Download How Moral Identity Influences Leadership Ethics: A Historical Case

How Moral Identity Influences
Leadership Ethics: A Historical
Case Study
Sandra G. Nunn, DM, and John T. Avella, EdD
This historical case study of U. S. Presidents Kennedy and Nixon explored how individual
moral identity can influence leadership ethics in decision making. The study examined
how four key influences of education, family, peers, and religion could affect a leader’s
ability to make ethical or unethical decisions. Data analysis determined emergent themes
from these influences to establish positive or negative moral identity development. Study
results contributed to the literature by demonstrating how moral identity influences that
emphasize societal welfare versus a self-focus can affect a leader’s ability to make ethical or unethical decisions.
“Study of the literature provided a
cornerstone of understanding of
these concepts relative to leadership ethics; but, it also revealed that
understanding moral identity development represented an essential
component to understanding the
underpinnings of ethical and unethical leadership.”
“Core themes demonstrating a concern for the welfare of others typically aligned with positive moral
identity development; whereas, core
themes demonstrating a self-focus
generally aligned with negative moral identity development.”
A
ccording to Engelbrecht and van
Aswegen (2009), leadership ethics
determine the ethical climate within an organization because the leader’s
40
value system establishes the moral direction
(Johnson, 2009). Because of these insights,
increased public awareness of unethical
practices reveals an emerging interest in
leadership ethics (Avey, Palanski, & Wernsing, 2012). In this area of scholarship, an
emerging area of interest relative to leadership ethics considers the relationship of individual moral identity and the role it plays
in ethical and unethical decisions (Hunter,
2012). Review of the literature revealed the
evolution of ethical and moral ideology
within individuals from early philosophical and theoretical constructs to current
research. Study of the literature provided a
cornerstone of understanding of these concepts relative to leadership ethics; but it also
revealed that understanding moral identity
development represented an essential component to understanding the underpinnings
of ethical and unethical leadership.
Journal of Psychological Issues in Organizational Culture, Volume 6, Number 3, 2015 ©2016 Bridgepoint Education, Inc. and Wiley Periodicals, Inc.
Published online in Wiley Online Library (wileyonlinelibrary.com) DOI: 10.1002/jpoc.21200
◆
This historical case study investigated how
leader moral identity contributed to a leader’s
ability to make ethical or unethical decisions.
Through the use of a perceived ethical organizational leader and an unethical organizational
leader, the study examined the four moral identity
influences of education, family, peers, and religion
relative to ethical and unethical decision-making
practices. An extensive case history of two former
presidents from the same era was used to compare
and contrast individual moral identity development to reveal how moral identity affected ethical and unethical decision making. Assimilation
of the discoveries obtained through this study enhanced understanding of the relevance of moral
identity and how leaders make decisions within
the context of modern organizations.
Literature Review
Definitions
According to Sockol (2009), people view moral
identity from perspectives of individual character and social cognition. Early scholars defined
moral identity as the individual’s dedication to
moral values and a focus on the protection of societal welfare (Atkins, Ford, & Hart, 1998). Jones
(1991) defined an ethical decision “as a decision
that is both legal and morally acceptable to the
larger community” (p. 367). The converse proved
true for an unethical decision because societal
norms disapproved of the illegality and moral unacceptability of the decision to the community.
While people can understand the parameters of
legal versus illegal aspects because societies rely
on established written or cultural standards, the
concept of “morally acceptable” proves more difficult. What a person views as ethical and morally acceptable could prove just the opposite
with another individual, group, organization, or
culture.
Theoretical Background
Ancient philosophers advocated the concept of
ethics to instill the development of individual
character and promote a positive society (Avey,
Palanski, & Wernsing, 2012). The earliest philosophical foundation regarding virtue ethics and
moral behavior evolved from early Greek philosophers, such as Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle.
Socrates ascribed to the concept of virtue ethics. In the writing of Crito by Plato (n.d./1900),
Socrates established that one who knew virtue
(ethics) would act in a virtuous (ethical) manner.
The concept of ethics originated from the Greek
word ethos, which translated means “character” or
“moral character” as shown in Rhetoric when Aristotle discussed the moral nature of the speaker
(Aristotle, n.d./1833, p. 12). In Nicomachean Ethics, Aristotle (n.d./1813; n.d./1908) expanded on
ethics and moral behavior by noting that society
considered a person as virtuous if the individual
acted in alignment with virtuous ideologies.
Subsequent philosophers and theorists proposed different theoretical ideas regarding moral behavior, ethics, and moral identity. In An
Essay Concerning Human Understanding, Locke
(1690/1775) suggested that personal identity depended on an individual’s consciousness. As a
result, he linked conscious self-identity to moral
agency. Similarly, Smith (1759/1761) posited in
The Theory of Moral Sentiments that an ethical decision maker used moral principles and acted in
a morally responsible manner. Kant (1785/2008)
also developed a universal moral standard known
as the categorical imperative in which an individual must respond to decisions through a moral process that complied with universal law acceptable
to mankind and not on personal desires.
◆
Journal of Psychological Issues in Organizational Culture, Volume 6, Number 3 DOI: 10.1002/jpoc
41
Piaget (1932) first proposed the cognitivedevelopmental model known as Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development to explain how
the cognitive development of a child related to
moral development. Kohlberg (1971) expanded
on the concept of individual moral development
in Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral Development,
which stated that the ability to determine right
or wrong using moral reasoning consisted of six
stages designated by preconventional, conventional, and postconventional levels. The ability to
think in a moral capacity at the preconventional
level existed for individuals at the lowest levels, such as children in grade school. Kohlberg
characterized the first stage with an obedience
and punishment social orientation motivated by
a threat of punishment, whereas he characterized the second stage by individualistic behavior
compelled by self-interests. In the conventional
level, Kohlberg described the third stage as good
boy and good girl where the individual sought the
approval of others. In the fourth stage, known
as law and order, an individual adhered to societal laws to perform a duty. In the postconventional level, Kohlberg noted most adults did not
achieve the fifth stage of social contract because
it involved caring about the well-being of other
individuals. In stage six of principled conscience,
the individual carried a respect for universal
values and demonstrated individual conscience
(Kohlberg, 1971). In a modification of prior work
by Kohlberg, Rest’s Four Component Model of
Moral Development theorized that an individual must develop the four moral components of
character, judgment, motivation, and sensitivity
to ensure moral maturity and correctness. Development of these four components provided an
individual with the ability to note issues, make
good decisions, remain motivated to act when
necessary, and possess the character to remain
42
◆
Journal of Psychological Issues in Organizational Culture, Volume 6, Number 3 DOI: 10.1002/jpoc
a moral individual (Rest, Narvaez, Bebeau, &
Thoma, 1999).
In Blasi’s Model of Moral Identity, Blasi (1983)
suggested that the moral identity component of
personal identity influenced moral behavior because of the interaction of individual moral judgment and the resultant moral action. In another
model of moral identity, Hart and Matsuba (2009)
posited how enduring qualities, social influence,
and characteristic adaptations made up individual
moral identity. Enduring qualities consisted of stable influences of personality and social influence
that established the foundation of individual moral identity. Personality consisted of three components: resiliency, overcontrol, and undercontrol.
Individual resiliency allowed a person to remain
unaffected by events whereas the other factors
influenced whether the individual excessively
controlled or lacked control of a situation. Social
influences consisted of family structure as well as
neighborhood and how each component influenced the individual from childhood into adulthood. Characteristic adaptations consisted of
moral orientation, the self, emotions, and opportunity for action. Moral orientation consisted of
individual attitudes, cognition, and moral values.
Current Research on Moral Identity
While a foundational component of moral character consists of personal (self ) identity, an essential construct of personal identity consists of
moral identity. Carlo and Hardy (2005) defined
moral identity relative to how the construction
of self-identity encompassed morality-based concerns and values. Because moral identity consisted as a subcomponent of individual moral
maturation, moral identity contributed to individual moral cognition and the ability to take ethical
action (Avolio, Hannah, & May, 2011). People who
showed a closer affinity to internalization viewed
moral identity as a core component of their sense
of self (Aquino & Reed, 2002; Cropanzano & Stein,
2009).
According to Poff (2010), core values relied on
dedication to excellence and integrity as a foundation for ethical leadership. Johnson, Miller, and
Schlenker (2009) determined that individuals who
possessed higher levels of integrity demonstrated
moral identities aligned with a strong moral compass. A leader’s trustworthiness and the ability of
leaders to establish key relationships relied on the
individual’s identity (Caldwell, 2009). Influences
could enable internal ethical behavior. These aspects included family influence, education, spirituality, role models, level of honesty, integrity,
courage, conscience, self-awareness, ability to adhere to one’s beliefs, personal control, and adherence to conduct codes (April, Locke, Mlambo, &
Peters, 2010). Audi (2012) proposed that virtues
consisted of a grounded internal construct within
personal character that allowed an individual to
engage in good conduct for appropriate reasons.
This viewpoint aligned with research by Carter
and Stets (2011, 2012), who determined that moral identity guided ethical behavior.
Research demonstrates that moral identity
can affect individual morality. Further, leaders
faced with ethical challenges may adopt different
values influenced by several identities (Bagozzi,
Charnigo, & Sekerka, 2009). In two empirical
studies, Aquino, Duffy, and McFerran (2010) observed that moral identity and moral personality
demonstrated a positive association with ethical
ideology; conversely, ethical beliefs within individuals influenced personality, identity, and ethical behavior within organizations. Moral identity
also showed a positive relationship to ethical leadership through moral identity symbolization and
moral identity internalization (Aquino, Greenbaum, Kuenzi, & Mayer, 2012).
A high degree of moral identity can influence
prosocial action toward others through moral elevation (Aquino, Laven, & McFerran, 2011). According to Arnold, Lawford, and Pratt (2009),
studies of emerging adulthood linked moral identity and the ability to engage in prosocial behaviors. Miller and Schlenker (2011) determined that
the integrity construct of moral identity can also
affect relationships with others. Individuals who
possess a strong moral identity within their construct do not appear to emulate unethical conduct of others compared to persons who possess
a weak moral identity (Butterfield & O’Fallon,
2011). Aquino, Freeman, and Shao (2008) noted
that differences in moral behavior appeared to
emerge from the variance of individual social and
cognitive viewpoints. In turn, leaders who demonstrated a complex and multifaceted self-construct
that included values also performed better in the
leadership role and served as positive role models (Hannah, Lord, & Woolfolk, 2009). Conversely,
leaders who engaged in self-deception by denying
their identity inhibited the ability to remain selfaware (Caldwell, 2009).
Different antecedents can contribute to individual moral identity such as religiosity and education. Researchers determined that self-control
helped to mediate individual religiosity relative
to moral identity (Ammeter et al., 2009). Further,
Kadabadse and Rozuel (2010) revealed that people who embraced the spiritual component of selfidentity demonstrated ethical behavior. Passini
(2010) also noted the relevance of educational influences from family and schools that contributed
to individual morality.
Current Research on Ethical and Unethical
Decision Making
Ethical decision making emerged from two constructs of moral reason. The first construct relied
◆
Journal of Psychological Issues in Organizational Culture, Volume 6, Number 3 DOI: 10.1002/jpoc
43
on individual feelings of morality, whereas the second construct involved the ability to reason about
a situation (bte Joned, Ling Meng, & Othman,
2011). Leaders who made moral decisions relied
on individual virtues, such as honesty and justice,
to accomplish morally justifiable results (Bagozzi
et al., 2009); therefore, the implicit moral attitude
of the leader influenced ethical decision outcomes
(Hoeger & Marquardt, 2009).
Another positive influence relative to ethical decision making centers on moral centrality.
In an empirical study, Frimer and Walker (2009)
determined that concern for others predicted an
individual’s ability to demonstrate ethical behavior, whereas the converse held true for people who
showed high self-interest. Researchers discovered
similar results in a study of contemplation versus
self-interested conversation. In this study, selfinterested conversations known as contemplation promoted ethical decision making, whereas
self-interested conversations resulted in unethical
decisions (Gunia, Huang, Murnighan, Wang, &
Wang, 2012). Monroe (2009) also noted that moral
choice relative to moral identity and how a person
views oneself relative to other individuals affected
the ability to make ethical decisions. Moral identity established the foundation and boundaries of
moral choice (Monroe, 2011).
Moral intensity also influences ethical decision making. Researchers determined that the
moral intensity components of social consensus,
magnitude of consequences, temporal immediacy, proximity, and probability of effect influenced
moral awareness, moral judgment, and moral intention when making ethical decisions (Jones,
1991). Thus, the ethical situation affected a person’s moral awareness, understanding of possible
consequences, and moral intent when making
ethical decisions (Holmes & Lincoln, 2011). In a
similar construct, researchers determined that
44
◆
Journal of Psychological Issues in Organizational Culture, Volume 6, Number 3 DOI: 10.1002/jpoc
individuals who possessed self-awareness and
who demonstrated a high level of mindfulness
would more likely act in an ethical manner (Ruedy
& Schweitzer, 2010).
In a meta-analytic study, researchers determined that numerous multidimensional characteristics determined unethical choices relative to
intention and behavior. These components consisted of psychological and demographic characteristics within the individual, moral issue
characteristics, and organizational environment
characteristics. Psychological aspects consisted of
a person’s cognitive moral development, idealistic
attitudes, sense of satisfaction with work, center of
control, Machiavellianism, and relativism. Demographics consisted of age, education, and gender.
Moral characteristics consisted of the concentration of effect, magnitude of consequences, moral
intensity, probability of effect, proximity, social
consensus, and temporal immediacy. Organizational environment characteristics consisted of
benevolent ethical climate, codes of conduct, the
egoistic ethical climate, enforcement of codes of
conduct, ethical culture, and the principled ethical
climate (Harrison, Kish-Gephart, & Treviño, 2010).
The process of making ethical decisions presumes that one possesses the ability to recognize
the moral aspects of a potential issue. Situations
like this could result in moral stress reactions
within the individual (Kallenberg, Larsson, Nilsson, & Sjoberg, 2011). Leadership stress could
contribute to the ability of the leader to make ethical decisions because of dilemmas a leader may
face relative to doing what is ethical compared to
what constitutes the best decision for a company’s
bottom line. For this reason, people should understand the influence of stress on a leader’s ability to
make ethical decisions (Selart, 2010).
Demographic differences could also account
for certain influences regarding decision making.
While research revealed no differences between
Black versus White subjects, a survey-based study
demonstrated clear differences between males
and females relative to ethical decision making.
Women appeared more willing to reject unethical
actions, while males demonstrated a greater volition to engage in unethical conduct (Fok, Hartman, & Zee, 2009).
Research Problem and Questions
Though past research explored core values and
moral identity in the conceptualization of ethical leaders versus unethical leadership (Brown
& Mitchell, 2010), other research established
a positive relationship between ethics and social responsibility (Godkin & Valentine, 2009).
Research demonstrated that ethical leadership
predicted citizenship behavior within organizational stakeholders (Bachrach, Harris, Kacmar, &
Zivnuska, 2011). However, studies failed to address the deeper elements of leadership morality
foundations to determine how moral identity influenced leadership ethics. Jamnik (2012) noted
that ethics resides within the hearts of people.
To address unethical behavior of organizational
leaders, scholars recognized that behavioral ethics research must focus on the psychological
components of ethical leadership and personal
awareness of morality (De Cremer, van Dijke, &
Tenbrunsel, 2010). Therefore, the specific problem that this study intended to address was how
moral identity affected ethical versus unethical
decision making.
To focus on the problem outlined above, this
historical case study examined moral identity
influences and decision making of former U.S.
Presidents John F. Kennedy (JFK) and Richard M.
Nixon (RMN) through exploration of the following questions:
R1: How did the moral identity constructs of
Presidents Kennedy and Nixon contribute to ethical decision making?
R2: What role did the moral identity of Presidents Kennedy and Nixon play in individual perceptions of ethical conduct?
Method
This study used a qualitative historical case
study method to perform in-depth analysis of
personal moral identity relative to specific organizational leaders during particular historical
events. Through the use of purposive sampling,
the researcher focused on the selection of two
leaders in the modern era with one leader possessing a reputation for ethical leadership and
one leader possessing a reputation for unethical
leadership. Because this historical case study required detailed biographical information of two
leaders from which to evaluate individual moral
identity relative to leadership decision making,
the researcher needed to ensure the availability of substantive biographical data and archival records from reliable sources. Access to this
information provided a complete understanding of the leader’s childhood influences, such
as family, religious upbringing, early education,
peer influences, and other contributing factors
to individual moral identity. Biographical data
for organizational leaders within the private sector does exist to a limited extent through books,
interviews, and other sources. However, biographical data of prior U.S. presidents exists on a
broader scale because of archival records at each
respective presidential library as well as in other
published works.
For this historical case study, the researcher
focused research efforts on deceased U.S. Presidents John F. Kennedy and Richard M. Nixon.
◆
Journal of Psychological Issues in Organizational Culture, Volume 6, Number 3 DOI: 10.1002/jpoc
45
The researcher used biographical and historical
data of former U.S. Presidents John F. Kennedy
and Richard M. Nixon because of the existence of
ample research material from the public record.
The researcher gathered detailed information regarding each leader’s personal background history
relative to educational, family, peer, and religious
influences to establish individual moral identity
development. For President Kennedy, research
also focused on ethical decisions made by Kennedy during the Cuban Missile Crisis that helped
to eliminate the potential for a nuclear holocaust
with Russia. In contrast, research also examined
the unethical decisions made by President Nixon
during the Watergate scandal, which resulted in
his impeachment and resignation as president.
Former U.S. President John F. Kennedy represented a very interesting case study because of
his personal background and the complex nature
of the foreign policy crises he faced during the
presidency (Kaufman, 1993). According to Heath
(1985), President Kennedy possessed a rational idealist ideology because he understood “the
world was not a moral place” (p. 302); therefore, he
understood how this inherent aspect of life served
as a constant test of leadership. Though the Bay
of Pigs failure proved a black mark on Kennedy’s
abilities as a decision maker in the early days of
his presidency (Friedman, 2011), Kennedy demonstrated greater qualities as an ethical decision
maker in subsequent key events. For more than
50 years, President Kennedy embodied the ideal
of ethical leadership to the American people because of his decisiveness in the Cuban Missile Crisis and in his decision to send a man to the moon.
Gibson (2011) noted that Kennedy’s presidency
and leadership during the Cuban Missile Crisis
served as the subject of study by many scholars
and students. However, no studies appeared to exist regarding his moral identity and how his moral
46
◆
Journal of Psychological Issues in Organizational Culture, Volume 6, Number 3 DOI: 10.1002/jpoc
identity influenced his decision making. For this
reason, this study explored Kennedy’s moral identity relative to background influences and how
this moral identity affected decision making during the Cuban Missile Crisis.
In contrast to the Kennedy presidency, the
presidency of Richard M. Nixon demonstrated a
different reputation in the historical record. Demonstrating a complex persona that revealed certain insecurities as well as an inability to relate to
others on one hand (Guzlowski, 1987), Nixon also
demonstrated a predictable facet to his words and
political ideas (Gonchar & Hahn, 1971). Though
Nixon accomplished certain noteworthy achievements within his presidency, his presidency became marred by the Watergate scandal, which
culminated in Nixon’s resignation from office
(Azari, 2010). The Watergate scandal included
revelations not only from documents and court
testimony, but also from recordings in the Nixon
tapes that revealed Nixon’s complicity with Watergate (Richard Nixon Presidential Library and
Museum, 2013). Regardless, Nixon’s legacy still
remained of interest to researchers and scholars to
understand him as a personal and political figure
(Edgerton, 2012). However, no studies appeared
to exist regarding Nixon’s moral identity and its
influence on his decisions while serving as president. For this reason, this study explored Nixon’s
moral identity relative to background influences
and how this moral identity affected decisions
that led to Watergate and the downfall of President Nixon.
Data Analysis
To commence data analysis of the coded data in
NVivo for each study subject, the researcher performed different queries for content analysis and
word frequency reports of the top 50 words of
six or more letters. These initial queries provided
cluster analysis reports, tree maps, word clouds,
and word frequency summaries that revealed
patterns for each study subject as well as helped
to identify emerging themes that could indicate
moral identity formation.
Results
Plotting the results of the frequency queries for
the four moral identity influences on a line chart
provided initial comparisons of how the moral
identity influences for each study subject initially
compared with each other. In the case of JFK, this
chart revealed that education (frequency measurement of 53) and family (frequency measurement of 52) appeared to influence moral identity
development more than that of RMN, who demonstrated a frequency measure of 42 for education
and a measure of 25 for family. However, RMN
showed higher moral identity influence relative
to peers with a frequency measure of 39 than the
frequency measure of 22 for peers in the case of
JFK. The influence of religion for both subjects did
not appear to affect either subject to a significant
extent given that both subjects exhibited a frequency measure of 12.
Additional examination of the NVivo data
queries revealed the emergence of 10 themes for
JFK and 11 themes for RMN. These themes were
also plotted on horizontal bar charts to visually determine stronger themes relative to lesser
themes based on frequency measurements. The
themes that emerged for JFK in descending order
of frequency consisted of competitiveness, realism, self-awareness, independence, social awareness, idealism, loyalty, morality, character, and
compassion. The themes that emerged for RMN in
descending order of frequency consisted of character, Quaker values, competitiveness, attitudes,
success-driven, intellectual, model behavior, social
acceptance, personal attitudes, shift in belief system, and independence.
In the content analysis queries using NVivo
software, the researcher produced word frequency
charts for JFK and RMN through the selection of
the top 50 words of six letters or more. These charts
allowed further corroboration of the emergent
core themes as well as provided a visual representation of the emergent themes through descriptive
language and words. The word frequency chart for
JFK revealed certain keywords (history, intellectual, and winning) that demonstrated influences
from education and family and aligned with the
emerging themes of idealism, realism, and competition. Closer examination of additional words
provided greater insights into the core values and
ideology of JFK. Words such as people, chivalry,
compassion, independence, justice, responsibility,
and idealism reflected an emphasis on social good
and doing what’s right rather than a focus on personal ambition. In contrast, the word frequency
chart for RMN focused on words that reflected
core themes of character, competitiveness, and
Quaker values such as individual, determination,
mother, religion, and religious. Additional analysis
of the word frequency chart revealed other words
such as character, church, competitive, others, and
the name of RMN’s college football coach, Newman. Unlike JFK, the word frequency chart for
RMN appeared to reflect concepts with a greater
personal focus centered on competition and success rather than a focus on social awareness with
a sense of compassion for the welfare of others in
society.
Careful analysis of individual core themes
for JFK and RMN revealed how each core theme
could represent either positive or negative moral
identity development relative to ethical or unethical leadership decisions. To establish moral identity influence and strength for each study subject,
◆
Journal of Psychological Issues in Organizational Culture, Volume 6, Number 3 DOI: 10.1002/jpoc
47
the researcher evaluated each core theme relative
to how strong the theme focused on the welfare
of other people in society in contrast to a focus
on oneself. A strong sense of concern for societal
welfare demonstrated a higher moral identity construct. In contrast, a tendency to focus on personal
welfare showed a lower moral identity construct.
As shown in Table 1, this analysis determined
that 9 of 10 (90%) of the emerging themes for JFK
showed that JFK possessed a high moral identity
construct to make ethical decisions.
In contrast, research revealed that only 5 of 11
(45%) of the emergent themes for RMN, as shown
in Table 2, showed a high moral identity construct. For this reason, comparison showed that
JFK demonstrated a much greater moral identity
construct than RMN.
Discussion
Examination of the emerging core themes for JFK
in Table 1 revealed which themes contributed
to positive or negative moral identity formation.
While competitiveness proved a strong influence within the family life of JFK from childhood
through JFK’s college years, it did not serve as the
core foundation of JFK’s moral identity. Instead,
this competitiveness contributed to the greater
sense of independence within JFK. It was this independence that later proved invaluable to moral
decisions made by JFK during the Cuban Missile
Crisis. Rather than succumb to heavy pressure
from military advisors to use military force against
the Russians, JFK looked for alternative solutions
to avert nuclear war. JFK’s sense of idealism to do
the right thing occurred early in life. However, it
was tempered by his sense of realism that evolved
not only from his college education but from exposure to political and international events before World War II. These events appeared to open
48
◆
Journal of Psychological Issues in Organizational Culture, Volume 6, Number 3 DOI: 10.1002/jpoc
JFK’s mind up to increased self-awareness of his
strengths as an intellectual and problem solver.
Further, this increased self-awareness also contributed to a growth of social awareness of people
not only in the United States but also in the global
community. JFK took a greater interest in problems faced by others by expanding his worldview.
He looked at the world’s problems by understanding the implications of how personal actions could
affect other people. These core themes appeared
to provide the cornerstone of JFK’s moral identity
and his ability to engage in ethical decisions during
the Cuban Missile Crisis rather than to succumb
to peer-related pressures from military advisors
in his administration. JFK’s sense of independence
combined with his realism, self-awareness, and social awareness demonstrated a high level of moral
identity formation in his ability to recognize the
greater importance of societal welfare in the important ethical decisions before him. Less significant themes consisted of character, compassion,
loyalty, and morality. As shown in Table 1, character, compassion, and morality also contributed
to positive moral identity formation, while loyalty
proved insignificant (John F. Kennedy Presidential
Library and Museum, 2013a, 2013b; J. F. Kennedy,
1917−1963; R. F. Kennedy, 1974).
Examination of the emerging themes for
RMN revealed that character and Quaker values played key roles in initial moral identity development during early childhood and into his
early college years. RMN’s family demonstrated
strong Quaker beliefs and values entrenched in a
well-established Quaker community in which the
Nixon family were active participants. Because of
his early upbringing, these religious belief systems
became ingrained in RMN’s moral fiber and code
of conduct. The family exhibited a strong work
ethic that became an integral part of RMN’s moral
identity to work hard and achieve success. These
Table 1
Core Theme Contributions to Moral Identity Formation in JFK
Moral Identity
Formation
Core Theme
Definition
Attributes of JFK
Character
Ethical actions … to serve the greater good of
the community (Fry & Sweeney, 2012)
Prosocial action indicate high moral identity
(Arnold et al., 2009; Aquino, Laven, &
McFerran, 2011)
Compassion
Commendable judgment
Independent thinking to improve society
Positive
Idealism
Represents concern for needs of others in
society (Finegan & Hastings, 2011)
Idealists focus on moral action rather than
immoral (Bloodgood, Mudrack, & Turnley,
2012)
Strong sense of idealism and chivalry
Core belief of right and wrong
Doing the right thing for the common good
Positive
Realism
Realists consider moral implications, consequences, and others’ interests (Lentner,
2011)
Able to view issues in deeper context to
recognize economic, political, and international considerations
Positive
Compassion
Central component of moral identity development (Lapsley & Narvaez, 2009)
Demonstrated compassion and social
responsibility
Positive
Competitiveness
Source of personal discovery and personal
improvement (Bloodgood et al., 2012)
Learned to achieve high goals balanced with
public service
Influenced JFK’s sense of independence
Positive
Independence
Ability to rely on personal judgment
Lack of conformity; Self-confidence; Autonomy;
Ability to think for himself to develop solutions
Positive
Loyalty
Loyalty can conflict with impartiality in moral
decision making (DeScioli & Kurzban, 2013)
Remained loyal to his family but did not allow
loyalty to interfere with ethical decisions
Neutral/
Negative
Self-awareness
Integration of beliefs and values with the selfconcept (Fry & Sweeney, 2012)
Demonstrated strong sense of self-identity and
self-acceptance
Did what was most important to him
Showed his intellectual capabilities to peers
Positive
Social awareness
Individuals with social awareness build positive relationships to achieve goals (Fry &
Sweeney, 2012)
Positive relationships promote moral courage
and enhance moral action (Avolio &
Hannah, 2010)
Developed greater awareness of world through
observing people and events to better
understand societal issues
Became more sensitive to needs of others
Expanded his worldview and developed stronger
sense of social responsibility
Positive
Morality
Sense of right and wrong
Initial sense of moral ideology established
through religious teachings
Positive
Note. Attributes of JFK obtained through biographical data sources at John F. Kennedy Presidential Library and Museum, Boston, MA.
common themes also emerged because of RMN’s
focus on intellectual pursuits and model behavior in grade school through college (Nixon, 1962,
1978; Richard Nixon Presidential Library and
Museum, 1909−1967). However, RMN’s college
years also influenced the mitigation of religious
beliefs to a more moderate stance. Through critical examination of his religious beliefs in a college
paper, RMN reevaluated his personal views regarding his religious beliefs and developed a more
◆
Journal of Psychological Issues in Organizational Culture, Volume 6, Number 3 DOI: 10.1002/jpoc
49
Table 2
Core Theme Contributions to Moral Identity Formation in RMN
Moral Identity
Formation
Core Theme
Definition
Attributes of RMN
Competitiveness
Hypercompetitiveness can contribute to
unethical behavior because of inability to
focus on the needs of others (Bloodgood
et al., 2012)
Strong sense of competitiveness because of Coach
Newman
Loved to win at all costs
Negative
Independence
Ability to rely on personal judgment
Initially independent but then became more dependent on what others thought
Negative
Intellectual
Aligned with cognition component of moral
orientation indicative of moral identity
development (Hart & Matsuba, 2009)
Proven intellectual capability
Positive
Model behavior
Adhered to code of conduct and demonstrated exemplary behavior indicates moral
identity development (April et al., 2010)
Exemplary student
Strong interest in learning
Positive
Attitudes
Core component of moral orientation that
help in moral identity formation (Hart &
Matsuba, 2009)
Cornerstone of early morality, humility, and interest
in welfare of others
Respect for hard work, learning, and determination
Positive
Success-driven
Focus on achievement of personal success
Heightened competitive spirit to succeed
Highly ambitious
Wanted to become somebody
Negative
Character
Leadership character demonstrates ethical
behavior aligned with values to promote
the welfare of others (Fry & Sweeney,
2012)
Contradictory character
On the surface, sought to do what’s right, but exhibited behavior that conflicted with this appearance
and revealed a focus on himself
Negative
Personal attitudes
Core component of moral orientation that
help in moral identity formation (Hart &
Matsuba, 2009)
Supportive of individual rights
Sensitive to others
Positive
Social acceptance
Desire to be accepted and valued by peers
Strong desire to be accepted and valued by peers
Appeared to lack confidence
Worried about what others thought of him
Negative
Quaker values
Sense of values derived from Quaker religious community
Strong belief and buy-in with Quaker values and
belief systems through his family in early years
Positive
Shift in belief
system
Change in sense of values and belief
Acknowledged that he no longer held the same
sense of values and beliefs he held as a child
Negative
Note. Attributes of RMN obtained through biographical data sources at Richard Nixon Presidential Library and Museum, Yorba Linda, CA.
neutral perspective. In addition, he recognized the
change within his Quaker belief system through
this new worldview (Richard Nixon Presidential Library and Museum, 1909−1967, Series V,
Box 10:11). Because this clearly shifted his moral
identity to a more secular-based foundation, this
50
◆
Journal of Psychological Issues in Organizational Culture, Volume 6, Number 3 DOI: 10.1002/jpoc
change opened the door to other changes in his
moral beliefs and behavior. During this time in
college, RMN developed a higher level of competitiveness because of the influence of his football
coach, Coach Newman, who encouraged his players to be winners at all costs. Because RMN highly
respected Coach Newman, this way of thinking
became the mantra for the young RMN, and he
adopted this ideology as a cornerstone philosophy (Nixon, 1978). RMN also became more concerned about his level of social acceptance among
his peers. As a result, he demonstrated a lower
level of independence. What emerged from these
moral identity influences was a paradigm shift
that may have caused a new sense of moral priorities in RMN, dependent on personal interpretations of peer perceptions. Stated differently, RMN
may have allowed peer influences and his sense
of competitiveness to overshadow higher levels
of moral identity because of his need for acceptance by others as well as his need for success to
feel validated.
Through analysis of the core themes for each
subject, an important revelation that emerged was
the unique, individualized aspect of the themes
identified in this study. Though each study subject shared three themes consisting of character,
competitiveness, and independence, the remaining seven themes for JFK and eight themes for
RMN clearly demonstrated differences unique to
each individual. These unique emergent themes
aligned with Brown and Mitchell (2010), who noted how different people display variable behavior
and individual dimensions of moral identity. Further, this confirmed prior study results that also
established differences relative to personal moral
actions (Aquino et al., 2008).
The emergent core themes for JFK demonstrated how early influences of education, family,
peers, and religion helped to shape his individual
moral identity construct and establish the cornerstone of ethical decision making during the
Cuban Missile Crisis. For example, religious influences in JFK’s early childhood helped to shape
the core theme of morality. In early morality theory, Socrates described this as the foundation of
individual moral beliefs known as virtue ethics
(Plato, n.d./1900). Other philosophies described
the personal sense of morality from birth (Aristotle, n.d./1813; Aristotle, n.d./1908). Development
of the core theme of morality could also be ascribed to the stages of cognitive development described by Piaget (1932) and the development of
moral reason (Kohlberg, 1971) when JFK learned
to adhere to moral-based societal norms. The influence of education on JFK’s morality also aligned
with the emergence of character and idealism.
According to Aristotle (n.d./1833), character
emerged from personal virtue. Further, character
comprised one of the four elements of individual
moral development (Rest et al., 1999). For this reason, the core theme of character closely aligned
with moral identity development. In addition,
virtuous actions and ideologies discussed by Aristotle (n.d./1813; n.d./1908) explained how JFK’s
sense of idealism contributed to the development
of his moral identity construct.
The emergent theme of self-awareness revealed how JFK appeared to recognize his identity from an early age. This insight aligned with
the early theory that the sense of identity begins at
birth (Aristotle, n.d./1813; n.d./1908). Further, this
also affirmed Locke (1690/1775), who asserted
that self-awareness represented an essential component of personal identity because of alignment
with the individual sense of moral responsibility.
This idea emerged in JFK’s greater sense of compassion and realism regarding society as well as its
contribution to greater social awareness that influenced JFK to act in a morally responsible manner.
In addition, this insight affirmed how the individual can empathize with the emotional needs of
others (Smith, 1759/1761) and can demonstrate a
duty to act with moral conduct (Kant, 1785/2008).
Further, these core themes for JFK appeared to
correspond with the fifth and sixth stages noted
◆
Journal of Psychological Issues in Organizational Culture, Volume 6, Number 3 DOI: 10.1002/jpoc
51
by Kohlberg (1971) that he identified as social
contract and principled conscience, respectively.
In Kohlberg’s explanation of these stages, the majority of adults failed to attain these stages because
of the inability to care for others, demonstrate a
conscience in behavior toward others, and a lack
of respect for universal value systems. Because of
these revelations, the core themes of social awareness, realism, and compassion for JFK appeared to
indicate a stronger sense of moral identity formation compared to other people in society.
Examination of JFK’s emergent theme of loyalty to family demonstrated a possible detriment
and disruptive influence to the moral identity
construct. Prior research by Jones (1991) revealed
that issues of authority, socialization, and dynamics of group interactions could affect moral intent
and actions. However, closer analysis of the core
themes showed how the intense competitiveness
found throughout the Kennedy family also affected the heightened level of independence found
in JFK. Because of this independent nature, JFK
demonstrated a strong ability to think independently of other influences to engage in ethical
decision making. For this reason, the competitiveness of JFK appeared to influence a stronger sense
of independence. However, analysis revealed that
RMN demonstrated a different dynamic in which
he possessed a lessened sense of independence
and a greater focus on competitiveness.
For RMN, emergent themes revealed components of the moral identity construct that appeared to serve as contributing factors to the
unethical actions by RMN during the Watergate
scandal. Analysis showed that attitudes, character,
and Quaker values served as early influences to
RMN’s early moral development. Similar to JFK’s
upbringing, influences from family and religion
served as a cornerstone in shaping moral standards in early childhood to understand differences
52
◆
Journal of Psychological Issues in Organizational Culture, Volume 6, Number 3 DOI: 10.1002/jpoc
between right and wrong. These moral standards
demonstrated alignment with the germinal theoretical framework of virtue ethics initially proposed by Aristotle (Plato, n.d./1900). The evolution
of RMN’s sense of values and moral standards included the core theme of model behavior exhibited
by RMN in which others observed him as a good
boy. This insight corresponded to the preconventional third stage of moral development noted by
Kohlberg (1971). The intense focus by RMN to
exhibit intellectual ability as a model student revealed his obsessive tendency to be well respected
and liked by his peers. As a result, this behavior
demonstrated that this focus was a crucial aspect
of his personal identity. Because the third stage of
moral development discusses the need for the individual to seek peer approval (Kohlberg, 1971),
this explained why social acceptance comprised
an essential component of RMN’s moral identity
development. Peer influences appeared to contribute to the development of personal attitudes in
RMN in which he showed empathy to individuals
during childhood.
Unlike the results determined for JFK, the core
theme of competitiveness failed to increase RMN’s
sense of independence. Instead, RMN’s competitiveness appeared to align more closely with the
success-driven theme. RMN focused greater attention on peer approval through the theme of
social acceptance that diminished his sense of independence. These revelations corroborated with
Kohlberg (1971) who noted how peer influence
affected the development of moral identity within
the individual. In addition to these insights, analysis of the emergent themes of competitiveness and
success-driven showed that RMN possessed an intense preoccupation with personal success as well
as a strong determination for self-fulfillment. Piaget (1932) referred to this as egocentric thinking
in the period of early development while Kohlberg
(1971) referred to this as a focus on individual
self-interests. The emergent themes of competitiveness, success-driven, and intellectual probably
contributed to RMN’s shift in belief system theme
because of his strengthened self-focus. In addition, RMN’s strong sense of competitiveness and
drive for success probably helped to contribute to
RMN’s increased propensity to engage in unethical decision making during the Watergate affair.
The results of this case study demonstrated
significance to prior leadership research from the
literature review in several ways. Through this
study, results helped to corroborate, validate, and
explore previous moral identity research while
also laying a foundation for future qualitative research studies relative to this leadership topic.
This study provided further support for the moral
identity model by Hart and Matsuba (2009) by
showing how social influences and the moral orientation affected the moral identity construct of
the study subjects of this case study. Because this
study focused primarily on moral identity influences relative to education, family, peers, and religion, the results corroborated with research by
April et al. (2010) that showed how family, education, spirituality, peers, and other influences can
enable ethical conduct.
Through examination of the moral identity
constructs of JFK and RMN, research revealed
the importance of core values and commitment to
moral principles for ethical leadership thus demonstrating alignment with prior research by Poff
(2010) and Johnson et al. (2009). In addition, this
study corroborated prior research by Carter and
Stets (2011, 2012) regarding how moral identity
guided ethical behavior. Research also supported
how moral identity influenced the ability to form
relationships (Caldwell, 2009) as evidenced by the
stronger relationships built by JFK contrasted by
the lack of relationships exhibited by RMN.
Because the comparison of study results to
prior leadership research findings showed similarities, the veracity of study findings appeared to
demonstrate trustworthiness. In addition, these
results showed that the study method proved reliable given the corroboration of study results with
prior research. As a result, this study showed that
the use of biographical data relative to education,
family, peers, and religion provided revelations
regarding moral identity development. Further,
the ability to develop emerging themes yielded
interesting insights relative to positive or negative moral identity development, especially when
scholars considered how individual moral identity
demonstrated concern for the welfare of others
versus concern for oneself.
Conclusion
The results from this study provided insights into
how moral identity can influence ethics and decisions of organizational leaders. Through analysis
of moral identity influences of education, family,
peers, and religion, this study revealed emergent
core themes for each study subject to help the
researcher identify positive and negative moral
identity development. Core themes demonstrating a concern for the welfare of others typically
aligned with positive moral identity development;
whereas, core themes demonstrating a self-focus
generally aligned with negative moral identity development. Study results of JFK suggested that a
leader who engages in ethical decision making
may possess the ability to exhibit greater independence from peer influences combined with
moderate combinations of idealism, realism, personal awareness, and social awareness. In contrast, study results of RMN revealed that the need
for social acceptance and a lower ability to remain
independent of peer influences combined with
◆
Journal of Psychological Issues in Organizational Culture, Volume 6, Number 3 DOI: 10.1002/jpoc
53
heightened levels of competitiveness and success
drivers can encourage unethical decisions. These
results demonstrated the unique dimensions of
moral identity development within individuals.
Because individuals reflect different experiences
and influences in the development of moral identity, results may only provide limited generalizability to a larger population by helping future
researchers to identify positive and negative aspects of moral identity development.
Acknowledgment
Acknowledgment is given to the Center for Educational and Instructional Technology Research
at the School of Advanced Studies, University of
Phoenix, for their support in publishing this study. ◆
References
Ammeter, A. P., Bing, M. N., Davison, H. K., Garner,
B. L., Novicevic, M. M., & Vitell, S. J. (2009). Religiosity
and moral identity: The mediating role of self-control.
Journal of Business Ethics, 88(4), 601–613. doi:10.1007/
s10551-008-9980-0
April, K., Locke, K., Mlambo, C., & Peters, K. (2010). Ethics and leadership: Enablers and stumbling blocks. Journal of Public Affairs, 10(3), 152–172. doi:10.1002/pa.360
Aquino, K., Duffy, M., & McFerran, B. (2010). How personality and moral identity relate to individuals’ ethical
ideology. Business Ethics Quarterly, 20(1), 35–56.
Aquino, K., Freeman, D., & Shao, R. (2008). Beyond
moral reasoning: A review of moral identity research
and its implications for business ethics. Business Ethics
Quarterly, 18(4), 513–540.
Aquino, K., Greenbaum, R. L., Kuenzi, M., & Mayer,
D. M. (2012). Who displays ethical leadership, and why
54
◆
Journal of Psychological Issues in Organizational Culture, Volume 6, Number 3 DOI: 10.1002/jpoc
does it matter? An examination of antecedents and consequences of ethical leadership. Academy of Management
Journal, 55(1), 151–171. doi:10.5465/amj.2008.0276
Aquino, K., Laven, M., & McFerran, B. (2011). Moral
identity and the experience of moral elevation in response to acts of uncommon goodness. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 100(4), 703–718.
Aquino, K., & Reed, A. II. (2002). The self-importance
of moral identity. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 83(6), 1423–1440. doi:10.1037//0022-3514.
83.6.1423
Aristotle. (1813). The nicomachean ethics of Aristotle.
In R. W. Browne (Ed. & Trans.), The nicomachean ethics
of Aristotle: Translated, with notes, original & selected;
An analytical introduction; And questions for the use
of students. Retrieved from http://books.google.com/
books (Original work published n.d.)
Aristotle. (1833). Rhetoric. In T. Hobbes & D. A. Talboys (Ed. & Trans.), Aristotle’s treatise on Rhetoric:
Literally translated from the Greek, with copious notes.
An analysis of Aristotle’s rhetoric, second edition, thoroughly corrected, with additions and improvements.
Retrieved from http://books.google.com/books (Original work published n.d.)
Aristotle. (1908). Nicomachean ethics. In W. D. Ross
(Ed. & Trans.), Nicomachean ethics. Oxford, UK: Clarendon Press. Retrieved from Institute for Learning
Technologies at Columbia University located at http://
www.ilt.columbia.edu/publications/artistotle.html
(Original work published n.d.)
Arnold, M. L., Lawford, H., & Pratt, M. W. (2009).
Growing toward care: A narrative approach to prosocial moral identity and generativity of personality in emerging adulthood. In D. K. Lapsley & D.
Narvaez (Eds.), Personality, identity, and character:
Explorations in moral psychology (pp. 295–315). New
York, NY: Cambridge University Press.
Atkins, R., Ford, D., & Hart, D. (1998) Urban America
as a context for the development of moral identity in
adolescence. Journal of Social Issues, 34, 513–530.
Audi, R. (2012). Virtue ethics as a resource in business.
Business Ethics Quarterly, 22(2), 273–291. doi:10.5840/
beq201222220
Avey, J., Palanski, M., & Wernsing, T. (2012). Exploring the process of ethical leadership: The mediating
role of employee voice and psychological ownership.
Journal of Business Ethics, 107(1), 21–34. doi:10.1007/
s10551-012-1298-2
Avolio, B. J., & Hannah, S. T. (2010). Moral potency:
Building the capacity for character-based leadership.
Consulting Psychology Journal: Practice & Research,
62(4), 291–310. doi:10.1037/a0022283
Avolio, B. J., Hannah, S. T., & May, D. R. (2011). Moral
maturation and moral conation: A capacity approach to
explaining moral thought and action. Academy of Management Review, 36(4), 663–685. doi:10.5465/AMR.
2011.65554674
Conceptualizing and measuring professional moral
courage. Journal of Business Ethics, 89(4), 565–579.
doi:10.1007/s10551-008-0017-5
Blasi, A. (1983). Moral cognition and moral action:
A theoretical perspective. Developmental Review, 3,
178–210.
Bloodgood, J. M., Mudrack, P. E., & Turnley, W. H.
(2012). Some ethical implications of individual competitiveness. Journal of Business Ethics, 108(3), 347–
359. doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10551-011-1094-4
Brown, M. E., & Mitchell, M. S. (2010). Ethical and unethical leadership: Exploring new avenues for future
research. Business Ethics Quarterly, 20(4), 583–616.
Retrieved from EBSCO host database.
bte Joned, R., Ling Meng, C., & Othman, J. (2011). The
conceptual model of personal moral philosophy (PMP)
and ethical decision making (EDM). Journal of Management Research, 3(2), 1–14. doi:10.5296/jmr.v3i2.752
Butterfield, K. D., & O’Fallon, M. J. (2011). Moral differentiation: Exploring boundaries of the “monkey see,
monkey do” perspective. Journal of Business Ethics,
102(3), 379–399. doi:10.1007/s10551-011-0820-2
Azari, J. (2010). Reinventing Richard Nixon: A cultural
history of an American obsession. Presidential Studies
Quarterly, 40(2), 378–379. Retrieved from ProQuest
host database.
Caldwell, C. (2009). Identity, self-awareness, and selfdeception: Ethical implications for leaders and organizations. Journal of Business Ethics, 90, 393–406.
doi:10.1007/s10551-010-0424-2
Bachrach, D. G., Harris, K. J., Kacmar, K., & Zivnuska,
S. (2011). Fostering good citizenship through ethical
leadership: Exploring the moderating role of gender
and organizational politics. Journal of Applied Psychology, 96(3), 633–642. doi:10.1037/a0021872
Carlo, G., & Hardy, S. A. (2005). Identity as a source
of moral motivation. Human Development, 48(4),
232–256. Retrieved from EBSCO host database.
doi:10.1159/000086859
Bagozzi, R. P., Charnigo, R., & Sekerka, L. E.
(2009). Facing ethical challenges in the workplace:
Carter, M. J., & Stets, J. E. (2011). The moral self: Applying identity theory. Social Psychology Quarterly,
74(2), 192–215. doi:10.1177/0190272511407621
◆
Journal of Psychological Issues in Organizational Culture, Volume 6, Number 3 DOI: 10.1002/jpoc
55
Carter, M. J., & Stets, J. E. (2012). A theory of the
self for the sociology of morality. American Sociological Review, 77(1), 120–140. doi:10.1177/
0003122411433762
Cropanzano, R., & Stein, J. H. (2009). Organizational
justice and behavioral ethics: Promises and prospects.
Business Ethics Quarterly, 19(2), 193–233.
De Cremer, D., van Dijke, M., & Tenbrunsel, A. (2010).
Regulating ethical failures: Insights from psychology. Journal Of Business Ethics, 95, 1–6. doi:10.1007/
s10551-011-0789-x
DeScioli, P., & Kurzban, R. (2013). A solution to the
mysteries of morality. Psychological Bulletin, 139(2),
477–496. doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/a0029065
Edgerton, K. (2012). Nixon’s shadow: The history of an
image. Choice, 49(10), 1801. Retrieved from ProQuest
host database.
Engelbrecht, A. S., & van Aswegen, A. S. (2009). The
relationship between transformational leadership, integrity and an ethical climate in organisations. South
African Journal of Human Resource Management, 7(1),
221–229. doi:10.4102/sajhrm.v7i1.175
Finegan, J. E., & Hastings, S. E. (2011). The role of ethical ideology in reactions to injustice. Journal of Business
Ethics, 100(4), 689–703. doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/
s10551-010-0704-x
Fok, L. Y., Hartman, S. J., & Zee, S. L. (2009). An examination of ethical values among Black and White subjects and among males and females. Journal of Legal,
Ethical & Regulatory Issues, 12(2), 1–14.
Friedman, R. R. (2011). Crisis management at the dead
center: The 1960–1961 presidential transition and the
56
◆
Journal of Psychological Issues in Organizational Culture, Volume 6, Number 3 DOI: 10.1002/jpoc
Bay of Pigs fiasco. Presidential Studies Quarterly, 41(2),
307–333. Retrieved from ProQuest host database.
Frimer, J. A., & Walker, L. J. (2009). Reconciling the self
and morality: An empirical model of moral centrality
development. Developmental Psychology, 45(6), 1669–
1681. doi:10.1037/a0017418
Fry, L. W., & Sweeney, P. J. (2012). Character development through spiritual leadership. Consulting Psychology Journal: Practice and Research, 64(2), 89–107.
doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/a0028966
Gibson, D. R. (2011). Avoiding catastrophe: The interactional production of possibility during the Cuban
Missile Crisis. American Journal of Sociology, 117(2),
361–419.
Godkin, L., & Valentine, S. (2009). Ethics, social responsibility, and ethical reasoning in an educationbased health science center: When doing good results
in good employees. Journal of Leadership, Accountability & Ethics, 7(3), 61–77.
Gonchar, R. M., & Hahn, D. F. (1971). The rhetorical
predictability of Richard M. Nixon. Today’s Speech,
19(4), 3–13.
Gunia, B. C., Huang, L., Murnighan, J. K., Wang, J.,
& Wang, L. (2012). Contemplation and conversation:
Subtle influences on moral decision making. Academy
of Management Journal, 55(1), 13–33. doi:10.5465/
amj.2009.0873
Guzlowski, J. Z. (1987). Coover’s The public burning:
Richard Nixon and the politics of experience. Critique,
29(1), 57–71.
Hannah, S. T., Lord, R. G., & Woolfolk, R. L. (2009).
Leader self-structure: A framework for positive
leadership. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 30(2),
269–290. doi:10.1002/job.586
Harrison, D. A., Kish-Gephart, J. J., & Treviño, L.
(2010). Bad apples, bad cases, and bad barrels: Metaanalytic evidence about sources of unethical decisions
at work. Journal of Applied Psychology, 95(1), 1–31.
Hart, D., & Matsuba, M. K. (2009). Urban neighborhoods as contexts for moral identity development. In
D. K. Lapsley & D. Narvaez (Eds.), Personality, identity,
and character: Explorations in moral psychology (pp.
214–231). New York, NY: Cambridge University Press.
Heath, J. F. (1985). JFK: The presidency of John F. Kennedy. American Historical Review, 90(5), 1301–1302.
Hoeger, R., & Marquardt, N. (2009). The effect of
implicit moral attitudes on managerial decisionmaking: An implicit social cognition approach. Journal of Business Ethics, 85(2), 157–171. doi:10.1007/
s10551-008-9754-8
Holmes, E. K., & Lincoln, S. H. (2011). Ethical decision
making: A process influenced by moral intensity. Journal of Healthcare, Science and the Humanities, 1(1),
55–69.
Hunter, S. (2012). (Un)ethical leadership and identity:
What did we learn and where do we go from here?
Journal of Business Ethics, 107(1), 79–87. doi:10.1007/
s10551-012-1301-y
Presidential Library and Museum, Boston, MA. Retrieved from official website of John F. Kennedy Presidential Library and Museum at http://www.jfklibrary.
org/JFK/Life-of-John-F-Kennedy.aspx
John F. Kennedy Presidential Library and Museum.
(2013b). The world on the brink: John F. Kennedy and
the Cuban Missile Crisis: Thirteen days in October
1962. John F. Kennedy Presidential Library and Museum, Boston, MA. Retrieved from official website of
John F. Kennedy Presidential Library and Museum at
http://microsites.jfklibrary.org/cmc/
Johnson, C. (2009). Meeting the ethical challenges of
leadership: Casting light or shadow. Thousand Oaks, CA:
Sage.
Johnson, R. M., Miller, M. L., & Schlenker, B. R. (2009).
Moral identity, integrity, and personal responsibility. In
D. K. Lapsley & D. Narvaez (Eds.), Personality, identity,
and character: Explorations in moral psychology (pp.
316–340). New York, NY: Cambridge University Press.
Jones, T. M. (1991). Ethical decision making by individuals in organizations: An issue-contingent model.
Academy of Management Review, 16(2), 366–395.
doi:10.5465/AMR.1991.4278958
Kadabadse, N., & Rozuel, C. (2010). Ethics, spirituality and self: Managerial perspective and leadership implications. Business Ethics: A European Review, 19(4),
423–436. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8608.2010.01603.x
Jamnik, A. (2012). Ethics and economics: How can they
be integrated into good business decision-making? An
Eastern European perspective. Journal of International
Business Ethics, 5(1), 18–26.
Kallenberg, K., Larsson, G., Nilsson, S., & Sjoberg, M.
(2011). Moral stress in international humanitarian aid
and rescue operations: A grounded theory study. Ethics & Behavior, 21(1), 49–68. doi:10.1080/10508422.
2011.537570
John F. Kennedy Presidential Library and Museum.
(2013a). Life of John F. Kennedy. John F. Kennedy
Kant, I. (2008). Groundwork for the metaphysic of morals. In J. Bennett (Ed.), Groundwork for the metaphysic
◆
Journal of Psychological Issues in Organizational Culture, Volume 6, Number 3 DOI: 10.1002/jpoc
57
of morals: Immanuel Kant. Retrieved from http://
www.stolaf.edu/people/huff/classes/GoodnEvil/Readings/kantgw.pdf (Original work published 1785)
Kaufman, B. I. (1993). John F. Kennedy as world leader:
A perspective on the literature. Diplomatic History,
17(3), 447–469.
Kennedy, J. F. (1917−1963). John F. Kennedy Personal
Papers (JFKPP; Boxes 001-004, 026, 063). John F. Kennedy Presidential Library and Museum, Boston, MA.
Retrieved from official website of John F. Kennedy Library and Museum at http://www.jfklibrary.org/AssetViewer/Archives/JFKPP.aspx
Kennedy, R. F. (1974). Times to remember. New York,
NY: Bantam Books.
Kohlberg, L. (1971). From is to ought: How to commit
the naturalistic fallacy and get away with it in the study
of moral development. In T. Mischel (Ed.), Cognitive
development and epistemology (pp. 164–165). New
York, NY: Academic Press.
Lapsley, D. K., & Narvaez, D. (2009). Moral identity
and the development of moral character. In D. Medin,
L. Skitka, D. Bartels, & C. Bauman (Eds.), Psychology of
Learning and Motivation Series: Vol. 50. Moral judgment and decision making of the (pp. 237–274). Oxford, England: Elsevier.
58
Miller, M. L., & Schlenker, B. R. (2011). Integrity and
identity: Moral identity differences and preferred interpersonal reactions. European Journal of Personality,
25(1), 2–15. doi:10.1002/per.765
Monroe, K. (2009). The ethical perspective: An identity
theory of the psychological influences on moral choice.
Political Psychology, 30(3), 419–444. doi:10.1111/
j.1467-9221.2009.00706.x
Monroe, K. R. (2011). Ethics in an age of terror and genocide: Identity and moral choice. PS, Political Science & Politics, 44(3), 503–507. doi:10.1017/S1049096511000795
Nixon, R. (1962). Six crises. New York, NY: Touchstone.
Nixon, R. M. (1978). RN: The memoirs of Richard Nixon. New York, NY: Touchstone.
Passini, S. (2010). Moral reasoning in a multicultural
society: Moral inclusion and moral exclusion. Journal
for the Theory of Social Behaviour, 40(4), 435–451.
doi:10.1111/j.1468-5914.2010.00440.x
Piaget, J. (1932). The moral judgment of the child. New
York, NY: Free Press.
Lentner, H. H. (2011). A realist’s view of ethics. American Foreign Policy Interests, 33(4), 153–157. doi:10.
1080/10803920.2011.605716
Plato. (1900). Crito. In B. Jowett (Ed. & Trans.), Dialogues of Plato. New York, NY: The Colonial Press/P.
F. Collier & Son. Retrieved from website for Institute
for Learning Technologies at Columbia University at
http://www.ilt.columbia.edu/publications/Projects/
digitexts/plato/crito/crito.html (Original work published n.d.).
Locke, J. (1775). An essay concerning human understanding. In M. A. (Ed.), An essay concerning human
understanding: The seventeenth edition, Volume II. Retrieved from http://books.google.com/books (Original
work published 1690)
Poff, D. C. (2010). Ethical leadership and global citizenship: Considerations for a just and sustainable future. Journal of Business Ethics, 93, 9–14. Retrieved
from ProQuest host database. doi:10.1007/s10551010-0623-x
◆
Journal of Psychological Issues in Organizational Culture, Volume 6, Number 3 DOI: 10.1002/jpoc
Rest, J. R., Narvaez, D., Bebeau, M., & Thoma, S. (1999).
Postconventional moral thinking: A neo-Kohlbergian
approach. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
Richard Nixon Presidential Library and Museum.
(1909−1967). Nixon family collection (Series V, Boxes
10:8–16:12). Richard Nixon Presidential Library and
Museum, Yorba Linda, CA.
Richard Nixon Presidential Library and Museum.
(2013). Watergate exhibit evidence. Richard Nixon Presidential Library and Museum, Yorba Linda,
CA. Retrieved from Richard Nixon Presidential Library and Museum Watergate exhibit at http://
www.nixonlibrary.gov/themuseum/exhibits/2010/
watergateexhibitbackground/watergateexhibitbackground.php
Ruedy, N. E., & Schweitzer, M. E. (2010). In the moment: The effect of mindfulness on ethical decision making. Journal of Business Ethics, 95, 73–87.
doi:10.1007/s10551-011-0796-y
Selart, M. (2010). A leadership perspective on decision
making. Oslo, Norway: Cappelen Damm.
Smith, A. (1761). The theory of moral sentiments. In
Millar, A. (Ed.), The theory of moral sentiments: The
second edition. Retrieved from http://books.google.
com/books (Original work published 1759)
Sockol, J. (2009). Ethical decision making: Un-assuming
assumptions about what is special … and what is not?
Wharton Research Scholars Journal, pp. 1–48.
Sandra G. Nunn, DM, is a management consultant
and research affiliate with the Center for Educational
and ­Instructional Technology Research at University of
Phoenix. She is involved in research focusing on ethics, leadership, education, and technology. She can be
reached at [email protected].
John T. Avella, EdD, is an associate professor in the
doctoral program, School of Advanced Studies at University of Phoenix and a faculty member in the masters
program for teacher preparation and research methodology for Western Governors University. He is involved in
research focusing on technology-based learning interventions, online learning, and the dissertation process.
He may be reached at [email protected].
◆
Journal of Psychological Issues in Organizational Culture, Volume 6, Number 3 DOI: 10.1002/jpoc
59