Download GRAMMAR SEQUENCING IN BASIC ESL

GRAMMAR SEQUENCING IN BASIC ESL
_______________
A Thesis
Presented to the
Faculty of
San Diego State University
_______________
In Partial Fulfillment
of the Requirements for the Degree
Master of Arts
in
Linguistics
_______________
by
Gina Michelle Feike
Spring 2011
iii
Copyright © 2011
by
Gina Michelle Feike
All Rights Reserved
iv
ABSTRACT OF THE THESIS
Grammar Sequencing in Basic ESL
by
Gina Michelle Feike
Master of Arts in Linguistics
San Diego State University, 2011
This thesis examines Dr. Zev bar-Lev’s unconventional sequence of grammar rules
based on Sheltered Initiation Language Learning (SILL) in comparison to other common
sequences of grammar rules found in basic ESL textbooks. Rationale for the various
sequences based on previous research in second language acquisition (SLA) is discussed for
each sequence.
Previous research in SLA reveals contradictory theories of sequencing, e.g.
Pienemann’s processability theory and Krashen’s theory of comprehensible input. While
processability theory suggests that the sequence of grammar instruction should be based on
the level of L2 learners’ readiness, Krashen discourages explicit instruction altogether,
stating that L2 learners will learn the language merely with input that is just above their
proficiency level (i+1). Other theories are discussed in order to pinpoint the motivation
behind selecting a particular sequence of grammar instruction over another. The analysis
suggests that the mainstream sequences seem to be based on first language natural order of
English morphemes as well as in order easy to difficult.
Ultimately, we can conclude that sequencing of grammar, while not the only factor of
successful teaching or even successful presentation, is a factor worth paying more attention
to than the field currently does. The investigation reveals that incrementation – presenting
fewer rather than more steps at one time or in a single lesson – is a crucial strategy to prevent
fossilization and information overload among language learners. Moreover, this analysis
calls attention to the new and unique SILL sequence of teaching grammar. Finally, this study
demonstrates the significance of teaching grammar rules in the order from easy to difficult.
While other textbooks use a milder form of this principle, SILL takes in to an extreme.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
PAGE
ABSTRACT ............................................................................................................................. iv
LIST OF TABLES .................................................................................................................. vii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ................................................................................................... viii
CHAPTER
1
INTRODUCTION AND REVIEW OF THEORETICAL BACKGROUND ...............1 Theoretical Background ...........................................................................................3 Sheltered Initiation Language Learning (SILL) ......................................................3 Teaching in Order of Difficulty ...............................................................................5 Processability Theory...............................................................................................6 Natural Order of Morpheme Acquisition .................................................................9 Purpose of the Study ..............................................................................................12 2
METHODOLOGY ......................................................................................................13 3
ANALYSIS OF SEQUENCES...................................................................................16 The Verb To Be (Is, Am, Are) ...............................................................................17 Simple Present .......................................................................................................21 Plural and Singular Nouns .....................................................................................24 A, An, The, and 0 (Null, Zero, No Article) ...........................................................25 Demonstrative Pronouns – This, That, These, Those ............................................28 Auxiliary Do ..........................................................................................................29 4
CONCLUSION AND PEDAGOGICAL IMPLICATIONS .......................................31 vi
Conclusion .............................................................................................................31 Pedagogical Implications .......................................................................................33 REFERENCES ........................................................................................................................36
APPENDICES
A ORDER OF ACQUISITION OF ENGLISH MORPHEMES IN MAJOR L1
AND L2 STUDIES ......................................................................................................39 B SEQUENCES OF GRAMMAR RULES.....................................................................41 vii
LIST OF TABLES
PAGE
Table 1. Assessment Results in Rank Order on the Basis of the Total Score............................6 Table 2. Textbooks Analyzed and Discussed ..........................................................................14 Table 3. Sequences of Grammar Points Compared .................................................................17 Table A.1. Order of Acquisition of English Morphemes in Major L1 and L2 Studies ...........40 Table B.1. Sequences of Grammar Rules ................................................................................42 viii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I would like to first acknowledge Dr. Zev bar-Lev for his encouragement, support,
and presence throughout this process and for allowing me to gain so much knowledge of
SLA and grammar sequencing. I would also like to thank Dr.Ghada Osman, Dr. Eniko
Csomay and Dr. Phillip Serrato for their support in reviewing this paper.
It is with much love that I extend gratitude towards my whole family who has always
supported every decision I have made and have had constant confidence in me. Their
warmth and positive energy has greatly helped me to be where I am today.
Lastly, I would also like to thank my intelligent, fun and strong friends in the
linguistics department for all of the walks and talks.
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CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION AND REVIEW OF
THEORETICAL BACKGROUND
Curriculum developers and textbook writers for learners of English as a Second
Language (ESL) sometimes run into difficulties with what to include in textbook units and in
which order grammar items and vocabulary words should be presented. Most second
language (L2) English instructors will agree that the sequence of the presentation as well as
the presentation itself is especially important for beginning level English learners to acquire
fluency and avoid fossilization of basic grammar errors. Although it is normal for L2
learners and children learning their first language (L1) to initially make mistakes, the
sequence of basic grammar rules could be slightly altered in order to help prevent
intermediate students from making beginner mistakes with basic grammar skills. Mistakes
with the copula be forms, such as, *You was late or *You is nice as well as the mistake of
deleting the auxiliary be as in*I winning the game are examples of habitual errors that are
made my intermediate and sometimes even advanced L2 English learners. Even though the
process and the sequence of learning a second language seem to be different than that of a
first language, not much research has been found on the learning outcomes or the importance
of the actual order or sequence of L2 English grammar points.
Ideal strategies and methods of L2 English grammar instruction vary among
researchers in the field of applied linguistics. Some researchers, such as Krashen, argue that
grammar does not need to be explicitly taught to L2 learners. Their reason is that acquisition
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happens naturally with sufficient comprehensible input, as it does in first language
acquisition. In contrast, other researchers have argued, and many classroom teachers agree,
that explicit form-focused and communicative grammar instruction helps students accurately
acquire the language at a faster rate because L2 acquisition differs from first language (L1)
acquisition. According to Swan (as cited in Scheffler, 2009), for example, in order to acquire
L2 rules, learners need to go through an initial stage in which they consciously focus on the
formal features of the language, often times comparing them to their native language. As
learners become more advanced, communicative tasks then take over as the main focus in the
classroom.
Although Krashen contends that L1and L2 acquisition happens in a parallel order,
most SLA research has shown that L2 acquisition is a different process than L1 acquisition
for several reasons: (1) L1 influences – hindrances as well as support –, (2) grammar
knowledge, (3) higher cognitive abilities, (4) learning styles, (5) age, and (6) motivation.
“The fundamental difference between adult L2 learners and child L1 acquirers is that the
former possess a powerful problem solving mechanism, which they use consciously to deal
with complex systems” (Scheffler, 2009, p. 5). Curriculum developers and instructors need
to recognize the value of these differences so they can maximize student learning in the L2
classroom. More specifically, learners may benefit from a sequence of topics and rules
designed exclusively for English L2 learners instead of learning in the order in which L1
English is acquired. The similarities and differences between the orders are discussed further
in this section.
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THEORETICAL BACKGROUND
The purpose of this review is to discuss the theories that have most likely contributed
to the sequence of L2 English grammar instruction in textbooks and classrooms. The
evidence in this analysis contributes to the most current literature examining the pedagogical
implications associated with the various sequences of basic English grammar points. Most
specifically, this research is concerned with highlighting Dr. Zev bar-Lev’s (1993) method of
Sheltered Initiation Language Learning (SILL) as a unique and useful way to sequence basic
ESL grammar. Furthermore, this study examines the possible ways that language acquisition
is effected by sequencing, including the problems that may arise if grammar points are not
learned in an ideal order. The discussion will include an overview of the SILL method in
general as well as SILL’s main sequencing strategies. There will be a discussion about the
on teaching in order of difficulty and focuses on the characteristics of grammar rules that
contribute to the measurement of complexity. Finally, there will be a review of the
Processability Theory as well as natural order of morpheme acquisition.
SHELTERED INITIATION LANGUAGE LEARNING (SILL)
The main principles of the SILL method, created by Dr. bar-Lev (1993), are: (1)
students first learn to combine words as they learn them, forming their own sentences, rather
than memorizing or practicing textbook dialogues. (2) Grammatical inflection is not
introduced until after the initial pre-language stage. (3) Grammatical inflection is introduced
asymmetrically, i.e. one category/form at a time (more discussion in Chapter 3).
Comprehension skills of skip-reading and “skip-listening” are taught with special exercises
(bar-Lev, 1993).
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One way that SILL is unconventional is that it presents words in word lists rather than
in context. The only context provided is one sample sentence for each group of four to six
words. After a list of about twenty-five vocabulary words are studied and practiced. Next, a
simple speaking pattern of about five words is introduced using the theme of the unit and a
word from the vocabulary list. An example of a pattern is to name a time and offer someone
something – It is 12 o’clock. Coffee? Students are expected to give different times and offer
something else from the list; for example, It’s 9 o’clock. Tea? Another speaking pattern in
the SILLy booklet is to tell someone how to be, then tell how you are, for example, Be
healthy! I am healthy and Do not be sad. I am not sad. Students practice affirmative and
negative statements with be and personality adjectives. It is a method that turns vocabulary
learning directly into speaking ability by having the students practice creating and producing
sentences using the specified pattern and only the words in the word lists. This can help
students create a number of sentences by themselves, building their inventiveness and
boosting confidence as language learners. The more successful a student feels the more
motivated they are to speak, thereby improving their fluency. SILL is not a method that
denies automatic learning through comprehensible input, but recognizes the fact that without
explicit instruction, there is a chance that students will produce inaccurate language. SILL
strategically sequences and increments the grammar items so that language inaccuracy will
ultimately be avoided. For example, in a Hebrew class taught with SILL, the two gender
endings are deliberately separated and are in two different levels of the curriculum instead of
the more typical sequence of gender being presented at the same time (bar-Lev, 1996).
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TEACHING IN ORDER OF DIFFICULTY
According to DeKeyser (2005) there are at least three factors involved in determining
the level of grammar rule difficulty: complexity of form, complexity of meaning, and
complexity of the form-meaning relationship. Part of what determines whether a structure is
clear or “easy” is the degree of importance of a linguistic form for the meaning it expresses:
“Certain morphemes are the one and only clue to the meaning they express; others are largely
or completely redundant because they mark grammatical agreement with meanings whose
primary representations are somewhere else in the sentence or discourse” (DeKeyser, 2005,
p. 3). Moreover, VanPatten (1990) has emphasized the distinction between meaningful and
redundant morphology or grammar for predicting what will be easy or hard to acquire,
especially in early stages of L2 development.
Rule difficulty can depend on learners’ language learning aptitude and analytical
abilities. It is also related to learners’ perceptions of how difficult a given rule is. In
deciding which types of rules are a priority to teach, Scheffler (2009) studied the perspectives
of two groups of 50 L1 Polish advanced L2 English language students. A questionnaire was
administered to determine which grammar items learners considered difficult (Group A) as
well as which grammar items they found useful to be taught (Group B).
Students were asked to rank the level of difficulty of each rule on a scale from 1 to 5:
1 very easy; 2 easy; 3 moderate; 4 difficult; very difficult. As for usefulness of instruction,
the levels on the scale were designated as follows: 1 not useful at all; 2 of little use; 3
moderately useful; 4 useful; 5 very useful. The total score out of 250 (50 students x 5) and
the average score were calculated to determine whether there was an overlap between the
judgments of rule difficulty and usefulness of instruction. The results in Table 1 indicate that
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Table 1. Assessment Results in Rank Order on the Basis of the Total Score
Group A
level of difficulty
Total
score
Average
score
Group B usefulness of
Instruction
Total
score
Average
score
1. tenses
177.5
3.5
1. tenses
232.5
4.6
2. prepositions
166
3.3
2. modal verbs
215.5
4.3
3. -ing forms and
164.5
3.3
3. conditional sentences 212
4.2
infinitives
4. passive voice
209.5
4.2
4. modal verbs
154.5
3.1
5. reported speech
195.5
3.9
5. conditional
151
3
6. -ing forms and
182
3.6
sentences
149.5
3
infinitives
6. reported speech 147
2.9
7. prepositions
180
3.6
7. passive voice
141.5
2.8
8. articles
176
3.5
8. articles
119.5
2.4
9. nouns
171.5
3.4
9. nouns
111
2.2
10. adjectives and
169.5
3.4
10. pronouns
100.5
2
adverbs
11. adjectives and
11. pronouns
159.5
3.2
adverbs
Source: Scheffler, P. (2009). Rule difficulty and the usefulness of instruction. ELT Journal,
63(1), 5-12.
there is some overlap between Group A and Group B. For example, tenses, modal verbs, and
conditional sentences were in the top five in both lists; pronouns, adjectives and adverbs,
nouns, and articles were considered the least difficult and least useful in the classroom. The
results of this study are very likely to change depending on the students’ L1 and language
proficiency. However, we can make a generalized conclusion that more instruction is
necessary for the more difficult grammar rules.
PROCESSABILITY THEORY
Pienemann’s (1998) Processability Theory (PT) is gives us an explanation of the
reasons why some grammar rules are easier than others. PT states that “at any stage of
second language development, the learner can produce and comprehend only those linguistic
forms that the current state of the language processor can handle” (Pienemann, 2007, p. 137).
There are “psycholinguistic constraints” which control whether learners can acquire specific
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grammatical rules through instruction. Formal instruction may be successful if the learners
have reached a stage in the developmental sequence that allows them to process the target
structure (Pienemann, 1984). Conversely, it will not succeed if learners have not reached the
requisite developmental stage. According to Pienemann (2007), “the Processability hierarchy
is based on the idea of transfer of grammatical information within and between the phrases of
a sentence” (p. 139). An overview of the original Processability hierarchy is as follows
(Pienemann, 2007, p. 140).
1. No procedure (e.g., producing a simple word such as ‘yes’)
2. Category procedure (e.g., adding a past-tense morpheme to a verb)
3. Noun phrase procedure (e.g., matching plurality as in “two kids”)
4. Verb phrase procedure (e.g., moving an adverb out of the verb phrase to the front of a
sentence “I went yesterday/yesterday I went.”)
5. Sentence procedure (e.g., subject-verb agreement)
6. Subordinate clause procedure (e.g., use of subjunctive in subordinate clauses
triggered by information in a main clause).
Basically, according to PT, learners develop their grammatical ability following the
hierarchy because: (1) The hierarchy is ordered in a way that every procedure must occur or
be experienced in order for the next procedure to occur. (2) The hierarchy “mirrors the timecourse in language generation” (Pienemann, 2007, p. 141). Based on Pienemann and
Johnston (1987) the proposed developmental sequence for the acquisition of basic questions
is as follows (three stages):

Stage 1: Single units – words and units – What? What is your name? (memorized
formulas)

Stage 2: SVO – Canonical word order with question intonation – It’s a monster?
Your cat is black? You have a cat? I draw a house here?
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
Stage 3: Fronting (wh- word / do) – Direct questions with main verbs and some form
of fronting – Where the cats are? What the cat doing? Do you have an animal?
Pienemann (1984) argues that stages in this developmental sequence cannot be
skipped even as a result of instruction. Pienemann's first experimental study tested the
prediction that only the learners who are developmentally "ready" to learn a structure (in this
case, inversion) can learn it through formal instruction, while those who are not ready will
not learn it, even if they are exposed to the same instruction. The study is based on pretests
and posttests for five Italian children learning German as a second language. Around twenty
hours of naturalistic conversational data confirmed Pienemann's hypotheses: The two
learners whose interlanguage – developing L2 – had reached the stage immediately preceding
inversion did learn it, while the three whose interlanguage was at an earlier stage did not
(Lightbown & Pienemann, 1993). Pienemann also tested his hypothesis with learners of
different ages and in different learning environments – both informal and instructed. He
found again that instruction was most effective for students whose level was just behind the
level being instructed (Lightbown, 2000), which is in accordance with Krashen’s theory of
providing students with input that is just above their proficiency level (i+1).
In contradiction to PT, however, Spada and Lightbown’s (1999) study found that
English language learners who were at an early stage in the acquisition of question forms
were able to learn question forms at an advanced stage as a result of formal instruction,
suggesting they were not constrained by the kind of psycholinguistic constraints, such as
word access and working memory, on acquisition proposed by Pienemann. Spada and
Lightbown suggest that the effectiveness of instruction may depend less on the learners’
stage of development than on the type of instruction (Hinkel & Fotos, 2002).
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NATURAL ORDER OF MORPHEME ACQUISITION
The order of acquisition for first and second languages is similar, but not identical
(see Appendix A). It has been established, for example, that the –ing marker in English, the
progressive, is acquired fairly early in first-language acquisition, while the third person
singular –s is acquired later; up to 6 to 12 months later after –ing (Krashen, 2003). Krashen
states that the third person singular in adult second-language learners may never be acquired.
According to Krashen, the natural order is not based on a grammar item being simple or
complex. As mentioned earlier, rules that seem simple (e.g., the third person singular) are
acquired late; others that appear complex are acquired early, presenting sequencing problems
for textbook writers. Krashen doesn’t believe, however, that the teaching order should be the
same as the acquisition order. Instead, he believes that with enough comprehensible input,
such as reading books or listening to native speakers, students will naturally acquire the
language in the natural order.
Lightbown and Pienemann (1993), on the other hand, argue that “while
comprehensible input is an essential part of the learning environment, it will not always be
sufficient to bring about developmental change or increased accuracy, even when learners are
in supportive environments” (p. 718). As cited in Lightbown (2000), many other published
studies show that instruction can speed up the acquisition of learners in certain structures, but
that the sequence of acquisition is not changed by the instruction.
Kwon (2005) reviewed the history of L1 and L2 natural order research and concluded
that regardless of the differing methodology of the studies, the orders of L1 and L2
acquisition are very similar. Although L2 studies have been done using subjects of different
age, L1 background, and a variety of learning environments, the findings throughout the
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studies have been consistent. The natural order studies have created controversy, however,
due to the choice of instruments or methods, the focus of grammatical functors being too
small and too trivial to be a basis for conclusions, morphemes with different meanings being
grouped as a single grammatical structure, individual data being obscured by group data, and
accuracy order not being able to be equated with acquisition order (Kwon, 2005).
Without including criticisms, Goldschneider and DeKeyser (2001) did a metaanalysis on 25 years’ worth of research on the natural order of English morpheme acquisition
by English language learners. They aimed to discover the cause of the hypothesized natural
order by reviewing accuracy scores of several studies and comparing them to 5 determinants,
which no other study had done. The following 5 determinants studied were: (1) perceptual
salience – how easy it is to hear or perceive a given structure, (2) semantic complexity – a
measure of how many meanings are conveyed by one particular form,
(3) morphophonological regularity – the degree to which the functors (grammatical
morphemes, such as –ed) are or are not affected by their phonological environment,
(4) syntactic category – lexical or functional and free or bound, and (5) frequency – the
number of times that a given structure occurs in speech addressed to the learner
(Goldschneider & DeKeyser, 2001).
The results revealed that a combination of all 5 determinants accounted for the
accuracy scores for grammatical functors and that these determinants seem to have
something in common; they all constitute aspects of salience – phonological, morphological,
syntactic, semantic and numeric salience – that facilitate the acquisition of grammatical
structure from the input. This multiple-determinant approach to accounting for the large
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inconsistency in the acquisition order of grammatical morphemes in English is the most
realistic and probable path for the future of natural order studies.
Hernandez (2000) compared the sequence of units in two ESL textbooks –
Interchange I and Grammar Dimensions I – to the morpheme rank order of second language
acquisition (MRO) provided by Dulay and Burt (1974) and found several striking
differences. Neither Interchange I nor Grammar Dimensions I follows the same order
proposed by Dulay and Burt. The MRO shows that subject and object pronouns (he – him)
are acquired at the same time while both textbooks present them in separate units –
introducing subject pronouns in the first unit and object pronouns three units later. Another
difference found was the acquisition order of plural forms. According to MRO, English
language learners learn –s (cars, books) form first, and later –es (watches, dishes) is learned,
however, in both ESL textbooks, both –s and –es are presented in the same unit. Other
differences in sequencing were found and will be briefly mentioned in the discussion.
Hernandez’s pedagogical implications were for instructors to follow the morpheme
rank order presented by Dulay and Burt (1974). She concluded that teachers need to
understand that although forms may seem simple, such as the third person singular,
familiarizing themselves with the natural order of morphemes will help avoid feeling
frustrated with students.
In contrast, Lightbown (2000) recognizes that English languages teachers would
naturally feel the need to plan lessons following the developmental sequence, but, in her
opinion, there are practical difficulties, such as the lack of detail on developmental sequence
and the difficulty in determining the levels of individual pupils in each class. She concludes,
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however, that developmental sequences research can allow teachers to see progress in other
ways besides accuracy alone, e.g. ability to get their point across (Lightbown, 2000).
PURPOSE OF THE STUDY
The purpose of this thesis is to analyze and compare the sequence of some main
grammar points in Dr. bar-Lev’s Sheltered Initiated Language Learning (SILL) English
booklets to three mainstream basic ESL textbooks in order to raise awareness of the possible
ideal sequence to teach or learn English grammar rules. As previously mentioned, very little
research has been found on the differences in ordering grammar instruction, the learning
outcomes, or the importance of the actual order or sequence of L2 English grammar points.
Equally as important, however unhelpful in determining the idyllic sequence, most of the
research has been done on second language grammar teaching theory and methodology, for
example, form-focused instruction and communicative language approach. This thesis is a
step in the direction of finding out the significance of sequencing. Included are comments on
the major differences between the sequences and a discussion of the possible rationale based
on various SLA theories – Dr. bar-Lev’s Sheltered Initiated Language Learning (SILL),
teaching in order of difficulty level, processability theory (PT), and natural order hypothesis.
In addition to sorting out the reasoning behind the order in which grammar is found in basic
ESL textbooks, this analysis is a step toward determining what an ideal sequence may be for
students to develop accurate and more permanent language skills.
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CHAPTER 2
METHODOLOGY
The purpose of this chapter is to discuss the methodology used for the analysis in the
current research. Initially, the four textbooks analyzed in this study will be discussed, which
will include a description of the contents, objectives, and approaches. There will also be a
discussion about the main reasons for selecting the particular grammar points to focus on.
This thesis analyzes and discusses the similarities and differences between the
sequences of grammar points in Dr. bar-Lev’s textbook in progress, SILLy English, to three
other basic ESL textbooks shown in Table 2. Betty Azar’s book, Basic English Grammar
(2000), is used as a textbook, a reference book and supplement material for ESL instructors
around the globe, and it can also be used as a self-study book for English language learners.
Because of this book’s success, many grammar book authors have duplicated her sequence as
well as her front cover in hopes of being just as successful. Each lesson starts with a
presentation of the grammar point in the form of a chart, followed by examples of contexts in
which the grammar is found, and finally, practice exercises: fill in the blanks, rewrite the
sentences, and circle-the-best-answer drills.
Touchstone 1 (2005) is a textbook that is currently used in beginning conversation
classes at the English Language Institute at University of California at San Diego. This book
includes exercises and activities that aim to improve learners’ speaking, listening, reading,
writing, vocabulary, and grammatical accuracy skills. Each lesson has a different theme and
begins with photos having to do with the theme along with questions for the students to
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Table 2. Textbooks Analyzed and Discussed
Title
Basic English
Grammar
Touchstone 1
Stand Out 1
SILLy
Author
Year
Azar, B.
2000
Number of
Units
16
McCarthy, M., McCarten, J., &
Sandiford, H.
Kenkins, R. & Johnson, S.
bar-Lev, Zev
2005
12
2002
not yet
published
8
10
activate schema. There are sample dialogues with text analysis type exercises,
comprehension questions, grammar charts, practice drills, speaking tasks, listening
comprehension tasks, and reading and writing tasks. Each unit has a number of
communicative activities that permit students to practice the language in various contexts.
Stand Out 1 (2002) has been used in an English as a second language class for adults
at Vista Adult School in San Diego County. The textbook includes thematic units and
exercises geared toward communicative skills, but unlike Touchstone 1 (2005), Stand Out 1
(2002) offers a separate grammar workbook, which focuses solely on grammar and is bought
separately. It includes grammar items presented in the main textbook as well as additional
items. Each lesson has grammar charts, example sentences and contexts, and of course drills.
SILLy I is a set of booklets with activities designed by Dr. Zev bar-Lev at San Diego
State University and is based on the Sheltered Initiation Language Learning (SILL) method
that are geared towards true beginners. The SILLy booklets are currently being written for
beginner ESL students in China. The booklets are mostly focused on speaking, but do
include some reading and writing activities. Unique to the SILLy booklets, there are
shouting activities that prompt students to shout words and sentences. Dr. bar-Lev believes
15
that when words and phrases are shouted, students’ confidence increases while their
inhibitions and fear of speaking in another language deteriorate.
The lessons are divided into sections that focus on a selected theme, word list and
grammar item. For example, in booklet 1C, students are presented with a list of vocabulary
words with matching pictures (computer generated images) followed by a pattern in which
students use as a model to make other sentences.
Each of the textbooks in this analysis has a different number of units and varies in
length, topic, and format. For this analysis, the four textbook sequences were divided into
four parts so that comparing the similarities and differences could be highlighted, shown in
Appendix B. The grammar points were chosen to be organized in this way so that the
differences in the sequences would be clear. The analysis of the sequences focuses on the
grammar items that were unique to Dr. bar-Lev’s SILL order compared with the other
textbooks. There are some similarities between SILL and the other textbooks that are
pointed out. The grammar items discussed are the verb to be, simple present, plural and
singular nouns, articles a, an, the and zero, this that these and those, and the auxiliary do.
Included in each grammar point analysis is information on the level of complexity, reasons
for common mistakes that English language learners (ELLs), as well as rationale behind
where it is positioned in the textbooks’ sequence.
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CHAPTER 3
ANALYSIS OF SEQUENCES
As discussed in Chapter 1, the purpose of this study is to explore how and for what
reason the sequences found in ESL textbooks compare. The study investigates the less
common sequence developed by Dr. bar-Lev and highlights some of the benefits of teaching
basic English grammar in the order that he proposes.
The sequences were analyzed and compared to previous studies on L2 morpheme
acquisition to illustrate the differences between the various sequences and the possible
rationale behind them. Furthermore, the analysis suggests that by using the SILL sequence,
common errors are likely to be avoided. Major grammar rules have been selected to illustrate
the various challenges and successes that English language learners could have based on the
order that the grammar is taught.
Research shows that there is a natural order in which acquisition occurs and that it
will happen in the natural order with or without instruction (Gass & Selinker, 2001). In
Table 3, the order of morpheme acquisition among L2 English children observed by Dulay
and Burt (1974) as well as the order among L2 English adults are presented along with the
order presented in the four textbooks that were analyzed in this study.
As seen in Table 3, the sequences of grammar rules in the four textbooks have
noticeable similarities and differences. Separated by grammar topic, my observations and
discussion of rationale include a brief background of the grammar as well as common
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Table 3. Sequences of Grammar Points Compared
LarsenFreeman
(1975)1
(adults)
1. progressive
2. copula
3. articles
4. auxiliary
5. short plural
6. reg. past
7. singular
8. past
irregular
9. long plural
(-es)
10. possessive
Bailey,
Madden and
Krashen
(1974)2
(adults)
1. progressive
2. plural
3. copula be
4. auxiliary
5. article
6. irregular
past
7. regular past
8. third person
sing
9. possessive
Azar – Basic
Grammar3
Touchstone 14
Stand Out5
SILLy
1. copula be
2. third person sing
3. possessive
4. prog (-ing)
5. pronoun case
(subj and obj)
6. plural (-s)
7. article (a, the)
8. long plural (-es)
9. regular past
10. irregular past
11. auxiliary (be
going)
1. copula be
2. third person
sing
3. article (a – the)
4. plural (-s)
5. possessive
6. prog (-ing)
7. pronoun case
(subj and obj)
8. regular past
9. long plural (-es)
1. pronouns
(subj)
2. copula be
3. 3rd person sing
4. plural
5. long plural
6. possessive
7. articles
8. progressive
9. 3rd person
singular and
plural forms of
be
10. regular past
11. aux be
12. irregular past
1. copula
be – I am
and you
are
2. auxiliary
do
3.
possessive
4.
progressive
5. copula
be - is
6. third
person sing
(does)
7. irregular
plural
8. regular
past (did)
9. articles
1
Larsen-Freeman, D. E. (1975). The acquisition of grammatical morphemes by adult ESL students. TESOL
Quarterly, 9, 409-419.
2
Bailey, K., Madden, C., & Krashen, S. (1974). Is there a "natural sequence" in adult second language
learning. Language Learning, 24, 235-243.
3
Azar, B. (2000). Basic English Grammar. White Plains, NY: Longman.
4
McCarthy, M., McCarten, J., & Sandiford, H. (2005). Touchstone 1. New York, NY: Cambridge.
5
Kenkins, R., & Johnson, S. (2002). Stand Out 1: Standards-Based English. Boston, MA: Heinle.
difficulties that L2 English learners may face during acquisition of the grammar. See
Appendix B for a more detailed comparison of the textbook sequences.
THE VERB TO BE (IS, AM, ARE)
To be is the most common verb in the English language as well as one of the most
difficult for low level L2 English learners to master. It has more distinct forms with respect
to person, number, and tense than any other verb in English. It has three present tense and
two past tense forms whereas a verb like walk has two present-tense forms and one past tense
form. Another reason that it is difficult is because it can be followed by adjectives, noun
18
phrases and adverbial prepositional phrases, e.g., Rod is handsome, Rod is a tennis player,
and Rod is in San Diego. One of the most common mistakes that L2 English learners make
is totally omitting the copula be because of the absence of it in their L1. For example, in
Russian, the present tense copula is absent: ona studentka / krasivaya / doma = she student /
beautiful / at home = She is a beautiful / student / at home. It is particularly difficult for L1
Chinese speakers because a different form is required depending on what be is followed by,
e.g., shi before a noun, zai before a place, and zero with adjectives & verbs. Another
common problem, of course, is using the wrong form (Celce-Murcia & Larsen-Freeman,
1999).
Regardless of its high level of complexity, since to be is the most common English
verb, it is the first verb that English language learners are introduced to in most English
textbooks and English classrooms. This seems like a relatively good choice according to L2
morpheme acquisition order research; it is either the second or third morpheme acquired. In
addition, Pienemann’s Processability Theory may suggest that learners are not cognitively
ready to learn all of the forms and uses of to be, however to simplify the level of complexity,
the forms of to be could be taught in separate lessons. Proving the complexity of the verb to
be, studies of the natural order of English morphemes (Appendix A) show the copula be is
most commonly the second acquired morpheme just after the progressive. In one study
(Bailey et al., 1974) it came after plural and in another, after articles (Rosansky, 1976), which
is considerably different in comparison with the sequences in the textbooks that are used in
this research, which present to be in the beginning perhaps because of its high frequency in
the English language. Although to be is determined to be complex, some research shows that
19
with extensive instruction students can acquire a more complex rule even in early stages of
acquisition (Spada & Lightbown, 1999).
In the first part of Azar’s Basic English Grammar (2000), the 1st person, 2nd person,
and 3rd person of the verb to be are the first grammar structures presented, followed by they
are and we are, and negative I am not happy. It is and they/we are are presented with
singular and plural nouns, e.g. city, cities, bus, buses. Students are supposed to do two things
at once: write the –s if necessary as well as figure out which verb form to use for each noun.
After the practice exercises on statements, yes/no questions using to be are presented, i.e. Are
you…? After that, the verb have is presented, e.g., I have a pen.
As in Azar’s book, Touchstone 1 (2005) also presents to be in statements
immediately, however, only focuses on the 1st and 2nd person – am, am not, are, are not –
similar to SILL. In my opinion, this is a better alternative to teaching all of the forms
because of the lower level of complexity and the readiness stage of the learners, which are
discussed above in the introduction. After yes/no questions and what questions with am and
are are presented and practiced, is is presented followed by yes/no questions using is.
Separating is from am and are gives learners more of an opportunity to master two forms of
be instead of three. That is, students have to remember am and are in one lesson and in one
context; they learn am and are with first names and class subjects and they learn is with
location, e.g. Laura is at work. Having students associate fewer forms with one topic may
help learners remember and produce the forms of be more accurately.
In Stand Out 1 (2002), subject pronouns are the very first item that is presented –
possibly because they are the first morphemes in L1 acquisition, but are quickly followed by
am, is and are, like in Azar’s (2000) book. After affirmative statements, negative statement
20
with am, is and are are presented, followed by possessive pronouns (my, your, her, etc.) then
information questions using am, is and are, e.g., Where are you from? and Who is she? In
this textbook, information questions seem to be presented earlier than the other books, which
may be too soon since learners are most likely not equipped with enough vocabulary or
grammar to produce accurate and varied wh- questions. And even though Krashen would
state that students acquire language with exposure to various grammar patterns through
comprehensible input, instructional time should be spent on grammar rules that they are
ready for, i.e. Krashen’s i+1. It is reasonable to suspect that beginner ESL students will not
be able to get through a grammar lesson that presents wh- words, what + noun and how +
adjective questions in the same lesson. It might even be pointless. Such an immense amount
of grammatical difficulties in one lesson would interrupt any reasonable notion of
sequencing. A better alternative would be to divide the three, for example, into three
separate lessons giving the students sufficient time and attention to have an impact on their
learning.
Similar to the first part of the Touchstone 1 (2005) sequence, SILLy separates I am
and you are from each other by a single lesson, but defers it is for a number of lessons, and
he/she is by whole booklets. He/she/it is is presented after negative statements with am/are
in present progressive, e.g., I am singing, You are laughing and even after the auxiliary do
with 1st and 2nd person verbs, e.g., I do have a pen and You do go to the store along with past
tense, and future tense. In SILLy, immediately following he/she is is the 3rd person do,
without other regular verbs with a –s ending. The –s ending (even on does) is deferred for a
later booklet so learners get fluent with I, you + verb, and then with plural irregular nouns +
verb, with –s coming even later. Again, focusing on fewer forms at a time in different
21
contexts from other forms may help the students’ attain the information for a longer period of
time. bar-Lev (1996) explains one of the features of SILL is separating different contrasting
forms “to maximize the different associations for them as separate” (p. 33). In this case,
students will associate am and are with something separate from is, making each form more
memorable. In this sense, SILL is the only one conforming to the natural order, in which –s
is acquired late.
Paradigmatic sequencing means presenting contrasting forms together, at the same
time, e.g. singular and plural, or the and a at the same time. Most textbooks present am, is
and are together – in paradigmatic sequencing; SILLy presents am first, then are in two
lessons later, and is much later – asymmetric sequencing. bar-Lev (1993) describes
asymmetric sequencing as consistent with the goal of incrementation. It uses the notion of
“markedness” by teaching the less marked forms (more dominant) first and the more marked
forms later and as “special”. For example, in a beginning L2 Spanish class, teaching viene
(he comes) first and vengo (I come) later bar-Lev has found through non-controlled
observations that asymmetric sequencing helps promote fluency and accuracy among L2
learners.
SIMPLE PRESENT
The simple present form in English is not always so simple for ESL students. Aside
from challenges with the irregular verb simple present forms, such as be/am/is/are, do/does,
and have/has, the number agreement between the subject and very poses a problem where the
third person singular form are explicitly inflected while other forms are not. Typical errors
include leaving the inflection off altogether, e.g., *Bob teach here and overgeneralizing the
inflection and applying it to uninflected forms, such as modal auxiliaries, e.g., *Tash cans
22
dance and *Tash can dances. Another likely error is overusing the inflection as an
agreement marker with subjects of inappropriate person and/or number, e.g., *I/They/You
goes and interpreting it as a plural marker as in *The dogs eats.
In Betty Azar’s Basic English Grammar (2000), the second verb that is presented and
practiced is simple present have with subject pronouns and nouns as the subjects. This
includes both forms – have and has – and is practiced alongside the verb be so that students
are exposed to when to use have and when to use be. For example, they have to choose have
or be in incomplete sentences such as, _____ in the city, ____ a new kitchen, ____
expensive. The simple present is further explained using regular verbs, which is found after
the exercises with have and be, possessive adjectives, this, that, these, those, and who and
what. Learners are asked to practice verbs with –s, -es, and -ies endings, e.g., eats, catches,
studies in the same lesson. After 16 practice exercises, the simple present with irregular
verbs is introduced – has, does, and goes and then are combined with regular verbs so that
students can practice deciding which verb to use in context as well as which form. Just as the
very beginning of Azar’s book, there is a lot being presented at once. I can see how this
would be overwhelming for students because it may be somewhat of an information
overload. It would be up to the teacher or tutor to break it down and make these exercises
meaningful.
In Touchstone 1 (2005), the simple present is introduced after information questions
with the verb to be. First, short statements are presented e.g., I like candy and Bob wants tea.
Then, simple present negative with don’t and doesn’t e.g., I don’t like toast and Bob doesn’t
want jam then simple present yes/no questions, such as Do you like the beach?, followed by
negative be (discussed above) and simple present information questions. This simple present
23
sequence is very similar to the to be sequence earlier in the textbook: statements, negative,
yes/no questions then information questions, which seems logical, especially according to
Pienemann, in that students can build on what they have already learned.
Stand Out 1’s (2002) sequence of the simple present is slightly different from
Touchstone 1 (2005) and is closer to the sequence found in Azar’s (2000) book. They begin
with the verb have then negative have (don’t have, doesn’t have). After practicing the simple
present affirmative and negative have and has, other regular verbs are introduced with –s and
–es endings, followed by yes/no questions and when and where questions. Including a focus
on the verb have seems reasonable considering it is one of the most common verbs used in
the English language and it is irregular. Familiarizing students with this common irregular
verb early is a good way for students to know what to expect with other irregular verbs as
well as increase metaknowledge of English – for example, knowing what an irregular verb is.
Finally, the auxiliary do that is presented in the first part of SILLy is unique among
the textbooks that I am analyzing; and most likely to many other basic English textbooks
since the auxiliary do is not commonly used in affirmative statements. It is also presented
where we would expect to find it, which is in negative statements, like, I do not like cheese as
well as in yes/no questions, like, Do you play tennis?. Presenting this do with affirmative
statements may help English language learners (ELLs) thoroughly learn the auxiliary to
prevent common mistakes such as: *Did you went?, *I no like cheese, *I not like cheese, and
*You know Barbara?
In English, the –s morpheme is used for plural nouns and for third person singular,
which naturally enough makes things confusing for ELLs who may make mistakes such as
*The cats runs fast or *Boys plays football. So, learning the simple present with do, learners
24
are able to make the observation that the –s ending in third person plural is not used, e.g.,
They do play tennis. This will help them remember that the –s ending that is used for third
person singular is not used for third person plural, although they were see the –s ending on
the subject noun that does represent plural, e.g., Boys play football. That is, it follows the
more intuitive order of less marked forms to more marked forms.
Another more important difference is that in SILLy, they are as well as 3rd person
simple present later than in Touchstone 1 (2005). The 3rd person simple present is presented
right after he/she/it is, which comes after the past and future tense using auxiliaries did and
will.
PLURAL AND SINGULAR NOUNS
Azar’s (2000) book presents singular and plural nouns in the third part of the
sequence way later than the lesson with this, that, these, and those, which are presented alone
as a noun phrase (NP). Regular verbs are introduced first – cat, cats, bottle, bottles – then
they move on to the irregular plural forms (women, people, etc), which immediately follow
regular nouns. The nouns are practiced with a, an, and some as well as adjectives such as
many, much, a few.
Touchstone 1 (2005) introduces plural noun forms in the first part of their sequence
along with this and these. Both regular and irregular nouns are presented in this section.
Plural nouns are continued to be practiced in the following lessons with where questions,
e.g., Where is the child? and Where are the children? and possessive pronouns, e.g., My pen
is blue and His pens are red. The repetition of the various noun forms throughout the lessons
proceeding where it was introduced give students multiple contexts in which singular and
25
plural nouns are used. Many researchers have found that more exposure to a grammar item
leads to long term acquisition.
Singular and plural nouns are introduced in the second part of the Stand Out 1 (2002)
sequence, but like in Touchstone 1 (2005), they are practiced with this, that, these, and those
followed by a lesson with a and an. Shortly after, there + be is presented.
SILLy’s initial use of plural animate nouns is unique. SILLy introduces irregular
plural animate nouns way before singular nouns and determiners. Since indefinite plural
irregular nouns do not need articles, learners follow more of the sequence of L1 language
acquisition, which is to exclude articles, for example, *I want cookie but without the usual
errors, since singular count nouns aren’t taught. The difference, however, is that the irregular
nouns are learned first, such as, women, men, police, people, children, fish, and the common
mistake of putting a plural –s or –es ending onto an irregular noun (womans, fishes, etc.) will
be avoided. The use of the null determiner, that is, nouns without the or a, as primary is
unique. The and a are introduced later. Since irregular plural nouns are morphologically
simpler, they will be easier for Chinese and other learners. In Chinese, for example, the
plural is less marked then singular because it doesn’t require a determiner, e.g., ren by itself
means ‘people’ and yige ren means ‘a person’.
A, AN, THE, AND 0 (NULL, ZERO, NO ARTICLE)
Determiners cause problems for many L2 English learners, especially for the L1
Chinese learners, for example, who often don’t use determiners in their L1. One, an, some,
and a few also cause problems for L1 Portuguese learners who use the same word for one and
an as well as the same word for some and a few.
26
The English article system, which includes the indefinite article a(n), the definite
article the, and the zero (or null) article,1 is one of the most difficult structural elements for
ESL learners. It has often been considered hard grammar, very difficult if not impossible to
teach (Dulay, Burt, & Krashen, 1982). Quite a few ESL educators have explored different
approaches and techniques for teaching article usage and examined the effectiveness of such
instruction; others have investigated the process of L2 acquisition of English articles, an issue
that deserves more attention (Liu & Gleason, 2002).
As cited in Liu and Gleason (2002), Parrish (1987) examined the order of acquisition
of the three types of articles, which indicated that the zero article was acquired first, followed
by the definite article, and finally the indefinite article. However, his subjects whose L1 did
not contain an article system overused the zero article and underused a or the. The problems
that advanced learners have with the articles are limited mostly to the overuse of the zero
article, particularly with a clearly identified referent, Master (1997). This overuse of the zero
article and the underuse of the at the advanced stage would suggest that the two articles are
acquired rather late, suggesting that the is perhaps acquired rather late in the ESL
development of the article system.
Azar (2000) presents an, a, some, and the in the third part of the sequence – in unit 7.
The is presented after a and an and some, but it’s still in the same part. Indefinite articles are
included in the lesson on count and noncount nouns and measurements with noncount nouns.
There is a separate lesson following a and an titled a, a and some – all indefinite. The lesson
on the definite article –the comes after the lesson on an, a and some as well as the lesson on
many, much, a few, a little.
27
In the first part of the sequence, Touchstone 1 (2005) presents a, an, and the in the
same lesson – explaining indefinite and definite articles all at once followed by the lesson on
this and these then plural nouns. Having this information presented all at once seems like it
might be confusing for English language learners because rules need individual attention and
practice. Separating the definite and indefinite articles would give students time absorb one
before learning another.
Unique to the other textbooks, the is not focused on anywhere in the Stand Out 1
(2002); only this, that, these, those and a, an are presented. As stated above, a brief lesson
on articles follows shortly after this, that, these, and those, however, the more detailed lesson
on only indefinite articles comes way later in the fourth part of the sequence – in unit 7.
Also unique to the other textbooks, SILLy presents irregular plural nouns (the
animates, people, children, etc.) well before their singulars to avoid any need for the and a.
Some plural inanimates are included earlier, but the nouns that are introduced earlier are
noncount nouns. The and a/an (in part 4) are introduced after this, that, these, those and one.
It’s not widespread theory, however in SILLy, after students are familiar with this, that,
these, and those, SILLy presents the as a “short version” of that, those, this, these and a as a
“short version” of one. Since the demonstrative determiners – that, this, these, those – are
more perceptually and semantically salient, it seems that they are easier for students to learn.
According to Hernandez (2000), ESL students should be taught definite and indefinite
articles as only one morpheme so that they understand there is a close relationship between a
and the. Although there are differences in meaning and use, which would be pointed out and
practiced in class, instructors should not wait until students acquire the indefinite article to
28
present the definite one. Moreover, articles should be taught very early in the language
learning process because of how early they are acquired naturally.
Although articles are frequent in discourse, they are less perceptually salient, meaning
they are difficult to hear and perceive, as well as less semantically salient, meaning they do
not carry semantic meaning, perhaps making them more difficult to acquire.
DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS – THIS, THAT, THESE,
THOSE
In the first part of the sequence (in unit 2), Azar (2000) presents this and that then
lessons with these and those, e.g., My cat, This cat, and These cats. These items immediately
follow possessive pronouns and are followed by a lesson in asking questions with what and
who + be. What is interesting to me here is the how singular and plural nouns are not
discussed in detail with this, that, these, and those. Instead, Azar’s (2000) book uses singular
and plural nouns even though they are “taught” until much later in the textbook. Also, this,
that, these, and those are presented way before indefinite articles (a, an) and the definite
article (the).
Touchstone 1 (2005) presents only this and these is the first part of the sequence – in
unit 2, yet doesn’t present this, these, that, and those together until unit 8. This and these are
presented with the lessons surrounding plural nouns, which seems logical in my opinion
because we only use this and these with nouns. In Touchstone 1 (2005), this and these are
presented immediately after a, an, and the – which are all found in the same lesson.
Similar to Touchstone 1 (2005), Stand Out 1 (2002) presents this, that, these, and
those with singular and plural nouns in the first part of the sequence – in unit 2. Different
from Touchstone 1 (2005), the definite determiners (this, that, these, those) lesson is situated
29
before the indefinite articles lesson (a and an). A brief lesson on articles follows shortly after
this, that, these, and those, however, the more detailed lesson on only indefinite articles
comes way later in the fourth part of the sequence – in unit 7.
Unlike any of the textbooks, SILLy presents those and these first, before this/that and
the and a/an. This is and that are presented separately along with the singular, but they are
also presented as a pro-NP early on, e.g., This is rice. Most uniquely, the definite article, the,
is presented after that, this, those, these and the indefinite article, a, is, surprisingly,
presented after one. This sequence essentially solves the problem faced by native speakers of
Russian, Chinese, and others who have no articles in their languages because students are
able to understand, practice, and therefore more easily master what they can translate into
their own language first.
AUXILIARY DO
Depending on the L1, the do insertion in English negation and interrogatives can be
even more challenging due to the fact that many languages allow multiple negation in one
sentence, unlike English, e.g., *I don’t see nobody.
An additional problem involves the form of the negative particle. Some
languages do not have distinct forms for expressing their equivalents of English
not and no. Some have more than two negative particles. Finally, English usually
contracts not in speech and in informal writing, which few other languages do
with their negative particle. This makes it harder for learners to understand and
acquire not than if it were consistently produced as a separate, uncontracted word.
(Celce-Marcia & Larsen-Freeman, 1999, p. 183)
In Russian, there is no auxiliary verb needed to form a question or negation. For
example:

On ne chitaet
On chitaet?

He not read-Present-3P
he read-Present-3P?
30

He does not read
Does he read?
Negative structures appear to follow a particular sequence of development for English
L2 learners. At the start, a negative particle, usually no or not, is placed next to the item it
negates, as in no like or I no like. Pica (2005) stated that “this juxtaposition reflects universal
strategies of communication and grammar management” (p. 8) and is closer to the order that
L1 English acquirers also experience. Those whose L1 negation is consistent with the stage,
for example, L1 Spanish or Italian learners, usually remain there longer than those whose L1
does not encode negation in this way (Pica, 2005).
As mentioned earlier in the simple present section, the auxiliary do that is presented
in the first part of SILLy is unique among the textbooks that I am analyzing and most likely
unique to many other basic English textbooks since the auxiliary do is not commonly used in
affirmative statements. It is also presented where we would expect to find it, which is in
negative statements, such as I do not like cheese and in yes/no questions, such as Do you play
tennis? Presenting this do with affirmative statements may help English language learners
(ELLs) thoroughly learn the auxiliary to prevent common mistakes, such as *Did you went?,
*I no like cheese, *I not like cheese, and *You know Barbara? With so much practice with
the auxiliary do in present affirmative statements, e.g., I do play tennis and past affirmative
statements, e.g., I did go to school affirmative statements, students become more comfortable
with the concept of this “helping verb” that is not found in many other languages. Although
do is not standard in these types of sentences, it is grammatical and it seems easier for
students to remove the do rather than add it on in negation and interrogative sentences.
31
CHAPTER 4
CONCLUSION AND PEDAGOGICAL
IMPLICATIONS
The primary intention of this study is to investigate the grammar sequence found in
Dr. bar-Lev’s SILLy textbook and to compare it to three mainstream ESL textbooks.
Included in the analysis are the problems that L2 English learners encounter while learning
each grammar point as well as possible sequencing solutions. The analysis also contains
possible rationale for each grammar sequence as well as an ideal sequencing strategies for
basic ESL students based on SLA theories and previous research. The rationale includes
comparisons to research on measuring complexity of forms, Processability Theory, natural
order of morpheme acquisition, and Sheltered Initiation Language Learning.
CONCLUSION
It is clear that all of the textbooks analyzed do not follow the exact same order,
although there were some commonalities. The most significant commonalities are between
the mainstream textbooks – Touchstone 1 (2005), Stand Out 1 (2002), and Azar’s Basic
English Grammar (2000) – and include the instruction of all three simple present forms of
copula be (am, are, is) in the beginning of part one of the textbook, the 3rd person singular
present also in the beginning of part one, and the exclusion of the auxiliary do in affirmative
and simple past tense statements.
32
Additionally, the results from the analysis illustrate the unique and valuable strategies
of the less conventional SILLy sequence in the following ways: (1) Presenting two forms of
the copula be – I am, you are – first, and later the third person – She/he is – will most likely
avoid information overload and increase sustained accuracy by increasing the number of
associations and contexts that the students make. (2) Teaching English learners the auxiliary
do early on with affirmative statements instead of waiting until the negatives and
interrogatives familiarizes learners with the concept of the helping verb and minimizes errors
with auxiliaries. (3) Rather than the 3rd person singular (–s ending) being one of the first
forms taught, postponing the instruction of the 3rd person singular is more in line with the
natural order of morpheme acquisition and would presumably decrease the amount confusion
and overgeneralization of rules while learning English verbs and plural nouns.
The evidence in this study also indicates that although many mainstream textbooks
seem to take an eclectic approach to the order of the grammar rules, providing students with
an appropriate amount of time spent on the more complex rules and giving them
opportunities to make different associations with different forms, acquisition of English
seems probable, particularly if they are cognitively ready for a rule (Pienemann, 1998). This
analysis demonstrates that the verb to be is very complex, yet if broken down by form,
students will have a better handle on all of the forms and will produce them with fewer
mistakes.
Considering that there were several differences in the sequences of grammar rules,
this study sheds light on the need for added research in determining the ideal sequence of
ESL grammar instruction. Further research is needed in comparing the learning outcomes of
the various sequences, especially between Dr. bar-Lev’s SILLy and the more conventional
33
sequences. Moreover, it would be fascinating to see the results of a formal study that
compares the short term and long term success of L2 English learners studying the basic
forms in the unique sequence of SILLy.
In addition, textbook writers must take into account the determinants in connection
with morpheme acquisition orders: (1) semantic complexity, (2) input frequency, and (3)
native language transfer as well as the overall salience of the forms. In other words, it would
be ideal for textbooks to be written for students of particular populations with the same ages,
needs and first languages, for example, English for Russian adults, etc.
PEDAGOGICAL IMPLICATIONS
The sequences and stages of L2 development, which are described in this paper,
provide a useful resource for teachers to apply to their instruction and to help them
understand their students' struggles, successes and progress with respect to SLA. Although
the order in which morphemes are acquired in L1 English and L2 English are similar, there
are several factors or determinants that make the process of acquisition very different – L1
influence, ability to problem solve, metaknowledge of language, age, motivation, and
proficiency level. Being aware of the natural order of morpheme acquisition allows textbook
writers and instructors to make more worthwhile choices about the order in which they
present grammar rules. Of course, they need to take into account the need for more time
spent on more difficult lessons as well.
This thesis indicates that textbook writers should also consider the level of
complexity of each grammar item and realize that although a grammar topic may seem
relatively simple, such as the difference between a and the, students could have a difficult
time learning and acquiring the rule, which could lead to longer class and practice time.
34
Individual perspective on the difficulty of grammar rules and the usefulness of instruction
play an important role in learning. When instructors are spending too much time on
something that is considered useless or easy or not enough time on something considered
useful, students may resist or block the input. It seems crucial for instructors to assess their
students’ perspectives on difficulty and usefulness, possibly with a ranking survey, to
maximize learning in the classroom.
Most importantly, this analysis demonstrates that the interesting, though
controversial, strategy to consider is the approach to teaching grammar found in Dr. barLev’s SILLy sequence; focusing on one form of a verb or tense at a time – asymmetric
sequencing – instead of having students try to learn all of the forms of verbs and tenses in
one lesson, saving the more marked forms for later. We have all experienced information
overload, whether it is while learning another language or following directions on changing a
tire. If the steps are broken down and each step is individually focused on, learners will feel
more comfortable and confident with each step. As confidence increases, learners are likely
to take more risks; the more risks they take, the more they will learn from their successes and
failures. Often times, students will allude to the idea that they want to learn English
overnight. They may try to resist spending more time on one form; therefore, it is the
teacher’s responsibility to educate students of the benefits of this strategy and to create tasks
that will promote confidence, motivation, and success.
Lastly, because auxiliaries are very frequent in English, yet difficult due to low
semantic salience, instructors should consider the part of Dr. bar-Lev’s SILLy sequence of
presenting the auxiliary do before it is usually presented. Students begin to understand that
auxiliaries are helping verbs much earlier than they would normally simply by adding the do
35
present tense and past tense affirmative statements, such as I do have a backpack and I did
walk to school. They would otherwise be prompted to learn the negative with do not and the
interrogative with did you + verb before they are familiar with the concept of auxiliaries.
36
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39
APPENDIX A
ORDER OF ACQUISITION OF ENGLISH
MORPHEMES IN MAJOR L1 AND L2 STUDIES
40
Table A.1. Order of Acquisition of English Morphemes in Major L1 and L2
Studies
Source: Kwon, E. (2005). The “natural order” of morpheme acquisition: A historical survey. TESOL &
Applied Linguistics, 5(1), 1-21.
41
APPENDIX B
SEQUENCES OF GRAMMAR RULES
42
Table B.1. Sequences of Grammar Rules
Azar
Touchstone
Stand Out
SILLy
1. be: singular (1st, 2nd, and
3rd person)
2. be: plural
3. be: negative
4. be: yes/no questions
5. have: present
6. possessive pronouns
7. his, that, these, those
8. wh- questions: present
1. be with I, you, and
we: statements, yes/no
questions, +/- answers
2. be: what questions
3. 3rd person be:
statements, yes/no
questions, +/- answer
4. a, an
5. this and these
6. the
7. regular and irregular
plural nouns
8. where questions
1. subject pronouns
2. be (1st, 2nd, and 3rd
person)
3. be: negative
4. be: yes/no
5. possessive pronouns
6. be: info questions
7. have (don’t and
doesn’t)
8. simple present
1. First person Be
2. Second person Be
3. I do verb
You do verb
4. Be: negative and (do
not)
Adding not after the
helping or linking verb;
Yes/no questions and
short answers; my, your
5. some, irr plural
(animate), past (with did)
9. simple present
10. irregular singular verbs:
has, does, goes
11. simple present negative
(don’t, doesn’t)
12. simple present
questions
13. present progressive
14. present progressive
negative
15. present progressive
questions
16. there + be
17. need, want, would like
9. possessive pronouns
10. be: info questions
11. simple present:
statements
12. simple present:
negatives (don’t,
doesn’t)
13. simple present:
yes/no
14. be: negatives (more
practice)
15. simple present: info
questions
16. there + be
6. Present progressive
I am, You are + ing
7. future tense (will)
8. Other helping verbs:
can, must
9. Be with he, she, it (3rd
person)
18. subject pronouns and
object pronouns
19. nouns: singular and
plural
20. nouns: irregular plural
forms
21. an, a
22. an, a and some
23. many, much, a few, a
little
24. the
25. using 0 (no article) to
make generalizations
26. past tense, negative,
questions
27. past progressive
28. future tense, questions
(will)
29. may, might, will
17. present progressive:
statement, yes/no, info
questions
18. imperatives; like to,
want to, need to, have to
9. simple present:
yes/no
10. singular and plural
nouns; this, that, these,
those
11. an and an
12. imperatives
13. there + be
14. present progressive
15. present
progressive: negative;
yes/no
16. present
progressive: info
questions
17. prepositions
18. parts of speech
19. time expressions
20. adverbs; can, want,
need
21. should
22. a /an and the
23. simple past, future,
simple past: yes/no
12. the, a
like to, want to, whquestions
19. this, these, that, those
20. can, can’t
21. simple past:
statements, yes/no, info
questions
22. some, any
10. Do adds –s with a he,
she subject (does).
Questions and negatives
with do
11. Sg animate nouns,
those, these; one