Download 8TH EDITION Chapter 4 Cultural History: Our Antecedents

Communication
between cultures
8TH EDITION
Chapter 4
Cultural History:
Our Antecedents
© Cengage 2012
Chapter 4 Cultural History: Our Antecedents
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Key Ideas
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Importance of history
U.S. history
Russian history
Chinese history
Japanese history
Indian history
Mexican history
Islamic civilization
© Cengage 2012
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Importance of history
• The word culture can be substituted for the word
history
• iHstory can provide insight into the values, traditions,
and social institutions that a culture deems important
• History is one of the deep deep structures of a culture
– incorporates a culture’s formal and informal governmental
procedures,
– incorporates its sense of community, its political and
economic processes,
– Incorporates its key historical heroes, and even its
geography
© Cengage 2012
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United States History
• U.S. national character can be traced to the European
people who arrived in the early years of the nation’s
formation
• Values that continue to characterize the United States,
such as hard work, self-improvement, practicality,
freedom, responsibility, equality, and individuality
• Shared desire of the first immigrants to be free from
the oppressive dictates of such English institutions as
“the Crown,” “divine right,” and the Church of
England motivated them to seek unity
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United States History
• Early Americans wanted to separate alienable
rights
• The common desire to escape religious
authoritarianism and monarchy rule also gave
rise to what is referred to as the doctrine of
separation of church and state
• Individualism was perhaps among the initial
values to emerge in the new country
• A distaste for formality and wasting time was
also part of the colonial experience
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United States History
• United States history is also replete with
instances of violence and war, experiences that
shaped both the culture and the geographical
borders
• Expansion has been an important part of U.S.
history
• Continuing manifestation of a cultural heritage
that emphasizes egalitarianism, independence,
frequent change, and a willingness to engage the
unknown
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United States History
• Contemporary social issues and culture
– Immigration
– Right to life vs. freedom of choice
– Same sex marriage
– School prayer
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Russian history
• Prominent aspect of Russia’s history is its
geography
– Vast land
– 11 time zones
• Lacking any significant barriers to passage,
geography has left the country vulnerable to
historical invasions by armies from both
Europe and Asia
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Russian history
• Russians have developed a perception of the world
that frequently incorporates a sense of distrust
toward outsiders
• Russia’s historical political heritage has helped mold
the contemporary Russian worldview
• Russia’s political tradition has historically been autocratic
• Vivid example of the Russians being dominated by
harsh, authoritarian rule had its beginning in the
1917 Bolshevik Revolution
– Supposed to overturn the oppressive czarist regime,
– Eliminate economic inequities,
– Gave working class a political voice
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Russian history
• Result much of the country was destroyed and the
entire socio-cultural structure was changed in the
name of Communism
– State agricultural and industrial collectivism
– Deaths in political purges
• Deep appreciation to Greek Orthodox
Christianity
– Predominated Russian architectural, music and art
– Cultural arts remain important part of Russian life
© Cengage 2012
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Russian history
• Russia in turmoil after collapse o communism
• Putin moved to consolidate and centralize
political and economic power
• Putin asserted three distinct Russian values:
– Patriotism
– The state should play a role in world affairs
– state-centeredness
• Explains why Russia continues to move from
liberal democratic form of government
© Cengage 2012
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Russian history
• Contemporary social issues
– Official corruption
– Declining population
– Constraints on productivity and growth
– Resentment and violence toward ethic groups by
Russian nationalists
© Cengage 2012
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Chinese history
• China’s long record of achievements and experiences
form an important part of how the more than 1.33
billion contemporary Chinese perceive and experience
the world
• Archeological data suggest that the prehistoric origins
of Chinese society extend back to 7000 BCE
• Geography has played a significant role in China’s
uninterrupted record of cultural development
• Confucianism as a state ideology written language
common to all facilitated the consolidation of control
under a centralized ruler
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Chinese history
• Since 1949 China has been governed by the Chinese
Communist Party (CCP)
– The early years of CCP rule, particularly those under
Mao Zedong, were characterized by internal strife and
political turmoil.
– Postwar Communist leaders initiated a series of reform
programs the (Great Leap Forward and the Cultural
Revolution) had disastrous effects on the nation and the
populace.
– recent study by Professor Dikötter estimates that the
Great Leap experiment (1958~62) may have resulted in
the premature deaths of as many as 45 million people
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Chinese history
• Early 1970s China began to move away from
“revolutionary” programs and responded to
political overtures from the United States
• In the 1990s Chinese leaders opted for a
market-driven economy
– Has proven enormously successful and improved
the lives of millions of China’s citizens
– In 2010 China became the world’s second largest
economy ( following the United States) and the
leading exporting country
© Cengage 2012
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Chinese history
• Communicating history
– Chinese society has been predominantly
agricultural, with people maintaining strong ties
to their home village and the land
– Two central values are the Chinese patriarchal
family, or clan, as the basic social unit and the
acceptance of centralized patrimonial governance
– China also offers us an example of how
governments can use history as a form of
communication to promote nationalism and
foreign policy goals
© Cengage 2012
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Chinese history
• Contemporary social issues
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Widespread official corruption
Growing social inequality between the rich and poor
Rising unemployment in urban areas.
Changing structure and location of the Chinese
population.
– Cultural imperative for sons and availability of
selective abortion, China’s official one-child policy,
instituted over 30 years ago, has resulted in a
disproportionate number of males among the
younger generations.
© Cengage 2012
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Japanese history
• History of Japan is a product of geography
– 100 miles of ocean separate Japan from the
Korean peninsula
– China is just 500 miles to the east across the
Yellow Sea
• Confucianism and Buddhism, both brought
from China through Korea, exerted a
significant and enduring influence on the
development of Japanese society
© Cengage 2012
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Japanese history
• A relatively small nation composed of four major
islands and several thousand smaller ones
– Accessible only by sea until the early part of the
twentieth century
– This insularity also made Japan relatively immune to
large-scale immigration from the Asian mainland
– Invading foreign armies were often stymied by the sea
– Natural isolation, and 250 years of governmental
imposed national seclusion during the Tokugawa or
Edo era (1603–1867) instrumental in the development
of Japan’s cultural distinctiveness and self-image.
© Cengage 2012
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Japanese history
• Historical isolation, low numbers of immigrants, and a
feudal-based system of governance produced a society
characterized by its relative cultural homogeneity
• One expression of cultural homogeneity is the
Japanese attitude toward foreigners
• While their culture specifies the appropriate behavior
for working and socializing with other Japanese, no
established “correct” way of dealing with foreigners
has evolved.
• The Japanese uncertainty toward foreigners continues
today, as evident in contemporary attitudes toward
immigration.
© Cengage 2012
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Japanese history
• Another important link between Japan’s long
history and its contemporary cultural values
is the Tokugawa historical heritage
• Central government specified strict codes of
behavior to regulate the conduct of every
aspect of personal and public life
• Japanese formed a culture where in many
contexts there was a single correct way to
perform a task
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Japanese history
• The objective of these protocols was to ensure
external peace and internal group stability by
subordinating the individual to the central
authority and the greater social order
• Societal stability was the paramount objective,
and this continues to be a central focus of
Japanese social act
• Modern corporations and government
institutions became substitutes for the castle
town and have traditionally offered lifetime
employment
© Cengage 2012
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Japanese history
• Feudalism also inculcated in the Japanese an
acceptance of discipline, sacrifice, and
conformity
– People were required to conduct every aspect of
their lives in a highly proscribed manner,
depending on their social class membership
– conditions have been translated into
contemporary Japanese dedication to societal and
organizational formality and an acceptance of
higher authority, status differentials, and
conformity to group expectations
© Cengage 2012
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Japanese history
• Due to the necessity of group cooperation in
early Japanese village life, exclusion, or the
threat thereof, became a form of punishment
• Group orientation continues to guide
contemporary Japanese society, where one’s
status is based more on the schools attended,
profession, or employer than on individual
achievement
© Cengage 2012
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Japanese history
• Contemporary social issues
– Demographic changes
– Immigration issues
– Risk management.
© Cengage 2012
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Indian history
• Diversity characterizes the geography,
peoples, cultures, languages, and history of
India
• A product of influences from South and
Northeast Asia, Central Asia, the Middle East,
and Europe
• Archeological record indicates huntergatherers were active on the subcontinent as
early as two million years ago
© Cengage 2012
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Indian history
• Arrival of nomadic Aryans coming from the
west, bringing with them cattle and horses.
conquered and settled northern India,
establishing various warring principalities
• Alexander the Great crossed into India in 327
BCE, he found a politically and territorially
divided land, highly vulnerable to conquest
• Following Alexander’s departure most of the
subcontinent consolidated into the Maurya
Empire (321–185 BCE) India’s first unified state
© Cengage 2012
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Indian history
• The decline of Mauryan culture left India the
politically fragmented until the second
unification of northern India,
• The Gupta Dynasty (320–550 BCE) again unifed
northern India. During
• During these two eras,
– Buddhism and Hinduism arose and flourished in India
– Rulers practiced religious tolerance, which became
one of India’s principal values.
– Hinduism provided a unifying framework
© Cengage 2012
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Indian history
• Islam first arrived in the southern part of
present-day Pakistan as early as 711 CE, but
influence was initially contained within that
region
• Muslim invaders, arriving from the west via the
Khyber Pass, who established an enduring
presence on the subcontinent
• Muslim raiders set about conquering the Hindus
and destroying their temples that planted
“communal hatred” in the hearts and minds of
India’s populace
© Cengage 2012
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Indian history
• The Delhi Sultanate was deposed in 1526 by a new wave of
Muslim invaders
• Mongols from Central Asia established the Mughal
Empire
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Established the strongest dynasty in all of Indian history
Nominally held power until the mid-1800s
Indian culture flourished under Mughal rule
A civil service was established to administer the country
Religious and ethnic differences were tolerated
Meritocracy was practiced, and
Persian became the language of the court.
The arts were encouraged and thrived.85
The famous Taj Mahal, a monument to the wife of one of the Mughal
rulers, was built during this era.
© Cengage 2012
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Indian history
• Decline of Mughal rule opened the door for
Western powers
• evelopment of sea power, the Western Europeans
were able to circumvent the overland route by sailing
around Africa to reach Indian Ocean littoral lands
– Portuguese ships arrived on the west coast of India in
1510
– England’s East India Company gained power through a
military takeover and established itself as the dominant
trader on India’s southeast coast until 1813
© Cengage 2012
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Indian history
• The Indian National Congress was established in 1885
to address the excesses of British colonial rule
• Largely ineffective until Mohandas Gandhi was able to
build an effective coalition
• Led to India’s independence from British rule in 1947
• Long-standing discord between Hindus and Muslims,
India led to partitioning into two separate sovereign
states—India and Pakistan.
– The partition displaced some ten million people
– Led to widespread political violence between Hindus and
Muslims, resulting in the loss of as many as one million lives
– Enduring conflict between India and Pakistan over the Kashmir
region is a legacy of the partition.
© Cengage 2012
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Indian history
• India instituted a government-controlled,
socialist-oriented economy
– Characterized by marginal growth
– Characterized by budget deficits
– Characterized by a bloated bureaucracy
– Characterized by high levels of unemployment
• In the 1990s, effective economic reforms were
undertaken that led to India’s current rise in
the global economy
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Indian history
• Benefits derived from this economic growth have
been felt disproportionately among the
population, which remains predominantly rural,
poor, and often illiterate
• The digital age is bringing significant cultural
change to traditional Indian society
• Digital revolution is also changing Indian
courtship practices
• Digital age has enabled young couples to
communicate via email, social networking sites,
and mobile phones
© Cengage 2012
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Indian history
• Contemporary social issues
– Extensive, persistent poverty
– Widespread official corruption
– Lack of adequate primary school education in
many of the Indian states
– Long-standing schism between Muslim and
Hindu
© Cengage 2012
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Mexican history
• Pre-Columbian
– Agriculturally based Olmec, Maya, Toltec, and
Aztec civilizations flourished
– Each of these great societies made unique
contributions to modern Mexican culture
– Mexicans are extremely proud of this period of
their history, not only for its achievements in
agriculture, creative arts, and the establishment
of large urban settlements, but also for scientific
advancements
© Cengage 2012
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Mexican history
• Invasion by Spain
– Brought an end to pre-Columbian in 1519
– Spanish occupation changed country and people
forever
• Introduction of Catholicism
• Development of rigid social class system
• Granting large amounts of land to Spanish conquerors
– Aristocrats dominated a population of primarily
agrarian peasants under what was called the
hacienda system
© Cengage 2012
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Mexican history
• Independence from Spain
– Independence in 1821 when Spain and Mexico
negotiated a treaty, called the Plan of Iguala
sometimes referred to as the Plan of Three
Guarantees
– Final freedom came in 1824, when Mexico became a
federal republic under its own constitution. During
this period
– Neither independence from Spain or the Mexican
Revolution changed the basic structure of social
relations in which a small, largely Hispanic elite
© Cengage 2012
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Mexican history
• Mexican-American War
– Territory of Texas declared its independence from
Mexico
– U.S. doctrine of Manifest Destiny a major cause of the
Mexican-American War that began May 13, 1846
– President Polk, with the backing of the American people,
sought to acquire what amounted to half of Mexico’s
territory
– T he two countries fought over the land for two years
(1846–48) in a war that is seldom remembered in the
United States, but which Mexico considers “its greatest
disaster.”113
• On February 2, 1848, the war ended with the signing
of the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo
© Cengage 2012
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Mexican history
• The Revolution of 1910
– 90 percent of Mexico’s mestizos and Indians were
still desperately poor on the ranches and
haciendas of a handful of wealthy land owners
– Ushered in widespread social change
• Rejected Europe as a model
• Asserted an Indian identity for Mexico
• Committed the government to providing security for
peasants and workers by redistributing land and
income
© Cengage 2012
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Mexican history
• Modern Mexico
– Huge oil and natural gas reserves, manufacturing,
agriculture, tourism, and the hundreds of
maquiladora factories along the U.S.-Mexico
border have made Mexico a major economic force
– The 1994 passage of the North American Free
Trade Agreement (NAFTA), Mexico, the United
States, and Canada became free-trade partners
– Still many critical issues between U.S. and Mexico
require intercultural interaction
© Cengage 2012
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Mexican history
• Contemporary Social Issues
– Poverty
– Unemployment
– Smuggling of illegal
© Cengage 2012
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Islamic civilization
• Muslim demographics
– Muslims represent the majority of the population in
49 nations
– Growing populations of Muslims in Europe and
North America.
– Muslims now number approximately 1.6 billion,
constituting over one-fifth of the entire world
population
– These numbers are expected to grow between now
and 2030 before leveling off at more than 2.1 billion
© Cengage 2012
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Islamic civilization
• Age of Ignorance
– Early Arabs composed poems that embodied their
code of values: bravery in battle, patience in
misfortune, persistence in revenge, protection of
the weak, defiance of the strong, loyalty to the
tribe, hospitality to the guest, generosity to the
needy, and fidelity in carrying out promises
– Loyalty to one’s tribe was paramount and
intertribal wars and raids against trade route
caravans were common
© Cengage 2012
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Islamic civilization
• Age of Ignorance
– Early groups practiced a variety of religions,
including Judaism, Christianity, animism, and
ancestor worship,
– A tradition developed among the tribes to
annually suspend hostilities and conduct a
pilgrimage to an ancient shrine in the city of
Mecca.
© Cengage 2012
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Islamic civilization
• Rise and spread of Islam
– Muhammad, from a merchant family in Mecca,
received his heavenly revelations about 610 CE
and began recruiting followers.
– The rise and spread of Islam began with his
death, in 632 CE.
– No clear line of succession for the Islamic
leadership when Muhammad died.
© Cengage 2012
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Islamic civilization
• Rise and spread of Islam
– This void was filled by a series of Caliphs (Arabic for
“successor” or “representative”)
• role assumed by successive leaders of Islam until the demise
of the Ottoman Empire in 1923
• First caliphs were drawn from those who had directly
served Muhammad and were known as the Patriarchal
Caliphate
• Many of the Arab groups that had previously submitted to
his teachings and leadership sought to disassociate
themselves from the new caliphs
• Armed groups of “believers” were quickly dispatched to
suppress dissenters
© Cengage 2012
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Islamic civilization
• Rise and spread of Islam
– the last of the caliphates who had known Muhammad
ended the era of the Patriarchal Caliphate and
ushered in the Umayyad Caliphate (CE 661–750)
– Relocation of the capital from Medina in Arabia to
Damascus in Syria
– Consolidation of the Middle East enabled Muslims to
embark on the conquest of distant lands
– Questions of leadership succession persisted and
ultimately led to civil wars and the division of Islam
into its two major branches—Sunni and Shiite
© Cengage 2012
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Islamic civilization
• Rise and spread of Islam
– Sunni believe that the leader of Islam should be
whoever is best qualified
– Shiites, however, contend that leadership is a function
of heredity, through lineage traced to Muhammad.
– Originally, the two groups saw themselves divided
not by ideology but by a question of politics, but over
time, varied theological and religious practices have
evolved.
© Cengage 2012
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Islamic civilization
• Rise and spread of Islam
– In the mid-eighth century, the Umayyad Caliphate
was succeeded by the Abbasid Caliphate (749–
1258), the seat of government was moved to
Baghdad
– early years of the eleventh century saw the onset
of history’s most storied clash between
Christianity and Islam—the Crusades, which
lasted almost 200 years
© Cengage 2012
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Islamic civilization
• Rise and spread of Islam
– The final era of unified Islamic governance was
brought about by Mongol invaders moving out of
Central Asia through Afghanistan and Persia into the
Middle East
– The defeat of the Ottomans at the end of the First
World War concluded more than thirteen centuries
of a unified Islam and replaced it with nation-states,
many of which remained under the domination of
Western colonial masters until after the World War
II
© Cengage 2012
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Islamic civilization
• History and the worldview of Muslims
– Islamic history, for Muslims, has an important
religious and also legal significance, since it reflects the
working out of God’s purpose for His Community—
those that accept the teachings of Islam and obey its
law. (Lewis 2004, p. xix)
– The history of Islam is continually reinforced
through
• Language
• Geography
• Tribal affiliation
© Cengage 2012
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Islamic civilization
• Contemporary social issues
– Authoritative, repressive regimes
– Official corruption
– Absence of viable democratic processes
– Stagnant economic development
– Lack of women’s equality
– Expanding population - a majority of which are
under 25 years of age and see little opportunity
for economic advancement
© Cengage 2012
Chapter 4 Cultural History: Our Antecedents
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Communication
between cultures
8TH EDITION
Chapter 4
Cultural History:
Our Antecedents
© Cengage 2012
Chapter 4 Cultural History: Our Antecedents
54