C - 6
SUCCESSIONAL STATUS
Buttonbush is a pioneer species in frequently flooded bald cypress/water tupelo (Nyssa aquatica)
swamps, establishing on rotting logs and stumps. Buttonbush can also colonize lowland marsh
communities dominated by bulrush (Snyder 1991).
SEASONAL DEVELOPMENT
In the Carolinas, buttonbush flowers from June through August, and fruits from August through
September (Radford et al. 1968).
GENERAL DISTRIBUTION
Buttonbush extends from southern Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, Quebec, and Ontario south
through southern Florida and west through the eastern half of the Great Plains States. Scattered
populations exist in New Mexico, Arizona, and the central valley of California (Snyder 1991).
Buttonbush is found throughout most of the Carolinas (Radford et al. 1968).
HABITAT TYPES AND PLANT COMMUNITIES
Buttonbush is a wetland shrub common to most swamps and floodplains of eastern and southern
North America.
COVER AND WILDLIFE VALUE
Buttonbush is important to wood ducks for brood rearing and hiding. Many species of waterfowl
and shorebirds eat buttonbush seeds. White-tailed deer use of buttonbush browse varies from light
in Pennsylvania to heavy in Nova Scotia. Bees use buttonbush to produce honey (Snyder 1991).
SPECIES: Cornus amomum ( Silky Dogwood) – FACW+
GENERAL BOTANICAL CHARACTERISTICS
Silky dogwood is a multi-stem, fast growing shrub with a height up to 10 ft tall. It is deciduous,
with simple, opposite, entire, broadly elliptic leaves. Lateral leaf veins curve to run nearly parallel
with blade margin; appressed hairs on lower surface are brown to reddish-brown; leaf scar is narrow
V-shaped; bundle scars 3; axillary bud is imbricate, appressed, hairy; branchlet bark purplish-red;
pith of 1-year twigs is brown. The flowers are white, in flat-topped or somewhat round-top clusters;
the fruit is a drupe, white to dull blue (Gardeners Choice).
REGENERATION PROCESSES
Regeneration of this species is primarily by seed, but also slowly stoloniferous.
SITE CHARACTERISTICS
Full sun to partial shade, coarse to fine texture soils with a pH range of five to seven, and wet or dry
soil suits this species (Gardeners Choice).
Appendix C - 7
SUCCESSIONAL STATUS
This species is a quick growing shrub and rapid colonizer in full sun.
SEASONAL DEVELOPMENT
In the Carolinas, silky dogwood typically flowers from May through June, and fruits August through
September (Radford et al. 1968).
GENERAL DISTRIBUTION
Occurs on edges of wetlands and stream banks from Florida to Canada, and Midwest to Missouri
(USDA-NRCS 2004).
HABITAT TYPES AND PLANT COMMUNITIES
Silky dogwood is found in marshes, swamp forests, bottomlands and near stream banks, and is
commonly associated with palustrine wetland communities.
COVER AND WILDLIFE VALUE
Nesting site for gray catbirds and American goldfinches. Dogwood fruits are very valuable to many
birds and mammals; the foliage is grazed by some herbivores (Stucky et al. 2001).
SPECIES: Fraxinus pennsylvanica (Green Ash) - FACW
GENERAL BOTANICAL CHARACTERISTICS
Green ash is a native, deciduous tree that is highly variable in form and size, depending on habitat.
It can be a medium-size to large tree and reach 100 ft in height. The bark is gray-brown, with
narrow fissures and interlacing ridges (Brown and Kirkman 1990). Leaves are opposite and oddlypinnate about 8 to 12 inches (20 to 30 cm) long with 5 to 9 (usually 7) oblong-lanceolate or elliptic,
serrate or entire leaflets. The inconspicuous, unisexual flowers are borne over the entire outer part
of the live crown, usually beginning when trees are 3 to 4 inches (8 to 10 cm) in diameter and 20 ft
(6 m) high. Staminate flowers are dense panicles which are green with reddish anthers; pistillate
flowers are greenish yellow in short panicles. The fruit is an elongated, winged, single-seeded
samara borne in clusters, and large seed crops are produced every year (Rosario 1988).
A flood tolerant tree, green ash has an extensive, moderately shallow root system, which contributes
to a high degree of wind firmness.
REGENERATION PROCESSES
Green ash regenerates both through sexual and vegetative reproduction often regenerating profusely
from either seed or vegetatively after disturbance. Large seed crops are produced each year, and the
winged samaras are wind-dispersed, most within a few hundred feet of the parent tree. Some
dispersal by water occurs, but the importance of water as a long distance dispersal agent is not
Appendix C - 8
known. Wind and water dispersed seeds drop during the fall and winter months and germinate the
following spring on a variety of ground types including moist litter as well as mineral soil, but rarely
in dense vegetation. This species grows best in partial shade. Plants will reproduce from wind
blown seeds along river banks (Rosario 1988).
This tree responds quickly to damage by sprouting when the top is removed, especially when trees
are in smaller diameter classes. The ability to sprout decreases with age and diameter of the parent
tree. The plants will sprout readily from the root crown or from stumps following damage, and it has
been suggested that success and propagation of this species in an island environment is more due to
its ability to sprout and resprout than to the number of successful instances of seedling establishment
(Rosario 1988).
SITE CHARACTERISTICS
Green ash, the most widely distributed of all the American ashes, grows in a sub-humid to humid
climate with an average annual precipitation of 15 to 60 inches (38 to 155 cm) and an average length
frost free season from 120 to 280 days. This flood tolerant species is almost completely confined to
bottomland sites, but grows well when planted on moist upland soils. It is most commonly found on
alluvial soils along rivers and brooks and less frequently in swamps, and is common on land subject
to flooding once or twice a year, remaining healthy when flooded up to 40 percent of the time during
the growing season. Tree species most commonly associated with green ash are box elder (Acer
negundo), red maple (Acer rubrum), American elm (Ulmus americana), pecan (Carya illinoensis),
sugarberry (Celtis laevigata), sweetgum (Liquidambar styraciflua), American sycamore (Platanus
occidentalis), eastern cottonwood (Populus deltoides), plains cottonwood (P. sargentii), quaking
aspen (P. tremuloides), black willow (Salix nigra), and willow oak (Quercus phellos) (Rosario
1988).
Green ash occurs on a wide variety of soils although it survives best on deep, permeable, welldrained loams, preferring those to river sand. This species has been planted on medium to coarsetextured upland sands and loams with good moisture relations, and is tolerant of moderately strong
acid (pH 4.0) to moderately basic reacting soils (Rosario 1988).
SUCCESSIONAL STATUS
Green ash is rated as intolerant to moderately tolerant of shade. In all but the northwestern extension
of its range (northern Great Plains), it establishes early in succession on alluvial soils either as a
pioneer or following eastern cottonwood (Populus deltoides var. deltiodes), quaking aspen (P.
tremuloides), or willow (Salix spp.). Green ash is less able to maintain a position in the crown
canopy than its more rapidly growing associates such as red maple (Acer rubrum) and American elm
(Ulmus americana); for this reason the proportion of ash usually decreases with increasing age in
mixed elm-ash-maple stands. Evidence also exists that it is replacing eastern cottonwood as the tree
canopy dominant in floodplain communities where flooding no longer occurs (Rosario 1988).
SEASONAL DEVELOPMENT
In the Carolinas, green ash flowers from June through August, and fruits from August through
September (Radford et al. 1968).
Appendix C - 9
GENERAL DISTRIBUTION
Green ash is the most widely distributed of all the American ashes. Its range extends from Cape
Breton Island and Nova Scotia to southeastern Alberta and Montana, and southward to central Texas
and northern Florida (Rosario 1988).
COVER VALUE AND IMPORTANCE TO WILDLIFE
Green ash woodlands are considered to be important habitats for a number of wildlife species. They
provide important year-round deer habitat for whitetail deer, contributing both browse and shelter.
Other mammal species commonly found on native woodlands include: squirrels, coyotes, rabbits,
raccoons and several species of small mammals. Woodland vegetation is essential to the breeding,
nesting and fledging of a number of avian species. A rich diversity of invertebrate species is also
present in the woodlands, and serves as an important food source for many species (Rosario 1988).
SPECIES: Juncus effusus (Soft Rush) – FACW+
GENERAL BOTANICAL CHARACTERISTICS
Soft rush is a slow spreading, clump forming, grass-like perennial which emerges from a stout
branching rootstock. The short, finely divided rhizomes are 6 to 10 inches long, growing from 0.25
to 2 inches beneath the soil surface. Its pale-green stems are erect and 2 to 5 ft tall. Stems are
cylindrical and filled with pithy pith. Soft rush has no leaves. Leafy reddish sheaths wrap the stems
at the bottom of the plant. The inflorescence of soft rush appears to be coming out of the side of the
stem. The inflorescence is open and branched. Each branch has 30 to 100 small flowers, each
greenish-brown flower on its own stalk. Above the inflorescence is a “continuation” of the pointed
stem, this being a stiff, rolled and pointed bract, usually brown or grayish when mature (USDANRCS 2004).
REGENERATION PROCESSES
Pollination typically occurs by wind, but occasionally by insects. A three-celled, obovoid capsule
develops after fertilization, which contains many small (.02 to .025 inch long) straw colored seeds.
Due to the small size and tacky outer coating, the seed of soft rush can be disseminated by wind,
water or animals. Seed dispersal is the primary means of natural reproduction. After shatter, seeds
may remain viable for greater than 60 years (if over-topped with sediments) (USDA-NRCS 2004).
SITE CHARACTERISTICS
Soft rush is tolerant of diverse site conditions, but thrives in direct sun, finely textured soils, salinity
less than 14 ppt., pH from 4.0 to 6.0, and shallow water (less than 6 inches) (USDA-NRCS 2004).
SUCCESSIONAL STATUS
It is an early succession species that will not persist if heavily shaded.
Appendix C - 10
SEASONAL DEVELOPMENT
In the Carolinas, soft rush typically flowers and fruits from June through September (Radford et al.
1968).
GENERAL DISTRIBUTION
This species can be found throughout U.S., except Utah, Wyoming and South Dakota (USDA-NRCS
2004).
HABITAT TYPES AND PLANT COMMUNITIES
Moist soil, edges of swamps and ponds, and low pastures (Radford et al. 1968).
COVER AND WILDLIFE VALUE
This species is utilized for food by beaver and common muskrat; excellent cover for wetland birds,
various songbirds and small mammals.
SPECIES: Justicia americana (Water-Willow) - OBL
GENERAL BOTANICAL CHARACTERISTICS
Water-willow plants are rhizomatous and colonial. Stems are more or less four-angled, coarse, often
bent below and rooting at the nodes, ascending above to about 3 ft tall. Leaves are opposite,
lanceolate, linear or linear elliptic, sessile, triangular at the base, acute apically to 8 inches long and
up to 1 inch wide. The flowers are in leaf axils, with bracts, in dense, short-oblong spikes that are on
stalks. Flowers are violet to nearly white with brownish purple markings on the lower lip. The fruit
is a four-seeded capsule (USACE, Environmental Laboratory).
REGENERATION PROCESSES
Once established, plants spread by rhizomes and often form large colonies of up to 100,000 stems.
Water-willow also reproduces by seeds that are forcibly ejected from the fruiting capsule (USACE,
Environmental Laboratory).
SITE CHARACTERISTICS
Water-willow grows best in 6 to 20 inches of water and on coarse substrates of sand and fine gravel.
However, it will grow on finer textured sediments and at depths up to about 4 ft; full sun to partial
sun; pH range: ca. 5.7 to 8.0 (USACE, Environmental Laboratory).
SUCCESSIONAL STATUS
It is an early succession species that will not persist if heavily shaded by developing shrubs and
trees.
Appendix C - 11
SEASONAL DEVELOPMENT
In the Carolinas, water-willow typically flowers and fruits from June through October (Radford et al.
1968).
GENERAL DISTRIBUTION
Native and widespread in eastern United States and extends westward to Texas, Oklahoma, and
Kansas (USDA-NRCS 2004)
HABITAT TYPES AND PLANT COMMUNITIES
This species is found along the banks of or in the shallow waters of rivers, ponds, and lakes.
COVER AND WILDLIFE VALUE
This species provides habitat for small fish and invertebrates. Water-willow is of food value to some
small aquatic mammals, as well as bees and butterflies.
OTHER MANAGEMENT CONSIDERATIONS
Water-willow may form dense stands in shallow water areas along shorelines and occasionally
interferes with recreational activities. However, it reduces erosion along shorelines and stream
banks subjected to wave action and flow (USACE, Environmental Laboratory).
SPECIES: Panicum virgatum (Switchgrass) – FAC+
GENERAL BOTANICAL CHARACTERISTICS
Switchgrass is a native, erect, coarse, warm-season perennial grass. Foliage height of mature plants
is mostly between 3 and 5 ft; the inflorescence, a 6- to 18-inch-long open panicle, often extends to a
height of 5 to 7 ft. Switchgrass has both sod and bunch-forming ecotypes. Bunch-forming ecotypes
are generally encountered on uplands, while sod-forming ecotypes occur on lowlands. In the
Southeast, bunch-forming ecotypes have only short, vertically oriented rhizomes averaging
0.5 inches in length, while sod-forming ecotypes have both short, vertically-oriented rhizomes and
long horizontally-oriented rhizomes (two to four times longer than vertical rhizomes) (Uchytil
1993).
REGENERATION PROCESSES
Switchgrass reproduces both sexually and vegetatively. Rhizomes are responsible for vegetative
expansion, but spreading ability depends upon growth form. Some rhizomes of sod-forming
ecotypes may extend to lengths of 1 to 2 ft, while those of bunch-forming ecotypes may extend only
a few inches. The primary site of nonstructural carbohydrate storage is in the stem bases, roots, and
rhizomes. Switchgrass generally produces abundant seed. The seeds are shed in fall or winter and
require winter dormancy before they germinate in the spring. Germination begins when soil
temperatures reach 68 degrees Fahrenheit (Uchytil 1993).
Appendix C - 12
SITE CHARACTERISTICS
Switchgrass is tolerant of spring flooding but not of high water tables. It is tolerant of moderate soil
salinity and acidity. It grows in coarse to fine soils ranging in pH from about 4.5 to 7.6 (USDANRCS 2004).
SUCCESSIONAL STATUS
Can establish early to mid succession and endure to climax.
GENERAL DISTRIBUTION
In North America, switchgrass grows south of latitude 55 degrees N. from Saskatchewan to Nova
Scotia, and south throughout most of the United States east of the Rocky Mountains. It is most
abundant in the Great Plains and eastern states (Uchytil 1993).
HABITAT TYPES AND PLANT COMMUNITIES
Switchgrass is found in fresh or brackish marshes, seasonally wet pinelands, prairies, shores of
rivers, ponds, lakes, estuaries; it is found mostly above high water mark but sometimes in shallow
water (Godfrey and Wooten 1979).
COVER AND WILDLIFE VALUE
In the Southeast, white-tailed deer paw up and eat the rhizomes when winter food is scarce. For
ducks, upland game birds, songbirds, and small mammals, switchgrass provides excellent cover and
the seeds are an important food source (Uchytil 1993).
SPECIES: Peltandra virginica (Arrow Arum) - OBL
GENERAL BOTANICAL CHARACTERISTICS
Arrow arum is a hardy perennial herb with a short, stout rootstock. Arrow arum’s long, dark, fleshy
green leaves have pronounced veins on their undersides and are shaped like arrowheads (hence the
plant’s common name). The highly variable, though generally ovate-triangular, leaves are usually
10 to 12 inches long and nearly 6 inches wide, growing from 3-ft-long stalks. In May or June, a
leaf-shaped reproductive structure emerges, with a pointed, curled leaf or spathe that surrounds an
inflorescence shaped like a cylinder (spadix). The “flowers” are small, white to greenish yellow.
When not in flower this species can easily be mistaken for a species in the genus Sagittaria
(Chesapeake Bay Program 2004).
REGENERATION PROCESSES
Seeds develop in the spike-shaped pod and are released in autumn as the pod decays; the greenish,
berry-shaped fruits are about 0.5 inches long and clustered and contain one seed. Dislodged seeds
float on the surface of the water until they become saturated and sink, where they may germinate and
develop into a new plant. Some clusters develop from rhizomatous root growth (Chesapeake Bay
Program 2004).
Appendix C - 13
SITE CHARACTERISTICS
Arrow arum prefers a wet, lime-free, humus-rich soil in still or slow-moving waters less than a foot
deep. This species can tolerate a wide range of pH but very little salinity, no more than 0.5 parts per
thousand (ppt), which makes it a good indicator of freshwater conditions (Chesapeake Bay Program
2004).
SUCCESSIONAL STATUS
Seedlings require full sun, but mature plants can tolerate some shade.
SEASONAL DEVELOPMENT
Arrow arum typically flowers and fruits in the Carolinas in May and June (Radford et al. 1968).
GENERAL DISTRIBUTION
Populations of arrow arum are most common along the Atlantic Coastal Plain, and generally
westward to longitudes of Michigan, Missouri, Iowa, Kansas, and Minnesota; outlying populations
are reported for Oregon and California (USDA-NRCS 2004).
HABITAT TYPES AND PLANT COMMUNITIES
Arrow arum grows in coastal wetlands in the sediments of the intertidal zone, and can be found
growing among other wetland plants and shrubs, including pickerelweed, burreeds, grass and
wildrice (Chesapeake Bay Program 2004).
COVER AND WILDLIFE VALUE
In standing water arrow arum can provide cover for amphibians and small fish. Arrow arum’s fruit
and seeds are favored by wood ducks, muskrats and rails; however, arrow arum is often ignored by
other species, possibly because of its high concentration of calcium oxalate. Its use by migratory
birds is an important factor in the spread of this species (Chesapeake Bay Program 2004).
OTHER MANAGEMENT CONSIDERATIONS
It is sometimes grown in water gardens for its attractive foliage and may be used in stream bank
plantings to control erosion; large stands of arum can deflect or absorb wave action and stabilize
sediments (Chesapeake Bay Program 2004).
SPECIES: Platanus occidentalis (Sycamore) – FACWGENERAL BOTANICAL CHARACTERISTICS
Sycamore is a native, deciduous tree and is among the tallest trees of eastern deciduous forests.
Mature heights range from 60 to 120 ft (18 to 37 m). Reported diameters range from 2 to 6.6 ft (0.6
to 2 m). The bark of young trunks has small scales. Bark at the base of large trunks is deeply
Appendix C - 14
furrowed and up to 3 inches thick (7.6 cm); on the upper portions of the trunk the bark exfoliates in
patches, leaving areas of inner bark exposed. The leaves are 4 to 10 inches (10 to 25.4 cm) long,
often as broad as or broader than they are long. Sycamores form widespread, strongly branched root
systems. The fruit is a plumed achene; numerous fruits are tightly aggregated into a ball-shaped
fruiting head 0.8 to 2 inches (2 to 5 cm) in diameter. Sycamore is characterized by rapid growth
throughout its life; it is also long lived (over 250 years) (Sullivan 1994).
REGENERATION PROCESSES
Natural stands of sycamore usually produce appreciable numbers of seed at approximately 25 years;
optimum seed production occurs from 50 to 200 years of age. Good seed crops are produced every
one to two years. Sycamore seeds are dispersed by wind and water. Since seed dispersal occurs at a
time of year when water levels are declining after spring floods, water dispersal often results in seed
deposition on muddy flats that are highly conducive to germination (Sullivan 1994).
Sycamore seeds require very moist conditions for good germination and are tolerant of inundation.
Sycamore seedlings require direct sunlight for good growth and establishment. At the end of their
first year, sycamore seedlings on clay soil showed better height growth in partial shade than in full
sun. On alluvial soil or loess, height growth was better in full sun. Seedling roots penetrate the soil
quickly and grow deeper in loess soils than in alluvial or clay soils. Young sycamore stems sprout
readily from the stump; sycamore is not a vigorous epicormic sprouter (Sullivan 1994).
SITE CHARACTERISTICS
Sycamore is primarily a species of alluvial soils along streams and in bottomlands, but occurs
occasionally as a pioneer on drier upland slopes. It occurs on a wide variety of soils, including both
sands and clays. Its best growth occurs on sandy loams or loams with a good supply of ground
water but it also occurs on wet muck, shallow peat and other, more poorly drained bottomland soils
(Sullivan 1994).
Sycamore occurs on a variety of wet sites, including shallow swamps, sloughs, and very wet river
bottoms where soil is saturated 2 to 4 months during the growing season. Sycamore seedlings
survived almost two months of continuously waterlogged soils. In a greenhouse experiment, after
experiencing 60 days of completely waterlogged soils, about half of current-year seedlings died
shortly after their removal from the water; none died with shorter treatment periods. Sycamore is
more tolerant of poorly drained soils in the northern parts of its range. It was given an adaptation
value of 7.5 (out of a maximum of 10) for moisture tolerance. Sycamore has a recommended lower
pH range of 4.0 to 4.5 (Sullivan 1994).
Sycamore is rated as moderately tolerant of flooding. Saplings may be more resilient than mature
trees due to their higher sprouting capacity; Baker reported that even though four weeks of flooding
appeared to have killed 65 percent of sycamore saplings, 90 percent of the saplings were alive at the
end of one growing season following flooding. Most of them had only been top-killed and
subsequently sprouted from the root crown. Seedlings are less tolerant of flooding than larger plants
simply because they are more likely to be completely covered by water during active growth. Only
28.8 percent of sycamore seedlings survived complete inundation for five days during a June flood
as compared to a survival rate of 88.9 percent for unflooded seedlings (Sullivan 1994).
Appendix C - 15
The elevation range of sycamore extends from sea level to 1,000 ft (305 m) in the northern parts of
its range and to 2,500 ft (762 m) in the southern Appalachians.
SUCCESSIONAL STATUS
Sycamore is intolerant of shade. Seedling growth is greatly reduced in deep shade (defined as 5
percent of full sunlight). Sycamore occurs in forest types that are pioneer, transitional, subclimax,
and climax.
Sycamore will pioneer on sand and gravel bars and other newly formed land, often persisting
through later trees, such as sugar maple (Acer saccharum)-bitternut hickory (Carya cordiformis),
particularly on wet sites. It is an occasional pioneer on upland oldfield sites, particularly in the
central parts of its range (Sullivan 1994).
Sycamore usually replaces willows (Salix spp.) and eastern cottonwood (Populus deltoides). The
sycamore-sweetgum-American elm type usually succeeds cottonwood on river fronts, but may
pioneer on heavily cutover sites or old fields in bottomlands. This type may persist as a subclimax
type where repeated disturbances such as flooding occur. It is usually succeeded by swamp chestnut
oak (Quercus michauxii)-cherrybark oak or sweetgum-willow oak (Liquidambar styraciflua-Q.
phellos). In the North Carolina Piedmont, sycamore and river birch (Betula nigra) usually replace
alders (Alnus spp.) and willows on small islands or spits in streams after the land becomes stable and
moderately well drained. Sycamore and river birch are usually followed by elms (Ulmus spp.), ash
(Fraxinus spp.) and red maple (Sullivan 1994).
SEASONAL DEVELOPMENT
In the Carolinas, sycamore typically flowers from April through May, and fruits in October (Radford
et al. 1968). The fruits usually remain on the tree over winter, breaking up or falling off the
following spring from February through April.
GENERAL DISTRIBUTION
The range of sycamore extends from southwestern Maine west to extreme southern Ontario,
southern Wisconsin, Iowa, and extreme eastern Nebraska; south to south-central Texas; and east to
northwestern Florida and southeastern Georgia. It also occurs in the mountains of northeastern
Mexico. Sycamore has become naturalized to some extent from plantations outside of its native
range, chiefly in southern Maine, southern Michigan, southern Minnesota, and eastern and southern
Iowa (Sullivan 1994).
HABITAT TYPES AND PLANT COMMUNITIES
Sycamore is abundant along stream banks and in moist bottomlands. It cannot withstand prolonged
flooding and, therefore, it is not a component of swampy habitats (Brown and Kirkman 1990). It is a
major pioneer species in the floodplains of large rivers. In the Southeast pure stands of 40 to 100
acres (16 to 40 ha) are sometimes formed; it rarely forms extensive pure stands in the northern parts
of its range (Sullivan 1994).
Appendix C - 16
COVER AND WILDLIFE VALUE
Sycamore does not provide much food for wildlife, although the seeds are eaten by some birds
including the purple finch, goldfinch, chickadees, and dark-eyed junco, and by muskrat, beaver, and
squirrels. Sycamore is rated as medium in suitability for waterfowl habitat and low in suitability as
deer or turkey food. As sycamores age, they may develop hollow trunks which provide shelter for a
number of wildlife species; some large, old individuals have formed cavities large enough to be used
as dens by black bear. Cavity nesting birds utilizing sycamore include the barred owl, eastern
screech-owl, great crested flycatcher, and chimney swift. Wood duck use sycamores as nest trees.
The bottomland forests in which sycamore occurs are very important wildlife habitat, sheltering
numerous animal species including wood duck, other waterfowl, upland game birds, and deer
(Sullivan 1994).
OTHER MANAGEMENT CONSIDERATIONS
Sycamore is a valuable timber species that can be regenerated from natural seed sources, by
planting, or by coppice systems. Sycamore invades bottomland old fields when adequate seed
sources are present.
SPECIES: Polygonum spp. (Smartweed)
GENERAL BOTANICAL CHARACTERISTICS
Smartweed is a highly variable genus, which includes annual or perennial forbs and some shrubs.
Some species are viney. The leaves are usually simple and alternate. The pink, green, or white
flowers have jointed stalks and stems have swollen nodes. Flowers can be either perfect or
imperfect. The fruit is a three- or four-angled achene. Some species have rhizomes or taproots
(Snyder 1992).
REGENERATION PROCESSES
Smartweed reproduces by seed and by rhizomes.
SITE CHARACTERISTICS
Smartweed species are mostly found in wetlands, sandy beaches, saline or brackish ponds and
marshes, and in inundated swales and marshes. They can also be found in cultivated fields, thickets,
swampy woods, clearings, wastelands, along roadsides, in prairies, and on rocky, dry or cool and
damp slopes (Snyder 1992).
SUCCESSIONAL STATUS
Many smartweed species are introduced, while others are native to North America. Most are shade
intolerant. Some species of smartweed are dominant in the non-persistent emergent marsh
communities of the Savannah River in South Carolina. Other species of smartweed are early seral
species which dominate sites for the first five to seven post-disturbance years (Snyder 1992).
Appendix C - 17
SEASONAL DEVELOPMENT
In the Carolinas, flowering dates for smartweed species vary; the species of the Project area
generally start flowering May-July and continue flowering and fruiting till frost (Radford et al.
1968).
GENERAL DISTRIBUTION
Throughout the United States.
HABITAT TYPES AND PLANT COMMUNITIES
Swamp and alluvial forests, streams, ditches, marshes, wet pastures, and pond margins.
COVER AND WILDLIFE VALUE
Some species of smartweed provide poor to good cover for upland game birds, waterfowl, non-game
birds, and small mammals.
SPECIES: Quercus nigra (Water Oak) - FAC
GENERAL BOTANICAL CHARACTERISTICS
Water oak is a medium-sized tree with glabrous twigs, membranous leaves, and a straight, slender
trunk. On a good site, water oak can reach 105 ft (32 m) in height and attain 6.5 ft (2 m) in dbh. It
is semi-evergreen in warmer parts of its range but completely deciduous in other areas. Water oak
has a shallow, spreading rooting habit.
REGENERATION PROCESSES
Seed production and dissemination: Water oak is monoecious. It bears seed by age 20, and
production is good on alternate years. The heavy acorns are disseminated by gravity, water, and
animals such as blue jays and ground squirrels, which cache acorns in the soil (Carey 1992).
Seed viability is high. Because of a generally late spring emergence, seedling mortality from
flooding is low. The seedlings do not tolerate prolonged submergence. Because of the large seed,
young seedlings have high initial survivorship regardless of available light, drought stress, or
herbivory. Seedlings require abundant moisture for the entire growing season. Under favorable
conditions, water oak may grow 24 inches (60 cm) a year. If top-killed, water oak of all ages will
sprout fairly efficiently from the root crown (Carey 1992).
SITE CHARACTERISTICS
Water oak grows on levees, high ridges, and elevated margins of swamps, rivers, and hydric
hammocks which flood deeply and frequently but drain rapidly because of relief. Water oak will
also grow on uplands to about 1,000 ft (300 m) in elevation where soils remain moist. Water oak
grows well on better drained silty clay or loamy soils and poorly on poorly drained clay soils. It
grows primarily on Inceptisols (Carey 1992).
Appendix C - 18
Water oak is weakly to moderately tolerant of seasonal flooding. It can survive up to several months
of flooded soil, but mortality is high if this is a yearly occurrence. Generally, water oak is tolerant of
several weeks of flooding each growing season (Carey 1992).
Common associates of water oak include Nuttall oak (Quercus nuttallii), white oak (Q. alba),
American beech (Fagus grandifolia), pecan (Carya illinoensis), winged elm (Ulmus alata),
blackgum (Nyssa sylvatica), white ash (Fraxinus americana), yellow-poplar (Liriodendron
tulipifera), southern magnolia (Magnolia grandiflora), flowering dogwood (Cornus florida), roughleaf dogwood (C. drummondii), honeylocust (Gleditsia triacanthos), Carolina laurelcherry (Prunus
caroliniana), hawthorn (Crataegus spp.), American hornbeam (Carpinus caroliniana), swamp privet
(Forestiera acuminata), spruce pine (Pinus glabra) (Carey 1992).
SUCCESSIONAL STATUS
Water oak is intolerant to semi-intolerant of shade. It germinates in shade but requires moderate
light for development. Because of slow early growth, water oak does not compete well.
Water oak is a frequent early hardwood invader. In the absence of fire, it invades and eventually
succeeds pine forests. On fine-textured loess soils that retain moisture, water oak will colonize old
abandoned fields if a seed source is nearby. As a hardwood forest matures, water oak will stabilize
or decline in abundance (Carey 1992).
Water oak is generally considered a subclimax or transitional species. Because of its weak to
moderate tolerance of seasonal flooding, however, water oak may form a topographic climax on
ridges elevated less than 5 ft (1.5 m) above floodplains (Carey 1992).
SEASONAL DEVELOPMENT
In the Carolinas, water oak flowers in April, and fruits from September through November (Radford
et al. 1968).
GENERAL DISTRIBUTION
Water oak occurs on the Southeastern Coastal Plain from southern New Jersey and Delaware to
southern Florida and west to eastern Texas. It occurs north along the Mississippi Valley to
southeastern Oklahoma, Arkansas, Missouri, and southwestern Tennessee (Carey 1992).
HABITAT TYPES AND PLANT COMMUNITIES
Water oak occurs in a range of habitats, including: floodplains, bottomlands, mixed forests and welldrained uplands primarily in bottomland forests (Brown and Kirkman 1990).
COVER VALUE AND IMPORTANCE TO WILDLIFE
Water oak provides cover, food, and habitat for wildlife. Cavity nesters such as the red-bellied
woodpecker, great-crested flycatcher, and hairy woodpecker nest in water oak snags. A tall
midstory of water oak within a pine forest provides habitat for the southern flying squirrel.
Appendix C - 19
Water oak acorns are eaten by many animals including squirrels, chipmunks, waterfowl, blue jays,
wild turkey, and northern bobwhite quail. Blue jays and squirrels cache acorns in the fall and return
to eat them in the winter. Acorns of the black oak group are an especially important food source in
the winter because those of the white oak group germinate soon after falling and, therefore, are
unavailable. Deer browse water oak (Carey 1992).
SPECIES: Salix nigra (Black Willow) - OBL
GENERAL BOTANICAL CHARACTERISTICS
Black willow can be a tall tree 80 to 100 ft in height, but is often shrubby in form along
streambanks. It is fast growing, may reach maturity within 30 years, and is short-lived (Brown and
Kirkman 1990). The massive trunks of the taller specimens are usually leaning and are often
divided. The bark is thick and deeply divided into furrows separating thick, scaly ridges. The crown
is broad and open with stout branches. Twigs are slender and easily detached. Leaf blades are
variable in size, the larger to 4.7 inches (12 cm) long. Black willow roots are shallow and laterally
extensive (Tesky 1992).
REGENERATION PROCESSES
Sexual reproduction: Black willows start producing seed when they are about 10 years old.
Optimum seed-bearing age is from 25 to 75 years. The trees have good seed crops almost every
year. Seeds ripen 45 to 60 days after catkins are pollinated by insects or wind. As the seeds fall, the
long silky hairs act as wings to carry the seeds long distances. The seeds are also disseminated by
water (Tesky 1992).
Seeds are not dormant. Viability is greatly reduced by only a few days of dry conditions.
Germination is epigeal, and germination capacity is usually high. Very moist bare mineral soil is
best for germination and early development. Once seedlings are established, full light promotes
vigorous growth. Seedlings grow rapidly in a favorable environment, often exceeding 4 ft (1.2 m) in
the first year. Low ground cover competition and shade, however, greatly hampers growth. Root
stocks of very young black willow trees sprout prolifically. Propagation by cutting is the usual
method of artificial regeneration (Tesky 1992).
SITE CHARACTERISTICS
Black willow is most common on river margins where it occupies the lower, wetter, and often less
sandy sites. It is also common in swamps, sloughs, swales, gullies, and drainage ditches, growing
anywhere light and moisture conditions are favorable. It flourishes at or slightly below water level
and is not appreciably damaged by flooding and silting. On a flooded site in southern Illinois, black
willow survived 32 or more days of complete inundation. Black willow, however, is not drought
tolerant. Whole stands may die out when water tables lower and soil dries up (Tesky 1992).
Black willow grows on a variety of soils but develops best in fine silt or clay in relatively stagnant
water. It thrives in saturated or poorly drained soil from which other hardwoods are excluded. Black
willow is commonly found in moderately acidic (lower pH limit is 4.5) to near neutral soils. It
Appendix C - 20
grows best in climates characterized by an average annual rainfall of 51 inches (130 cm), with
approximately 20 inches (51 cm) falling from April through August (Tesky 1992).
Black willow is commonly associated with the following species: eastern cottonwood (Populus
deltoides), red maple (Acer rubrum), black spruce (Picea mariana), river birch (Betula nigra),
American sycamore (Platanus occidentalis), boxelder (Acer negundo), red mulberry (Morus rubra),
swamp privet (Forestiera acuminata), buttonbush (Cephalanthus occidentalis), water elm (Planera
aquatica), and American elm (Ulmus americana) (Tesky 1992).
SUCCESSIONAL STATUS
Black willow is a pioneer or early seral species commonly found along the edges of rivers and
streams, mud flats, and floodplains. This tree is very shade intolerant and usually grows in dense,
even-aged stands. Black willow stands periodically stagnate and are eventually replaced by more
shade-tolerant trees such as American elm, sycamore (Platanus spp.), ash (Fraxinus spp.), boxelder,
and sweet gum (Liquidambar styraciflua) (Tesky 1992).
SEASONAL DEVELOPMENT
In the Carolinas, black willow flowers and fruits in March and April (Radford et al. 1968).
GENERAL DISTRIBUTION
Black willow is found throughout the eastern U.S., adjacent parts of Canada, and Mexico. Its range
extends west to central Michigan, southeastern Minnesota, and eastern North Dakota. It occurs
south and west to the Rio Grande and east along the Gulf Coast through the Florida Panhandle and
southern Georgia. Black willow has been introduced, and has become somewhat common, in Utah
(Tesky 1992).
HABITAT TYPES AND PLANT COMMUNITIES
Black willow occurs on floodplains, streambanks, marshes, and other low, moist areas (Brown and
Kirkman 1990). It co-dominates with sandbar willow (Salix exigua) on floodplains having the
greatest water depths and the longest hydroperiods of any of the shallow freshwater swamps of the
southern U.S. Black willow also co-dominates with eastern cottonwood (Populus deltoides) in the
lower Mississippi Valley (Tesky 1992).
COVER AND WILDLIFE VALUE
Birds eat the buds and flowering catkins of black willow; deer eat the twigs and leaves; and rodents
eat the bark and buds. The yellow-bellied sapsucker feeds on the sap. Black willow is somewhat
tolerant of grazing and browsing. Black willow/cottonwood stands are also commonly used as
nesting habitat by some small non-game bird species (Tesky 1992).
Appendix C - 21
SPECIES: Saururus cernuus (Lizard’s Tail) - OBL
GENERAL BOTANICAL CHARACTERISTICS
Lizard’s tail is a perennial, herbaceous, aquatic plant that grows from a fleshy rhizome (Radford et
al. 1968). It is branched and 20 to 48 inches in height. The leaves (2 to 10 inches) have long,
basally sheathing petioles (0.5 to 4 inches) and cordate to ovate blades (1 to 7 inches long and .5 to
4 inches wide). There can be one or two spikes, often surpassed by axillary branches that can be 2.5
to 6 inches in length and nodding at the tip before anthesis (Batcher 2002).
Lizard’s tail has small, white flowers aggregated in spikes, with 175 to 350 flowers on a spike. The
inflorescence (2 to 14 inches) is terminal, dense, slender, and peduncled, borne opposite the leaves.
The combination of the wetland habitat, the long flower spike with its nodding tip, and the large,
dark, heart-shaped leaves readily distinguish this species (Batcher 2002).
REGENERATION PROCESSES
Lizard’s tail propagates both vegetatively and by seed, and vegetative reproduction may be more
important to population persistence. Lizard’s tail forms extensive rhizomes, and fragments can
break off, float and take root in other locations. Studies indicate that lizard’s tail is capable of
remaining dormant in the seed bank, but that the proportion of seeds remaining viable may be low
(Batcher 2002).
SITE CHARACTERISTICS
Lizard’s tail may be found in a range of conditions, from saturated soils that are periodically
inundated to frequently and permanently inundated conditions (Batcher 2002). It has been found to
be most abundant in areas of acidic to neutral pH and where the water table was at or above the
surface (TVA).
SUCCESSIONAL STATUS
Lizard’s tail can be highly competitive due to its ability to form dense rhizomes. However, plant
community succession from open wetlands to shrub and forested wetlands will reduce the size of
Lizard’s tail populations and their ability to reproduce (Batcher 2002).
SEASONAL DEVELOPMENT
In the Carolinas, lizard’s tail typically flowers May through July and fruits in August and September
(Radford et al. 1968).
GENERAL DISTRIBUTION
This species can be found in Michigan in the west, to Ontario and New England in the east,
southward to Florida and Texas (USDA-NRCS 2004).
Appendix C - 22
HABITAT TYPES AND PLANT COMMUNITIES
Lizard’s tail is found in freshwater wetlands, including hardwood swamps and floodplains, stream
margins, muddy pond shores, freshwater tidal wetlands and floating mats. In the southern U.S.,
lizard’s tail tends to be a dominant herb in seasonally to semi-permanently flooded stream channels,
floodplains, sloughs and backwaters (Batcher 2002).
COVER AND WILDLIFE VALUE
In standing water lizard's tail can provide cover for amphibians, reptiles, crayfish, and small fish. It
has been reported by some as having no known direct food value to wildlife (Aquaplant 2004).
SPECIES: Zizaniopsis miliacea (Southern Wildrice) - OBL
GENERAL BOTANICAL CHARACTERISTICS
Southern wildrice or giant cut-grass is a coarse perennial with scaly rhizomes, commonly forming
extensive dense colonies. Stems range from 3 to 10 ft tall, glabrous, commonly rooting at the nodes,
usually unbranched. Leaf blades are flat, to 3 ft long and 9 inches wide, with glabrous, striate
surfaces, and margins that are finely and sharply toothed. The ligules are membranous and up to
1 inch long. The inflorescence is an open panicle to 24 inches long and 6 inches broad, the branches
ascending. Lower branches are whorled, becoming alternate above. On each branch, the male
spikelets are basal, the female terminal. The spikelets have an awn 0.1 to 0.2 inches long (USACE,
Environmental Laboratory).
REGENERATION PROCESSES
Reproduction is from rhizomes and seeds. Colonies also spread by flowering culms (stems) that fall
over and root from the nodes. Rapid colonization of littoral zones has been attributed to the
production of “stolons” or “runners” up to 13 ft long from which leafy buds and adventitious roots
develop (Fox and Haller 1999).
SITE CHARACTERISTICS
Plants usually grow in fresh to brackish shallow water of marshes, sloughs, ditches, shores of ponds,
lakes and streams and swamp forest.
SUCCESSIONAL STATUS
Southern wildrice is an early colonizer that often grows in dense and almost impenetrable colonies in
shallow water areas along shorelines. Its dominance can impede further successional development,
but it can also provide the substrate for establishment of trees and shrubs (USACE, Environmental
Laboratory).
SEASONAL DEVELOPMENT
In the Carolinas, southern wildrice typically flowers and fruits from May through October (Radford
et al. 1968).
Appendix C - 23
GENERAL DISTRIBUTION
A native of the southeastern U.S., southern wildrice is principally found in Arkansas and the coastal
states from Maryland to Texas (USDA-NRCS 2004).
HABITAT TYPES AND PLANT COMMUNITIES
Southern wildrice may be found both as a fringing emergent and in dense stands in marshes, ditches,
creeks, and along the edges of lakes, rivers, and streams. Large stands of southern wildrice are often
associated with abandoned rice fields, freshwater tidal marshes or shallow lakes and reservoirs,
where rates of colonization may be quite rapid (Fox and Haller 1999).
COVER AND WILDLIFE VALUE
The plants provide excellent cover on spoil banks and on levees where they grow into open water
(Materne - NRCS). In standing water it can provide cover for amphibians, reptiles, crayfish, and
small fish; dense stands can be of value for birds and small aquatic mammals. Southern wildrice is
important to waterfowl, but not high on the list of preferred food for most species.
OTHER MANAGEMENT CONSIDERATIONS
Its high stem densities are effective at reducing wave and water erosion and for high sediment
capture (Materne - NRCS).
Appendix C - 24