Download Comparative-Historical Study and Educational Institutions

Faculty of Education, CUHK
Qualitative Method in Education Research
Lecture 6
Comparative-Historical Study of Educational Institutions
A. Towards a General Theory of Social Action of Institutionalized Values
In search of general theories of social action of institutional values
1. Weber defines that “sociology is a science concerning itself with interpretive
understanding of social action in order thereby to arrive at a causal explanation of
its course and consequence.” (Weber, 1976, p. 209)
2. This definition has not only initiated the interpretive tradition in social sciences, it
has also stipulated the tradition of verifying causal explanation of regularities in
social action. In fact, these two research approach, which Weber has rightly
characterized as two integral objectives that future sociologists must strive for,
are currently juxtaposed by most practicing social researchers as two
uncompromising camps, namely positivistic approach striving for universally
predictable causality and interpretative approach striving for empathetically
understanding of subjectivity.
3. As Jürgen Habermas points out: “How are general theories of social action
possible? General theories allow use to derive assumptions about empirical
regularities in the form of hypotheses that serve the purpose of explanation. At
the same time, and in contradistinction to natural processes, regularities of social
action have the property of being understandable. Social action belongs to the
class of intentional actions, which we grasp by reconstructing their meaning.”
(Habermas, 1988, p. 11)
c. According to Haberman the missing link between intentional-subjective symbolic
action and causal-predictable regularities in social actions is “institutional values”.
As Habermas underlines “sociology is concerned only with institutional values.
We can now formulate our question in amore specific form: How are general
theories of action in accordance with institutionalized values (or prevailing norms)
possible?” (Habermas, 1988, p. 75)
B. What is Institutions?
1. Meaning of institution: A social phenomenological perspective
a. Habitualization of interactions: According to the social phenomenologist, in
order to make human interaction possible, interacting partners have to go
through a series of decision making on definitions of situation, typifications,
and reciprocity of perspectives, therefore human interactions and human
activities in general have the tendency to become habitualized. That is "any
action that is repeated frequently becomes cast into a pattern, which can then
be produced with an economy of effort and which, ipso facto, is apprehended
by its performer as that pattern." (Berger and Luckmann, 1967, p. 70-71)
b. Habitualization of meanings: "Habitualized actions, of course, retain their
meaningful character for the individual although the meanings involved
become embedded as routines in his general stock of knowledge, taken for
granted by him and at hand for the projects into the future. …Habitualization
makes it unnecessary for each situation to be defined anew, step by step. A
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large variety of situation may be subsumed under its predefinitions." (Berger
and Luckmann, 1967, p.71)
c. "Institutionalization occurs whenever there is a reciprocal typification of
habitualized actions by types of actors. Put differently, any such typification is
an institution." (Berger and Luckmann, 1967, p. 72)
d. The reciprocal typification of habitualized actions constituted within an
institution implies the following structural features of an institution:
i. Historicity: "Reciprocal typifications of actions are built up in the course of
a shared history. They cannot be created instantaneously. Institutions
always have a history, of which they are the products. It is impossible to
understand an institution adequately without an understanding of the
historical process in which it was produced." (Berger and Luckmann, 1967,
p.72) This structural feature of historicity in institution implies an essential
methodological implication in the study of institution, that is, study the
historical configuration, from which the current institution emerged and
developed, is vital to any institutional analysis.
ii. Social control: "Institutions …, by the very fact of their existence, control
human conduct by setting up predefinied patterns of conduct, which
channel it in one direction as against the many other directions that would
theoretically be possible. …These mechanism (the sum of which
constitute what is generally called a system of social control) do …exist in
many institutions and in all the agglomerations of institutions that we call
societies. …To say that a segment of human activity has been
institutionalized is already to say that this segment of human activity has
been subsumed under social control." (p. 72-73)
iii. Socialization: As a set of reciprocal typifications of habitualized actions
has achieved its historicity, i.e. proven its social efficacy through time and
has further been backed up by social control mechanism, it can be said
that this set of intersubjectivity has been externalized and objectivated.
However to complete the cycle of institutionalization, this intersubjectivity
must in turn be internalized into the subjectivity of the new members of a
culture. It is by means of socialization, acculturation, education, or even
indoctrination that new members will acquire the "common-sense
knowledge" necessary to be able to become fully functional members of a
culture.
iv. Legitimation:
- Explanation of cognitive validity
- Justification of normative dignity
C. Comparative-Historical Methods in Institutional Studies
Jürgen Schreiwer, a researcher in comparative education, suggests that education
institution can be studies with the "functional-cum-configurational" model. More
specifically, it is a combination of both functional comparative method with
configurational-historical method. (2003) Accordingly, the research methods in
educational institution studies to be explicated are:
1. Functional-comparative approach and
2. Configurational-historical approach
D. Functional Equivalence Perspective in Comparative Studies
1. The concept of functional equivalence:
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a. The concept of function: Jurgen Schriewer defines function as "the
performance achieved for the maintenance of whole entities or systems by
elements of such entities or component parts of such system." (Schreiwer,
2003, p. 37)
b. The concept of functional prerequisite: According to traditional functionalists,
such as A,R. Radcliff-Brown and Talcott Parsons, function are conceived as
"necessary conditions of existence" of social systems (Kincaid, 2007, p.217).
Parsons further specifies these functional prerequisites of social systems into
four (Kincaid, 2007, p.217)
i. adaptation ― obtaining resource from the environment
ii. integration ― maintain coherent relationship among their component
elements
iii. goal attainment ― setting goals and allocating resources to achieve them
iv. latency ― reproducing organizational structure and managing tension
between units.
Parsons asserts that these four functions are prerequisites of the existence of
social system.
c. The concept of functional equivalence:
i. Critique on functional prerequisites: Functionalists' strong version of
defining functions as "the prerequisites" and "necessary condition of the
existence" of social system and Parsons' specification of them into four
AGIL constituents have been criticized as too deterministic.
ii. Critique on functional interconnection and equilibrium theses: G.A. Cohen
in his explication of the functional explanation thesis in Marxism criticizes
the functionalists' assumption that all constituents in a social system are
"functionally connected" and "support or reinforce one another" and
suggests that this assumption is not necessary in the logical structure of a
functional explanation. (Cohen, 1978, p. 283-285) This implicates that
some constituents of a social system may be dysfunctionally or even
antagonistically connected with the essential core of a given social system.
As a result, the thesis of totality of functional connection can be forsaken
and so is the thesis of equilibrium and benign stability of the social system.
iii. To relax functionalists' assumptions on the functional prerequisite and
totality of functional interconnection, we may simply redefine functions as
contributions or benefits a given constituent could offer to the maintaining of
the essential core of the social system. Accordingly, the conception of
functional prerequisite can be replaced by functional equivalence. As a
result, what we are looking for are contributing and beneficial conditions
instead of necessary conditions (or even sufficient condition) for the
maintaining of the essential core of the social system. Furthermore, the
strong version of functionalists' specification of functional prerequisites into
AGIL can also be relaxed.
2. Functional equivalence perspective in comparative research
a. In comparing societies or particular institutions, such as education, in different
societies, concept of functional equivalence can be served as heuristic
concept to the issue of comparability.
b. From the concept of functional equivalence, we may initiate comparative
research by posing "first that different structures may perform the same
function, and second, that the same structure may perform several different
functions." (Dogan and Pelassy, 1984, p. 37)
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c. Conception of dissociation of functions and structures:
"The search for functional equivalences passes through this analytical
dissociation of roles and function. The same performance may be
accomplished in various countries by different organs, and similar or
comparable institutions may fulfill, in various countries, different tasks."
(Dogan Pelassy, 1984, p. 37)
d. Accordingly, comparative researches of social institutions may be categorized
as follows.
Structures
Same
Functions
Same
Different
Different
Functional & structural
equivalence
Functional equivalence
Structural differentiation
Functional differentiation
Structural equivalence
Functional & structural
Differentiation
E. Perspectives of Functional Equivalence in Comparative Methods in Education
Research
1. Functionalism:
For education institution, Parsons underlines that school class performs two
essential functions to the equilibrium of the social system of modern society.
a. Socialization function: "School class functions to internalize in its pupils both
the commitments and capacities for successful performance of their future
adult roles." (Parson, 2004, p. 32)
b. Selection function: School class on the other hand "functions to allocate these
human resources within role-structure of the adult society." (p. 32)
2. Functional explanation in Marxian perspective:
a. The theory of equilibrium as "consequence law" in functionalism has been
criticized for conservative and legitimatizing the status quo (Cohen, 1978,
p.284; Turner and Maryanski, 1995, p.55-56)
b. G.A. Cohen, one of the prominent members of Analytical Marxism, in
reconstructing historical materialism offers a selection theory through class
struggle as the "consequence law" for his functional explanations.
i. In the functional explanation of the relationship between force of production
and relation of production (class relation) Cohen suggests
"Classes are permanently poised against one another, and that class tends
to prevail whose rule would best meet the demands of production. But how
does the fact that production would prosper under a certain class ensure its
dominance? Part of the answer is that there is a general stake in stable and
striving production, so that the class best placed to deliver it attracts allies
from other strata in society. Prospective ruling classes are often able to
raise support among the classes subjected to the ruling class they would
displace. Contrariwise, classes unsuited to the task of governing society
tend to lack the confidence political hegemony requires, and if they do seize
power, they tend not to hold it for long." (Cohen, 1978, 292)
ii. In the functional explanation of the relationship between infrastructure and
superstructure, Cohen once again suggests
"All classes are receptive to whatever ideas are likely to benfit them, and
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ruling classes are well placed to propagate ideologies particular congenial
to themselves. But before an ideology is received or broadcast it has to be
formed. And on that point there are traces in Marx of a Darwinian
mechanism, a notion that thought-systems are produced in comparative
independence from social constraint, but persist and gain social life for
ideological service. …There is a kind of 'ideological pool' which yields
elements in different configurations as social requirements change."
(Cohen, 1978, p.291)
c. As for the functional explanation of education institution, Marxist conceptions
can be summarized into two counts
i. Reproduction function: As Louis Althuser indicates education is part of the
ideological apparatus of the state, which performs the function of
reproduction of the prevailing class relation of a given society. (Althusser,
1971; Carnoy, 1982; see also Bowles and Gintis, 1976; Bourdieu &
Passeron, 1977; Apple, 1979)
ii. Legitimatizing function: Bowles and Gintis indicate that the highly
selective and competitive structure of education does not only
corresponds but in fact legitimatizing the inequality found in the class
structure of capitalist society. )Bowles & Gintis, 1976)
3. Functional explanation of education in Weberian perspective
a. Max Weber has rendered a function explanation of the relationship between
education contents and forms of domination in societies. (Weber, 2004)
b. Margret Archer has also expounded that domination and assertion among
status groups as the primary factor contributing to education expansion in
recent decades.
4. In light of these perspectives, the functional equivalence comparison framework
can be elaborated as follow.
Structures
Same
Functionalism
Socialization
Function
Different
Same
Different
Selection
Function
Same
Different
Marxism
Reproduction
Function
Same
Different
Weberian
Perspective
Legitimatizing
Function
Domination
Function
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F. Configurational-Historical method in study of morphogenesis of education institution
1. Applying the general theory of functional equivalence of development of
education institutions in specific national context, education researchers can
undertake historical-sociological studies on how education institution is
transformed within the social and historical context of a particular society.
2. There are varieties of approaches to historical-sociological studies of education
institution, such as
a. The Weberian historical-sociological approaches,
b. The Marist historical-sociological approach,
c. The new-institutionalist approach, etc.
3. Methodological details of these approaches will be explicated in EDM 6004.
F. Comparative-Historical Approach to Global Education Reform of Neoliberalism
1. Functional-equivalence comparative study of global education reform
a. Education Reform in the UK
i. Lifetime learning: A policy framework (1996)
ii. The learning age: A renaissance for new Britain (1998)
b. Education Reform in the US
i. Goal 2000 Act, 1994
ii. A nation learning: Version for the 21st Century (1997)
iii. No Child Left Behind Act of 2001
c. Education Reform in Canada
i. Knowledge Matters: Skills and learning for Canadians (2002)
ii. Achieving excellence: Investing in people, knowledge and opportunity (2002)
d. Education Reform in Australia
i. National Board of Employment, Education and Training (1996) Lifelong
learning ―― Key issues
ii. Dept. of Education, Science and Training (1998) Learning for life: Review of
higher education financing and policy (1998)
iii. Dept. of Education, Science and Training (2003) Lifelong learning in
Australia
e. Education Reform in South Korea
Ministry of Education Adapting Education to the Information Age (2000-2004)
f. Education Reform in Singapore:
Education for Learning Society in the 21st Century (2000)
g. Education Reform in Taiwan
教育改革行動方案, 1998
h. Education Reform in HKSAR
Education Commission (2000) Education for Life and Education through Life
i. OECD (1991) The lifelong learners in the 1990s.
OECD (1996) Lifelong learning for all.
OECD (2001) Education policy analysis 2001.
j.. UNESCO (1996) Learning: The Treasure from within.
k. European Commission (1995) Teaching and learning: Towards the learning society
2. Configurational-historical study of global education reform of HKSAR
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Additional References
Habermas, Jurgen (1988) The Logic of the Social Sciences. Cambridge, Mass: MIT
Press.
Schriewer,J.(2003). Discourse Formation in Comparative Education. New York: Peter
Lang.
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