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The Great Pyramids of Egypt
Nathan Williamson
8HGR
The pyramids of Egypt, pyramids of which are among the largest man-made
constructions ever conceived, constitute one of the most potent and enduring
symbols of Ancient Egyptian civilization. It is generally accepted by most
archaeologists that they were constructed as burial monuments associated with
royal solar and stellar cults, and most were built during the Old and Middle
Kingdom periods
Historic development
The Great Pyramid of Giza in a 19th century photo
By the time of the early Dynastic period of Egyptian history, those with sufficient
means were buried in visually unremarkable bench-like structures known as
mastabas. The first historically documented Egyptian pyramid is attributed to the
architect Imhotep, who in constructing what Egyptologists believe to be a tomb for
the pharaoh Djozer, it is theorised first conceived the notion of stacking a number
of mastabas on top of each other — thereby creating an edifice comprised of a
number of steps that decreased in size towards its apex. The result was the Step
Pyramid of Djozer — which was designed to serve as a gigantic stairway by which
the soul of the deceased pharaoh could ascend to the heavens. Such was the
importance of Imhotep's achievement that he was deified by later Egyptians.
Each of the pyramids had its own name, such as the Pyramid of Teti was known as
Teti's cult places are enduring, later the pyramid complexes surrounding the main
structures had separate names. Most pyramids have since been given Arabic names
by the locals, which usually reflect their appearance.
The most prolific pyramid-building phase coincided with the greatest degree of
absolutist pharaonic rule, during the early part of the Old Kingdom. Over time, as
the exercise of pharaonic authority became less centralised and more
bureaucratised, the ability and willingness to harness the resources required for
construction on a massive scale was reduced, and later pyramids were smaller, less
well built and often hastily constructed.
Long after the end of Egypt's own pyramid-building period, a burst of pyramidbuilding occurred in what is present-day Sudan, after much of Egypt came under
the rule of the Kings of Napata. Whilst Napatan rule was brief and ceased in 661
BCE, the Egyptian influence made an indelible impression, and during the later
Sudanese Kingdom of Meroe (approximately in the period between 300 BCE–CE
300) this flowered into a full-blown pyramid-building revival, which saw more
than two hundred uniquely indigenous, but strongly Egyptian-inspired royal
pyramid tombs constructed in the vicinity of the Meroitic capital city.
Construction
The techniques used to construct Egypt's pyramids are thought to have initially
been developed by trial and error, and then further evolved based on local
economics, resources, and other considerations, over the thousand year pyramidbuilding phase of Egyptian civilization.
Recently-discovered worker's tombs have shown how pyramids were made and
how important workers were: the pyramid workers were paid craftsmen, not
slaves, and they had their own city at Giza. Egyptologists also have presented
several pieces of evidence showing this, including proof that many laborers
worked on the Pyramids during periods of Nile flooding, and that contributing to
the Pyramid construction was, religiously, a very good deed for them.
During the earliest period, in the Third and Fourth Dynasties, pyramids were
constructed wholly of stone. In the Fifth Dynasty the physical scale of pyramids
was much reduced, and poor quality limestone replaced granite as the chief
building material. In–filling with loose rubble was also used for the first time. This
enabled pyramids to be built with fewer resources over much shorter periods.
During the Middle Kingdom pyramid construction techniques changed again.
Most pyramids built at this time were little more than mountains of mud brick
encased in a veneer of polished limestone. In several cases, later pyramids were
built on top of natural hills to further reduce the volume of material needed in their
construction.
Paradoxically, the materials and methods of construction used in the earliest
pyramids have ensured their survival in a generally much better state of
preservation than is the case with the pyramid monuments of later pharaohs.
Pyramid symbolism
The shape of Egyptian pyramids is thought to represent the primordial mound
from which the Egyptians believed the earth was created. The shape is also thought
to be representative of the descending rays of the sun, and most pyramids were
faced with polished, highly reflective white limestone, in order to give them a
brilliant appearance when viewed from a distance. Pyramids were often also
named in ways that made reference to solar luminescence. For example, the formal
name of the Bent Pyramid at Dahshur was The Southern Shining Pyramid, and that
of Senwosret at el-Lahun was Senwosret is Shining.
While it is generally agreed that pyramids were burial monuments, there is
continued disagreement on the particular theological principles that might have
given rise to them. One theory that has gained a degree of acceptance is that they
were designed as a type of "resurrection machine"; the Egyptians believed the dark
area of the night sky around which the stars appear to revolve was the physical
gateway into the heavens, and co-incidentally, one of the narrow shafts that
extends from the main burial chamber through the entire body of the Great
Pyramid points directly towards the centre of this part of the sky. This suggests the
pyramid may have been designed to serve as a means to magically launch the
deceased pharaoh's soul directly into the abode of the gods.
All Egyptian pyramids were built, without exception, on the west bank of the Nile,
which as the site of the setting sun was associated with the realm of the dead in
Egyptian mythology.
Pyramid sites
The number of pyramid structures in Egypt today is reported by most sources as
being between 80 and 110, with a majority favouring the higher number. The
reason for the imprecise nature of the count appears related to the fact that as many
smaller pyramids are in a poor state of preservation and appear as little more than
mounds of rubble, they are only now being properly identified and studied by
archaeologists. Most are grouped in a number of pyramid fields, the most
important of which are listed geographically, from north to south, below.
Abu Rawash
Abu Rawash is the site of Egypt's most northerly pyramid other than the ruins of
Lepsius pyramid number one— the mostly ruined Pyramid of Djedefre, the son
and successor of Khufu. Originally it was thought that this pyramid had never
been completed, but the current archaeological consensus is that not only was it
completed, but that it was originally about the same size as the Pyramid of
Menkaure — the third largest of the Giza pyramids. On this basis Djedefre's edifice
would have claimed the title of the fourth or fifth largest pyramid in Egypt.
Unfortunately its location adjacent to a major crossroads made it an easy source of
stone, and quarrying — which began in Roman times — continued until as recently
as the early 20th century. Today little remains apart from a few courses of stone
superimposed upon the natural hillock that formed part of the pyramid's core —
although a small adjacent satellite pyramid is in a better state of preservation.
Giza
The Giza pyramid field, viewed from the south-west. Dominating the picture from
foreground to background are the Pyramids of Menkaure, Khafre and Khufu.
Giza, on the southern outskirts of Cairo is the location of the Pyramid of Khufu
(also known as the "Great Pyramid" and the "Pyramid of Cheops"), the somewhat
smaller Pyramid of Khafre (or Kephren), and the relatively modest-sized Pyramid
of Menkaure (or Mykerinus), along with a number of smaller satellite edifices,
known as "queens" pyramids, and the Great Sphinx.
Of the three, only Khafre's pyramid retains part of its original polished limestone
casing, towards its apex. Interestingly this pyramid appears larger than the
adjacent Khufu pyramid by virtue of its more elevated location, and the steeper
angle of inclination of its construction — it is, in fact, smaller in both height and
volume.
The Giza Necropolis has arguably been the world's most popular tourist
destination since antiquity, and was popularised in Hellenistic times when the
Great Pyramid was listed by Antipater of Sidon as one of the Seven Wonders of the
World. Today it is the only one of the ancient Wonders still in existence.
Zawyet el-Aryan
This site, half way between Giza and Abu Sir, is the location for two unfinished Old
Kingdom pyramids. The northern structure's owner is believed to be the Pharaoh
Nebka, whilst the southern structure is attributed to the Third Dynasty Pharaoh
Khaba, also known as Hudjefa, successor to Sekhemkhet. Khaba's four-year tenure
as pharaoh more than likely explains the similar premature truncation of his step
pyramid. Today it is approximately twenty metres in height; had it been completed
it is likely to have exceeded forty
Abu Sir
There are a total of seven pyramids at this site, which served as the main royal
necropolis during the Fifth Dynasty. The quality of construction of the Abu Sir
pyramids is inferior to those of the Fourth Dynasty — perhaps signalling a
decrease in royal power or a less vibrant economy. They are smaller than their
predecessors, and are built of low quality local limestone.
The three major pyramids are those of Niuserre (which is also the most intact),
Neferirkare Kakai and Sahure. The site is also home to the incomplete Pyramid of
Neferefre. All of the major pyramids at Abu Sir were built as step pyramids,
although the largest of them — the Pyramid of Neferirkare Kakai — is believed to
have originally been built as a step pyramid some seventy metres in height and
then later transformed into a "true" pyramid by having its steps filled in with loose
masonry.
Saqqara
The Step Pyramid of Djozer
Major pyramids here include the Step Pyramid of Djozer — the world's oldest
monumental stone building — the Pyramid of Userkaf and the Pyramid of Teti.
Also at Saqqara is the Pyramid of Unas, which retains a pyramid causeway that is
amongst the best-preserved in Egypt. This pyramid was also the subject of one of
antiquities' earliest restoration attempts, conducted under the auspices of one of the
sons of Ramesses II. Saqqara is also the location of the incomplete step pyramid of
Djozer's successor Sekhemkhet, known as the Buried Pyramid. Archaeologists
believe that had this pyramid been completed it would have been larger than
Djozer's.
Dahshur
This area is arguably the most important pyramid field in Egypt outside Giza and
Saqqara, although until 1996 the site was inaccessible due to its location within a
military base, and hence was virtually unknown outside archaeological circles.
The southern Pyramid of Sneferu, commonly known as the Bent Pyramid is
believed to be the first (or by some accounts, second) attempt at creating a pyramid
with smooth sides. In this it was only a partial — but nonetheless visually arresting
— success; it remains the only Egyptian pyramid to retain a significant proportion
of its original limestone casing, and serves as the best example of the luminous
appearance common to all pyramids in their original state.
The northern, or Red Pyramid built at the same location by Sneferu was later
successfully completed as the world's first true smooth-sided pyramid. Despite its
relative obscurity, the Red Pyramid is actually the third largest pyramid in Egypt
— after the pyramids of Khufu and Khafre at Giza. Also at Dahshur is the pyramid
known as the Black Pyramid of Amenemhet III.
Lisht
The ruined Pyramid of Amenemhet I at Lisht
Two major pyramids are known to have been built at Lisht — those of Amenemhat
I and his son, Senusret I. The latter is surrounded by the ruins of ten smaller
subsidiary pyramids. The site which is in the vicinity of the oasis of Fayyum,
midway between Dahshur and Meidum, and about 100 kilometres south of Cairo,
is believed to be in the vicinity of the ancient city of Itjtawy (the precise location of
which remains unknown), which served as the capital of Egypt during the 12th
Dynasty.
Meidum
Sneferu's Pyramid at Meidum; the central core structure remains, surrounded by a mountain of
rubble from the collapsed outer casing
The pyramid at Meidum is one of three constructed during the reign of Sneferu,
and is believed by some to have been commenced by that pharaoh's father and
predecessor, Huni. Some archaeologists also suggest that the Meidum pyramid
may have been the first unsuccessful attempt at the construction of a "true" or
smooth-sided pyramid.
The pyramid suffered a catastrophic collapse in antiquity, and today only the
central parts of its stepped inner core remain standing, giving it an odd tower-like
appearance that is unique among Egyptian pyramids. The hill that the pyramid sits
atop is not a natural landscape feature — it is in fact the small mountain of debris
created when the lower courses and outer casing of the pyramid gave way.
One face of the pyramid at Meidum collapsed and was shorn off around the year
2600 BC, during the placement of its outer walls. The Meidum pyramid was a true
pyramid, a tetrahedron, whereas Djoser's pyramid was a step pyramid, made of
stacked rectangular mastabas. At the Meidum pyramid, the buttresses were not
extended to include the structurally significant outer casing.
This addition of the limestone casing without sideways structural support proved
fatal, and massive rubble mounds can still be seen beneath the base of the pyramid
today. Following this disaster, the builders must have reevaluated their method.
The success of Djoser's pyramid and the failure of the one at Meidum laid out a
blueprint followed for the remainder of pyramid construction in Egypt.
It has been suggested that the collapse occurred while construction was underway
on the Bent Pyramid at Dahshur (also built by Sneferu), and that this may have
been one of the reasons for the design changes implemented during construction of
the latter edifice. About 50 meters off the ground, the angle of ascent abruptly
changes. Some experts have theorised that the builders of the Bent Pyramid
changed their construction techniques after learning of the failure at Meidum. Since
there are no known collapses of pyramids built after Meidum, we can surmise that
innovations — and the disastrous results when these ideas were not followed —
were effective lessons. When a structure fails it does so because of an error in
design, and oftentimes this design flaw can be recognised and fixed; pyramids built
later than Meidum demonstrate inward slanting of the outer casing. Later
architects seem to have understood that the limestone covering of their pyramids
held significance in structure as well as aesthetics.
Hawarra
The Pyramid of Amenemhet III at Hawarra
Amenemhet III was the last powerful ruler of the 12th Dynasty, and the pyramid
he built at Hawarra, near Faiyum, is believed to post-date the so-called "Black
Pyramid" built by the same ruler at Dahshur. It is the Hawarra pyramid that is
believed to have been Amenemhet's final resting place.
el-Lahun
The Pyramid of Senusret II. The pyramid's natural limestone core is clearly visible as the yellow
stratum at its base.
The pyramid of Senusret II at el-Lahun is the southernmost royal-tomb pyramid
structure in Egypt. Its builders reduced the amount of work necessary to construct
it by ingeniously using as its foundation and core a 12 metre high natural limestone
hill.
Open questions
Many Egyptian temples are still standing today. Others are in ruins from wear and
tear, while others have been lost entirely. The Egyptian structures are among the
largest man-made constructions ever conceived. They constitute one of the most
potent and enduring symbols of Ancient Egyptian civilisation.