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Exam Critical Concepts
Evolution: Chapters 22-26
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Darwin perceived adaptation to the environment
and the origin of new species as closely related
processes
Biologists have concluded that this is indeed what
happened to the Galápagos finches
“descent with modification” summarized Darwin’s
perception of the unity of life
◦ refers to the view that all organisms are related
through descent from an ancestor that lived in
the remote past
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Darwin’s 4 observations:
Members of a population often vary greatly in
their traits
Traits are inherited from parents to offspring
All species are capable of producing more
offspring than the environment can support
Owing to lack of food or other resources, many of
these offspring do not survive
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From his observations he drew 2 inferences:
◦ Inference #1: Individuals whose inherited traits
give them a higher probability of surviving and
reproducing in a given environment tend to leave
more offspring than other individuals
◦ Inference #2: This unequal ability of individuals
to survive and reproduce will lead to the
accumulation of favorable traits in the population
over generations
Individuals do not evolve; populations evolve
Natural selection can only increase or decrease
heritable traits in a population
 Adaptations vary with different environments
 Two examples for natural selection
1. The effect of differential predation on guppy
populations
2. The evolution of drug-resistant HIV
◦ The use of drugs to combat HIV selects for
viruses resistant to these drugs
◦ HIV uses the enzyme reverse transcriptase to
make a DNA version of its own RNA genome
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◦ The drug 3TC is designed to interfere and cause
errors in the manufacture of DNA from the virus
◦ Some individual HIV viruses have a variation that
allows them to produce DNA without errors
◦ These viruses have a greater reproductive success
and increase in number relative to the susceptible
viruses
◦ The population of HIV viruses has therefore
developed resistance to 3TC
◦ The ability of bacteria and viruses to evolve
rapidly poses a challenge to our society
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Natural selection does not create new traits, but
edits or selects for traits already present in the
population
The local environment determines which traits will
be selected for or selected against in any specific
population
The Darwinian view of life predicts that
evolutionary transitions should leave signs in the
fossil record
Paleontologists have discovered fossils of many
such transitional forms
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Homologous structures: anatomical resemblances
that represent variations on a structural theme
present in a common ancestor
Vestigial structures: remnants of features that
served important functions in the organism’s
ancestors
The Appendix
Wisdom teeth
The Tail Bone
The Arrector Pili
Examples of homologies at the molecular level are
genes shared among organisms inherited from a
common ancestor
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The Darwinian concept of an evolutionary tree of
life can explain homologies
Evolutionary trees : hypotheses about the
relationships among different groups
◦ can be made using different types of data, for example,
anatomical and DNA sequence data
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Convergent evolution: the evolution of similar, or
analogous, features in distantly related groups
◦ Analogous traits arise when groups independently adapt to
similar environments in similar ways
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Biogeography: geographic distribution of species,
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One misconception is that organisms evolve during
their lifetimes
Natural selection: acts on individuals, but only
populations evolve
Genetic variations in populations contribute to
evolution
◦ Variation in individual genotype leads to variation
in individual phenotype
◦ Not all phenotypic variation is heritable
◦ Natural selection can only act on variation with a
genetic component
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Population geneticists measure polymorphisms in a
population by determining the amount of
heterozygosity at the gene and molecular levels
Average heterozygosity: the average percent of loci
that are heterozygous in a population
Geographic variation: occurs between gene pools
of separate populations or population subgroups
Cline: a graded change in a trait along a
geographic axis
◦ Examples of geographic variation occur here
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Mutations: changes in the nucleotide sequence
◦ cause new genes and alleles to arise
◦ Only mutations in cells that produce gametes can
be passed to offspring
Point mutations: A change in one base in a gene:
◦ noncoding regions of DNA are often harmless
◦ might not affect protein production because of
redundancy in the genetic code
◦ change in protein production are often harmful
◦ change in protein production can sometimes
increase the fit between organism and
environment
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Chromosomal mutations that delete, disrupt, or
rearrange many loci are typically harmful
◦ Duplication of large chromosome segments is
usually harmful
◦ Duplication of small pieces of DNA is sometimes
less harmful and increases the genome size
Sexual reproduction can shuffle existing alleles
into new combinations
◦ recombination of alleles is more important than
mutation in producing the genetic differences
that make adaptation possible
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Population: localized group of individuals
capable of interbreeding and producing
fertile offspring
Gene pool: all the alleles for all loci in a
population
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The frequency of an allele in a population can be
calculated:
◦ Diploid organisms: the total number of alleles at
a locus is the total number of individuals x 2
 The total number of dominant alleles at a locus is
2 alleles for each homozygous dominant
individual plus 1 allele for each heterozygous
individual
 same logic applies for recessive alleles
p and q are used to represent their frequencies
The frequency of all alleles in a population will add
up to 1
For example, p + q = 1
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Hardy-Weinberg principle: describes a population
that is not evolving
◦ If a population does not meet the criteria of the
principle, it can be concluded that the population is
evolving
◦ States that frequencies of alleles and genotypes in a
population remain constant from generation to
generation
◦ In a given population where gametes contribute to
the next generation randomly, allele frequencies
will not change
◦ Describes the constant frequency of alleles in such
a gene pool
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Hardy-Weinberg formula:
◦ If p and q represent the relative frequencies of
the only two possible alleles in a population at a
particular locus, then
p2 + 2pq + q2 = 1
◦ where p2 and q2 represent the frequencies of the
homozygous genotypes and 2pq represents the
frequency of the heterozygous genotype
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The Hardy-Weinberg theorem describes a
hypothetical population
In real populations, allele and genotype frequencies
do change over time
The five conditions for non-evolving populations
are rarely met in nature:
1. No mutations
2. Random mating
3. No natural selection
4. Extremely large population size
5. No gene flow
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Three major factors alter allele frequencies and
bring about most evolutionary change:
◦ Natural selection
◦ Genetic drift
◦ Gene flow
Genetic drift: how allele frequencies fluctuate
unpredictably from one generation to the next
◦ tends to reduce genetic variation through losses
of alleles
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Founder effect: a few individuals become isolated
from a larger population
◦ Allele frequencies in the small founder population
can be different from those in the larger parent
population
Bottleneck effect: a sudden reduction in
population size due to a change in the environment
◦ resulting gene pool may no longer be reflective of
the original population’s gene pool
◦ If the population remains small, it may be further
affected by genetic drift
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Effects of Genetic Drift:
is significant in small populations
causes allele frequencies to change at
random
can lead to a loss of genetic variation
within populations
can cause harmful alleles to become fixed
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Gene flow: consists of the movement of alleles
among populations
◦ Alleles can be transferred through the movement
of fertile individuals or gametes (for example,
pollen)
◦ tends to reduce differences between populations
over time
◦ more likely than mutation to alter allele
frequencies directly
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Relative fitness: the contribution an individual
makes to the gene pool of the next generation,
relative to the contributions of other individuals
◦ Selection favors certain genotypes by acting on
the phenotypes of certain organisms
Sexual selection is natural selection for mating
success
It can result in sexual dimorphism, marked
differences between the sexes in secondary sexual
characteristics
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Three modes of selection:
1. Directional selection favors individuals at one
end of the phenotypic range
2. Disruptive selection favors individuals at both
extremes of the phenotypic range
3. Stabilizing selection favors intermediate
variants and acts against extreme phenotypes
Neutral variation: genetic variation that appears to
confer no selective advantage or disadvantage
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Heterozygote Advantage: occurs when
heterozygotes have a higher fitness than do both
homozygotes
◦ will tend to maintain two or more alleles at that
locus
◦ The sickle-cell allele causes mutations in
hemoglobin but also confers malaria resistance
Frequency-dependent selection: the fitness of a
phenotype declines if it becomes too common in
the population
• Selection can favor whichever phenotype is less
common in a population
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Speciation: origin of new species
Microevolution: adaptations that evolve within a
population
◦ confined to one gene pool
Macroevolution: evolutionary change above the
species level
Species: group of populations whose members
have the potential to interbreed in nature and
produce viable, fertile offspring
• do not breed successfully with other populations
Hybrids: offspring of crosses between different
species
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Prezygotic barriers: block fertilization from
occurring by:
◦ Impeding different species from attempting to
mate
◦ Preventing the successful completion of mating
◦ Hindering fertilization if mating is successful
Types
◦ 1. Habitat isolation: Two species encounter each
other rarely, or not at all, because they occupy
different habitats, even though not isolated by
physical barriers
◦ 2. Temporal isolation: Species that breed at
different times of the day, different seasons, or
different years cannot mix their gametes
◦ 3. Mechanical isolation: Morphological
differences can prevent successful mating
◦ 4. Behavioral isolation: Courtship rituals and
other behaviors unique to a species are effective
barriers
◦ 5. Gametic isolation: Sperm of one species may
not be able to fertilize eggs of another species
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Postzygotic barriers: prevent the hybrid zygote
from developing into a viable, fertile adult:
Reduced hybrid viability: Genes of the different
parent species may interact and impair the
hybrid’s development
Reduced hybrid fertility: Even if hybrids are
vigorous, they may be sterile
Hybrid breakdown: Some first-generation hybrids
are fertile, but when they mate with another
species or with either parent species, offspring of
the next generation are feeble or sterile
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Morphological species concept: defines a
species by structural features
Ecological species concept: defines a
species in terms of its ecological niche
Phylogenetic species concept: defines a
species as the smallest group of
individuals on a phylogenetic tree
Speciation: the evolution of a new
species
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Speciation: occurs one of two ways
1. Allopatric (“Other Country”) Speciation: Gene flow
is interrupted or reduced when a population is
divided into geographically isolated subpopulations
◦ The definition of barrier depends on the ability of
a population to disperse
◦ Separate populations may evolve independently
through mutation, natural selection, and genetic
drift
◦ Even if contact is restored between populations,
interbreeding is prevented
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2. Sympatric (“Same Country”) Speciation: Takes
place in geographically overlapping populations
◦ A reproductive barrier isolates a subset of a
population without geographic separation from
the parent species
◦ Can result from polyploidy, natural selection, or
sexual selection
Polyploidy: The presence of extra sets of
chromosomes due to accidents during cell division
◦ Autopolyploid: more than two chromosome sets,
derived from one species
◦ Allopolyploid: multiple sets of chromosomes
derived from different species
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Punctuated equilibrium: periods of apparent
stasis punctuated by sudden change
Gradual equilibrium: a change in a species’
existence that is relatively constant
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Chemical and physical processes on early Earth
may have produced very simple cells through a
sequence of stages:
1. Abiotic synthesis of small organic molecules
2. Joining of these small molecules into
macromolecules
3. Packaging of molecules into “protobionts”
4. Origin of self-replicating molecules
Earth formed about 4.6 billion years ago, along
with the rest of the solar system
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Earth’s early atmosphere likely contained water
vapor and chemicals released by volcanos:
◦ N & NO2
◦ CO2 & CH3
◦ NH3
◦ H & HSO2
Protobionts: aggregates of abiotically produced
molecules surrounded by a membrane
◦ Can replication and metabolize
◦ maintain an internal chemical environment
◦ could have formed spontaneously from abiotically
produced organic compounds
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The first genetic material was probably RNA
RNA molecules called ribozymes have been found
to catalyze many different reactions
Early protobionts with self-replicating, catalytic
RNA would have been more effective at using
resources and would have increased in number
through natural selection
The early genetic material might have formed an
“RNA world”
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Strata: layers of sedimentary rocks deposited into
layers
◦ richest source of fossils
◦ fossil record reveals changes in the history of life
on earth
◦ reveal the relative ages of fossils
The fossil record is biased in favor of species that:
◦ Existed for a long time
◦ Were abundant and widespread
◦ Had hard parts
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Radiometric dating: determining the absolute ages
of fossils
◦ A “parent” isotope decays to a “daughter” isotope
at a constant rate
◦ Each isotope has a known half-life, the time
required for half the parent isotope to decay
The geologic record is divided into the:
◦ Archaean eon (no life)
◦ Proterozoic eon (1 celled and soft bodies)
◦ Phanerozoic eon (fossil record)
Humans
Colonization
of land
Animals
Origin of solar
system and
Earth
4
1
Proterozoic
2
Archaean
3
Multicellular
eukaryotes
Single-celled
eukaryotes
Atmospheric
oxygen
Prokaryotes
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Hypothesis of endosymbiosis: proposes that
mitochondria and plastids (chloroplasts and related
organelles) were formerly small prokaryotes living
within larger host cells
◦ Mitochondria evolved before plastids
Endosymbiont: a cell that lives within a host cell
◦ The prokaryotic ancestors of mitochondria and
plastids probably gained entry to the host cell as
undigested prey or internal parasites
◦ In the process of becoming more interdependent,
the host and endosymbionts would have become
a single organism
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Evidence for endosymbiosis:
1. Similarities in inner membrane structures and
functions
2. Division is similar in these organelles and some
prokaryotes
3. These organelles transcribe and translate their
own DNA
4. Their ribosomes are more similar to prokaryotic
than eukaryotic ribosomes
The history of life on Earth has seen the rise and
fall of many groups of organisms as a result of:
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Continental drift:
◦ Oceanic and continental plates can collide,
separate, or slide past each other
◦ Interactions between plates cause the formation
of mountains and islands, and earthquakes
◦ Formation of the supercontinent Pangaea
◦ The break-up of Pangaea lead to allopatric
speciation
◦ The current distribution of fossils reflects the
movement of continental drift
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2. Mass extinctions
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The fossil record shows that most species that
have ever lived are now extinct
At times, the rate of extinction has increased
dramatically and caused a mass extinction
In each of the five mass extinction events, more
than 50% of Earth’s species became extinct
The presence of iridium in sedimentary rocks
suggests a meteorite impact about 65 million
years ago
The Chicxulub crater off the coast of Mexico is
evidence of a meteorite that dates to the same
time
3. Adaptive radiations: evolution of diversely adapted
species from a common ancestor upon introduction
to new environmental opportunities
◦ Mammals underwent an adaptive radiation after
the extinction of terrestrial dinosaurs
◦ The disappearance of dinosaurs (except birds)
allowed for the expansion of mammals in diversity
and size
◦ Adaptive radiations can occur when organisms
colonize new environments with little competition
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Homeotic genes determine such basic features as
where wings and legs will develop on a bird or how
a flower’s parts are arranged
Hox genes: class of homeotic genes that provide
positional information during development
◦ If they are expressed in the wrong location, body
parts can be produced in the wrong location
◦ For example, in crustaceans, a swimming
appendage can be produced instead of a feeding
appendage
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Evolution is like tinkering—it is a process in which
new forms arise by the slight modification of
existing forms
Natural selection can only improve a structure in
the context of its current utility
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Phylogeny: the evolutionary history of a species or
group of related species
Systematics: classifies organisms and determines
their evolutionary relationships
◦ use fossil, molecular, and genetic data to infer
evolutionary relationships
Taxonomy: the ordered division and naming of
organisms
Binomial: two-part scientific name of a species
◦ The first part of the name is the genus
◦ The second part, called the specific epithet, is
unique for each species within the genus
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The taxonomic groups from broad to narrow are
domain, kingdom, phylum, class, order, family,
genus, and species
A taxonomic unit at any level of hierarchy is called
a taxon
Systematists depict evolutionary relationships in
branching phylogenetic trees
◦ show patterns of descent
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Phylogenetic trees do show patterns of
descent
Phylogenetic trees do not indicate when
species evolved or how much genetic
change occurred in a lineage
Types of Speciation
Allopatric Speciation
Barriers may be:
Behavioral
Temporal
Geographical
Physiological
Sympatric
Speciation
Factors that influence variation in the population
Mutation
Natural Selection
Macroevolution
Classes of Vertebrates
Three
Domains