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White-tailed Eagle
© Andrew Guppy
Authors
Andrew Stevenson
Scottish Natural Heritage (SNH), Great Glen House, Leachkin Road, Inverness, IV3 8NW.
[email protected]
Rhian Evans
Royal Society for the Protection of Birds, Tayside and Fife office, Ground Floor, Robertson House,
1 Whitefriars Crescent, Perth, PH2 0PA.
[email protected]
Summary
• The Species Action Framework (SAF) partfunded the initial translocation and release
of young white-tailed eagles (sea eagles) in
the east of Scotland, as part of the overall
reintroduction to Scotland of this species which
started in the 1970s.
• Through a partnership of Scottish Natural
Heritage (SNH), Royal Society for the
Protection of Birds (RSPB) Scotland and Forestry
Commission Scotland (FCS), the East Scotland
Sea Eagle Project (ESSE) released 85 birds
between 2007 and 2012.
• The ESSE project aims to help recover the
historical range in Scotland and to found an
additional population away from the west coast.
• Restoring a large predator such as white-tailed
eagle is a long-term project and requires
continuing management and monitoring to
ensure success.
Introduction
1998 a further 58 eaglets from Norway were
released in Wester Ross under a joint SNH and
RSPB project. This release, combined with the
increasing number of wild-bred young entering the
population, had allowed the west coast breeding
population to reach 42 pairs by 2007 when the
third phase of releases in the east of Scotland
commenced.
Why was this species on the Species
Action Framework list?
The white-tailed eagle was an obvious candidate
for inclusion under the SAF as a species for
conservation action, as there was already a
reintroduction programme underway. At the
time of the SAF starting, consideration was
being given by the Sea Eagle Project Team
(now White-tailed Eagle Project Team) to a third
phase of releases away from the west coast in
order to enhance recovery of historical range,
and to establish a second population to ensure
a successful reintroduction. This resulted in SAF
funding supporting the ESSE project, under which
translocated eaglets from Norway were released
in Fife.
Species background
This section draws on the following key references:
Love (1983, 2007). The white-tailed eagle
(Haliaeetus albicilla), also known as the sea
eagle, is a native species to Scotland. However,
by the early 20th century it had become extinct
through persecution, primarily owing to the belief
that it was a major predator of livestock and
game. Across Europe the species was also in decline
and it became a very rare visitor to Scotland
with little prospect of natural recolonisation. Two
independent releases, each of four birds, at Loch
Etive, Argyll in 1959 and on Fair Isle, Shetland
in 1968, initiated thoughts of a more formal
reintroduction. In the early 1970s the Nature
Conservancy Council decided to undertake a
sustained chick release programme. From 1975
to 1985, 82 eaglets from Norway were released
on Rum National Nature Reserve. This release
established territorial pairs on several west coast
islands with the first successful breeding occurring
on Mull in 1985. This initial population relied
on a few consistently successful pairs and there
were concerns about the long-term viability of
the population. A second phase of releases was
agreed to bolster the population. From 1993 to
Habitat, distribution and abundance
The species is widespread across much of northern
Eurasia, breeding from Greenland east to Japan,
and south into south-east Europe, the Middle East
and central Asia (see white-tailed eagle factsheet
for more information on population size and
distribution). When the Scottish reintroduction
started in the 1970s the species was listed as being
Near-Threatened by IUCN, however conservation
efforts across its range lead to its status being
revised to Least Concern in 2006.
As indicated by its large geographical range the
species occupies a wide range of habitats. There is
an association with coastal and freshwater habitats
in both lowland and upland situations. It is also
found in both open and wooded or forest habitats.
In many areas where its abundance is relatively
high it lives close to human populations including
winter roosts and nesting pairs near large towns
and cities. The species is also adapted to a wide
range of climatic conditions, again evidenced
by its broad distribution, though some northern
populations are migratory.
General ecology
In Scotland comparison is often made with the
golden eagle (Aquila chystaeos), however the
white-tailed eagle has significant differences in its
ecology and several studies in Scotland indicate
that there is minimal competition between the
two species (Evans et al., 2010; Whitfield et al.,
2013). White-tailed eagles as adult pairs can be
less territorial and can nest at fairly high densities
more often than golden eagles. This more social
behaviour extends to the immature birds too. As
with other large raptors, young white-tailed eagles
take around five to six years to reach breeding
age. During this period they range widely but also
form non-breeding communal roosts. These roosts
may have an important role in pair formation
amongst older immature birds in particular.
The species has a relatively long breeding season,
laying eggs during March and April, with young
leaving the nest usually in July and August. Adult
pairs generally remain on territory all year,
roosting at or near the nest although they will at
times join nearby communal roosts too.
Nest sites in Scotland are usually in trees or
on cliffs and crags. Some of the latter sites are
almost ground nests whilst a range of tree species
are used, though most are in conifers. The main
requirements for tree nests are that the tree
can support the large stick-nest and has limited
exposure to adverse weather.
The diet of the species is wide, including both
live prey and carrion. They generally take a
greater proportion of waterbird and seabird prey
compared to golden eagles (Whitfield et al., 2013).
Most prey consist of medium-sized mammals (e.g.
rabbits and hares) and birds (e.g. gulls, ducks,
geese, auks, grouse and, especially in Scottish
coastal sites, fulmar). In some parts of their world
range they eat mainly fish. In Scotland fish form
a smaller component of the diet although over
20 species have been recorded in the diet of the
reintroduced population (Marquiss et al., 2004).
Most carrion consumed in Scotland is deer or
sheep.
History of decline, contributory
factors and current threats
The species became extinct in Scotland in 1918
following a decline which was largely attributed
to persecution. The species was considered a
serious predator of livestock especially sheep
and was heavily persecuted in the 19th and early
20th centuries, with specimen and egg collectors
also contributing to the eventual extinction as the
species became rarer.
Prior to the reintroduction starting in the 1970s,
consideration was given to how viable it would
be. The factors that contributed to the decline were
considered before it went ahead and the detailed
monitoring of the population since reintroduction
has helped identify and manage threats and
risks to the species. The main threats historically
of persecution and egg collection though still
present today have declined in importance. The
first nesting pairs in the west were very intensively
monitored with volunteer nest-watches to try to
prevent interference with the birds. These were
successful and fundamental in allowing the
population to become established.
The perception of white-tailed eagles as predators
of lambs still prevails, and has been a difficult
one to deal with at times. SNH has responded
to concerns from the farming community and
their representative bodies about alleged lamb
predation throughout the reintroduction. Two
studies for SNH into lamb predation, one on
the island of Mull where white-tailed eagles first
bred, and a later one at Gairloch in Wester
Ross, identified that the eagles do take a small
number of live lambs, but the majority of lambs
taken were scavenged as carrion (Marquiss et
al., 2004; Simms et al., 2010). As result of this
research, a Sea Eagle Management Scheme has
been established by SNH to help those farmers
and crofters at risk of losing some lambs from
eagle predation. Funding is available to both
help improve lamb and sheep flock health and to
undertake preventative measures so they are less
likely to be impacted by eagles, rather than to
compensate for losses. This has helped allay the
concerns of some but not all.
White-tailed eagles continue to be persecuted
in Scotland, as a number of reintroduced eagles
are known to have been killed illegally or to have
disappeared in suspicious circumstances inferring
illegal killing. Whilst these losses may have had
some influence on the establishment and growth of
the population, they have not been at a level that
has hampered the re-establishment of the species.
A newer potential threat is from wind farms, as
information from Scandinavia and continental
Europe has shown that white-tailed eagles are
relatively poor at avoiding turbines and so are
at risk of collision (May et al., 2010; Dürr, 2015).
In Scotland, to date, risks to white-tailed eagles
have been minimised through discouraging
developments in key areas. Both persecution and
wind farm collision risk are of most concern where
they may affect new ‘pioneering’ pairs outside
the main range, as loss of these pairs could
impact on range recovery. Disturbance of nesting
pairs and of regular roosts can also be an issue,
and guidance has been drawn up by Forestry
Commission Scotland to help minimise the effect
of operations on white-tailed eagle roost and nest
sites in commercial forests. This guidance can also
be applied to a wide range of activities that occur
outwith forestry (see Further Information).
Over 200 eyries were monitored annually by
NOF in three counties to allow enough donor
chicks to be identified and collected.
• A release site was secured and holding aviaries
constructed.
• Young eagles were translocated in June and
released in August each year from 2007 to
2012. Eighty-five birds were released in total.
Planning
Aims
Aims for 2007-2012
• To translocate and successfully release 15-20
white-tailed eagles per annum to the Tay/Forth
area between 2007 and 2012.
• To monitor released birds as they establish
territorial and ultimately nesting pairs.
The aim post-2012 has been:
• To augment the range expansion of the west
coast population of white-tailed eagles by
establishing a viable, self-sustaining breeding
population in the east of Scotland.
Management Action
Summary of the main action
undertaken
• A partnership was formed between RSPB
Scotland, SNH and FCS, with RSPB Scotland
and SNH jointly funding the project between
2007 and 2012. RSPB Scotland employed a
project officer, and FCS provided the release
site. Through this partnership, the East Scotland
Sea Eagle (ESSE) project steering group was
also formed.
• Appropriate assessments were made and the
necessary parties consulted.
• Donor stock was identified in Norway and
agreement made with Norwegian Birdlife
partner Norsk Ornitologisk Forening (NOF).
The decision to continue with the third phase of
reintroduction to Scotland was made by the Sea
Eagle Project Team in 2003. Research concluded
that 85-100 white-tailed eagle chicks would be
necessary to establish a new breeding population
in eastern Scotland.
A feasibility study and habitat assessments were
carried out for several suitable geographical areas
in Scotland for the reintroduction site prior to the
final site selection. The project was fully considered
against IUCN guidelines (IUCN, 1998).
Once the final release site had been chosen
RSPB Scotland staff, on behalf of the ESSE
project steering group, also liaised with potential
stakeholders and public bodies that may be
affected by the reintroduction, including the bodies
representing landowners, agricultural interests and
elected representatives.
In June 2007, the then Minister for Environment,
Michael Russell MSP, approved the licence for the
reintroduction programme.
Location of work
Although other areas were considered, the Tay/
Forth estuary area was concluded as being the
most suitable location for the third phase of the
reintroduction. It provided the largest estuary
area and much high quality habitat for feeding
and nesting. This area also had a relatively
low incidence and risk of illegal persecution
of birds of prey, and minimal potential conflict
with sheep farming, compared to other sites
considered. Additionally, though not part of the
formal assessment, a high proportion of Scotland’s
people live close by, providing opportunities to
encounter the birds with substantial educational
and eco-tourism potential. FCS provided a suitable
secure aviary site at Weddersbie Forest, a quiet
and relatively isolated woodland with minimal
recreational or operational disturbance. The site
was kept secret, though regular users knew and
respected its sensitivities. This also gave the local
community a sense of ownership and acted as a
security measure in itself.
The aviaries were monitored using CCTV cameras
with images sent to a device monitored by the
project officer. Local landowners were positive
and cooperative, and a local farmer assisted with
access and allowed project staff to store food for
the captive eagles. Fife Police checked the site
regularly.
Methods and techniques
A donor stock of young white-tailed eagles was
identified through the Norwegian Sea Eagle
Project. Licences were granted for chicks to be
collected in three counties: Møre & Romsdal,
Hordaland and Sogn & Fjordane.
Licences required for the exportation, import,
holding and release of the birds were necessary
under CITES (for export and import), Animal Health
legislation, and the Wildlife and Countryside Act
1981. A project officer was employed in April 2007
prior to the first cohort of white-tailed eagles being
collected.
Aviaries were designed and constructed with
an artificial nest platform, perches, and a large
release hatch in the front with thick, double layer
mesh (Fig. 1). A door and feeding hatch were
located in the back of the aviary allowing staff to
feed the birds without unnecessary contact. Nest
platforms were 1 m above the ground and lined
with untreated tree bark and a layer of sphagnum
moss.
Staff from the Norwegian Sea Eagle Project
monitored active sites in January to identify
potential donor nests in June. Chicks were
collected only from nests containing twins or
triplets, at the age of 5-8 weeks, when they were
old enough to regulate their own body temperature
and feed themselves unassisted by parent birds,
but small enough not to abandon the nest.
Prior to export, the chicks were checked by vets
to ensure that they were fit to be transported. This
also satisfied the requirements of the CITES export
and import licences, and the Animal Health import
licence.
In 2007, the Royal Norwegian Air Force
transported the chicks to RAF Kinloss. In
subsequent years, an aircraft was chartered to
transport the chicks to Edinburgh airport. After the
relevant customs procedures and paperwork had
been processed airside, the chicks were transferred
in vehicles to the aviaries.
On arrival at the aviaries, health screening was
carried out in conjunction with Natural Research
Ltd (NR) and the Exotic Animal and Wildlife
Service (EAWS) of the University of Edinburgh’s
veterinary school. Full haematological and
biochemical analyses were carried out, and
samples taken to monitor lead levels, faecal
parasites and faecal bacterial cultures. Blood
smears were also taken for haemoparasite
analyses and blood plasma was stored for further
analyses. All birds were sexed by NR using DNA
from blood samples. Chicks were weighed and
biometric measurements taken. The chicks were
then housed in pairs and matched as closely as
possible according to size to prevent competition
and exclusion for food.
The chicks were fed twice a day initially, on
a varied diet of fish, rabbit, venison and grey
squirrel. All the food was donated by FCS, local
game dealers, fish shops, and the Scottish Wildlife
Trust who provided culled grey squirrels. The
chicks were medicated to prevent the potential
development of stress-related illnesses for the first
five days in captivity, and vitamin and mineral
supplements were added to their food throughout
the captive period. Feeds were reduced to once a
day as the birds grew and were able to tear apart
larger prey.
Fig 1. An example of an aviary used to house the
young white-tailed eagles.
© Andy Hay/RSPB Images
The chicks were kept in captivity for 7–8 weeks
and released when they were roughly 14 weeks
old to coincide with when they would naturally
fledge the nest. A week prior to release, all chicks
were re-sampled for health parameters and given
a welfare check by vets. Wing and tail-feather
growth was checked and full biometrics taken
again. Every chick was fitted with tags on each
wing to enable identification and ageing of birds
in the field (Fig. 2). Different colours were used
each year with a single letter or number legend.
Due to a change in the licensing procedure, wing
tags were not fitted in 2008. The chicks were also
fitted with 70 g Biotrack VHF transmitter backpacks
using a Teflon harness authorised by BTO (Fig.
2). Each bird had a unique frequency so that
dispersal could be monitored. The VHF transmitters
have a mortality setting which is triggered if a
bird is stationary for more than 6 hours, allowing
the retrieval of any dead birds for post-mortem
examination.
Fig 3. A young white-tailed eagle being released in
August 2010.
© Andy Hay/RSPB Images
During the winter months, the project officer gave
talks to local interest groups and attended events to
raise awareness of the project, and to engage with
the community close to the release site and beyond.
Fig 2. A young white-tailed eagle with a newly
fitted VHF transmitter and wing tags.
In 2010 a part-time education officer was
employed to deliver a programme for primary
schools in Tayside and Fife, to engage local
children in the project and wider conservation.
Resources were created for teachers and
information was shared on the Scottish schools
intranet ‘Glow’. Links with schools in Norway were
also encouraged. Volunteer field teachers also
played a key role in successfully delivering this
programme.
© Andy Hay/RSPB Images
The releases were staggered over a period of
a week of dry weather, and project partners,
stakeholders, volunteers and media were invited
to attend (Fig. 3). A food dump was maintained at
the site for the first three months following release.
All birds were monitored through systematic radiotracking and following up of sightings from the
public. Every contact or sighting of a released bird
was recorded in a database.
Problems and solutions
Since the first release in 2007, there have been 14
reported incidents of released white-tailed eagles
predating on domestic poultry and wildfowl, and
five cases of game bird predation, varying in
severity. All cases involved juvenile birds, and
occurred up to eight weeks after release. Two
incidents of white-tailed eagles scavenging lamb
carcasses occurred, but the lambs were already
dead. Every incident was followed up immediately
by the project officer and measures were taken
to prevent further incident through positive
management. This was done with advice and
collaboration with SNH area officers.
Each year during the project there were also
several cases of mortality (see Fig. 4). A protocol
for retrieving carcasses and appropriate post
mortem or toxicology was agreed between EAWS
and NR, RSPB Scotland, Tayside and Fife Wildlife
Crime Officers, Science and Advice for Scottish
Agriculture (SASA) and Scotland’s Rural College
(SRUC).
Mortality of released birds was caused by
collisions with wires/electrocution, collisions
with trains and persecution, and one bird was
euthanized after being found with severe injuries
from being struck by a seal on the Isle of May. In
2014, a three year old male was killed by a wind
turbine in the Ochil Hills, Clackmannanshire. Dead
birds were detected through radio-tracking or
reported by members of the public. The majority of
fatalities were juveniles and occurred between the
release period and their first winter.
Young birds were occasionally found unwell or
injured and in need of rehabilitation, which was
undertaken by Alistair Lawrie and the Scottish
Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals
(SSPCA) before re-release.
During the first two years of the project, some of
the VHF transmitters failed to work. Monitoring of
these individuals was therefore difficult, but still
possible through observation of wing tags.
Through the media, critics of the project questioned
the viability of the reintroduction. Some doubted
the suitability of the Scottish climate, claiming that
it is too wet for white-tailed eagles. However, the
survival rates of the released birds are similar to
those of previous Scottish releases and some wild
populations elsewhere (Evans et al., 2009). Others
assumed that the birds were tame due to the belief
that they had been imprinted during their time in
captivity. However, considerable care was taken to
avoid human contact before birds were released
and this species appears more naturally ‘tolerant’
of human activities than other large raptors.
Partnership working and resourcing
The ESSE project was managed via regular
Steering Group meetings throughout the project.
Regular reports were made to the Scottish
Government. As well as supporting the project
financially, SNH also assisted with licensing and
assessed reported livestock incidents. Additional
funding for the final year of releases in 2012 came
from Heritage Lottery Fund (HLF) and Rural Tayside
and Fife LEADER.
Volunteers played a key role with activities such as
feeding birds in captivity, stocking the food dump,
post-release monitoring of the birds and data
entry. One volunteer used her expertise to make
a short documentary about the project for schools.
Outwith the area covered by radio-tracking,
sightings from the public provided invaluable
information about the birds’ dispersal.
Results
Between 2007 and 2012, 85 birds were released
into the wild in Fife. The overall survival rate of the
released birds to the end of 2014 was 69% with
27 carcasses recovered. This was comparable to
the mortality rate seen in the west coast-released
population. Fig. 4 summarises the survival statistics
for 2007–2014.
Fig. 5 shows the dispersal of east coast-released
white-tailed eagles and indictes where most birds
have spent their time.
Fig 4. Summary of survival and causes of mortality of white-tailed eagles released in the east of Scotland
between 2007 and 2012, as of December 2014.
White-tailed eagle
release year
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
Number of Individuals
1 eagle
2-7 eagles
Fig 5. Approximate distribution of east coast-released white-tailed eagles after their release.
© RSPB
Lessons Learnt,
Further Work and
Future Recommendations
Lessons learnt
The east coast project has built on west coast
experience of rearing and releasing. The design
of the release aviaries was based on those used
during the successful second phase of releases
in Wester Ross, and previous red kite releases in
Scotland.
The east coast project also had the advantage
of monitoring all birds using radio-telemetry. This
gave information on dispersal and survival. Better
technology, such as satellite tags, has provided
more accurate information about bird movements
and roost sites and allows rapid mortality detection,
though at much greater cost.
Due to the location of the release site, the east
coast project had the benefit of more accessible
expert veterinary care than the more remote west
coast releases. Welfare techniques have also
improved since the initial release on Rum and
the methods that are now used minimise human
contact as much as possible.
As the first nesting attempts of the east coastreleased birds occur, there will be careful
management of the threats outlined previously
and of land management activities close to nests
to ensure the success of their establishment in the
east of Scotland. Constructive engagement with the
relevant stakeholders will be essential to achieve
this.
The value of volunteers, stakeholder engagement
and the help of the public in providing sightings
of the birds has been immense. Without these, the
project would not have been a success.
The project was fortunate in securing a release site
in FCS woodland with a cooperative neighbouring
farmer and community. The farmer lent his support
throughout. The support from the local community
has been paramount to the security at the release
site, with several members reporting sightings of
the newly released birds.
Overall, the east coast white-tailed eagle project
highlighted the need for careful planning, and
for strong representation from Scottish and
international project partners to overcome
management issues and potential criticism.
Key Management Messages
Five key elements of the project can be identified:
• Meticulous planning and coordination throughout.
• Strong partnership and overseas connections.
• A well coordinated post-release monitoring scheme.
• Sympathetic, reactive, and constructive approaches to management issues.
• Applying knowledge from previous successful release methods and post-release monitoring
Future recommendations
• The methods and techniques for releasing birds
used during this project have been successful,
and therefore could be considered for similar
projects elsewhere with the provision that local
conditions are taken into account.
• The consultation process should be thorough,
and ensuing monitoring should meet strict IUCN
guidelines on reintroductions, especially in a
densely populated area where the risk to the
reintroduced population may be greater.
• Strong partnerships are essential. Planning
and preparation should be thorough, and
communication should be maintained with
partners and wider stakeholders throughout.
• A contingency should be put in place for
scenarios such as wildlife crime incidents,
livestock predation, and conflict with land
management activities. Positive management
solutions should be offered as a proactive
measure as well as preparing for a reactive and
sympathetic response.
New and ongoing work
since SAF ended
• Since the SAF project funding came to an end
in 2011, the partnership between RSPB Scotland,
SNH and FCS has remained. Funding was
secured from HLF and Leader for a further year
of translocation, allowing six more birds to be
released.
• Steering group meetings continued beyond
the translocation phase of the project to
address further management issues involving
the released birds and establishing pairs. A
volunteer network has been formed to help
monitor these new pairs and to help protect
nesting attempts.
• Monitoring of the released birds continued
in accordance with IUCN guidelines through
a programme of radio-tracking. A database
to record all contact with the released birds,
and for future analysis of dispersal, is still
maintained.
• In 2013 the first pair of released birds from
the east coast project bred successfully in
Fife, with four pairs established in the east by
2014. Other east coast pairs have established
and some individuals have successfully bred
with wild-fledged west coast birds. The overall
Scottish population had increased to 98 pairs in
2014.
Further Information
• http://www.birdlife.org/datazone/
speciesfactsheet.php?id=3364 – information on
global population size and distribution of whitetailed eagle, from Birdlife International.
• http://www.rspb.org.uk/
discoverandenjoynature/discoverandlearn/
sea-eagles/index.aspx – information about the
East Coast project on the RSPB website.
• http://www.rspb.org.uk/community/ourwork/b/
eastscotlandeagles/default.aspx – the RSPB’s
ESSE project officer’s blog.
• http://www.snh.gov.uk/about-scotlands-nature/
species/recent-species-projects/sea-eagle/ –
information about white-tailed eagle on the
SNH website.
• http://www.snh.gov.uk/land-and-sea/
managing-wildlife/sea-eagle-managementscheme/ – information on the SNH Sea Eagle
Management Scheme.
• http://www.iucn.org/news_homepage/
news_by_date/?13377/New-Guidelines-onconservation-translocations-published-by-IUCN
– information on the revised IUCN Guidelines
published in 2013.
• http://www.forestry.gov.uk/pdf/fcpn101.
pdf/$file/fcpn101.pdf – FCS Practice Note on
Managing forests for white-tailed eagles.
• http://www.snh.gov.uk/protecting-scotlandsnature/reintroducing-native-species/scct/ –
information on the new Scottish Code for
Conservation Translocations, published in 2014.
• Love JA. 2013. A Saga of Sea Eagles – a
revised edition of Love’s 1983 book with
further detailed accounts of phase 2, east coast
and Irish reintroductions. Whittles Publishing:
Dunbeath.
Love JA. 1983. The return of the Sea Eagle.
Cambridge University Press: Cambridge.
Love JA. 2007. White-tailed eagle. In: The Birds of
Scotland, Forrester RW, Andrews IJ, McInerny CJ,
Murray RD, McGowan RY, Zonfrillo B, Betts MW,
Jardine DJ, Grundy DS (eds). Scottish Ornithologists’
Club: Aberlady; 451-455.
Marquiss M, Madders M, Irvine J, Carss DN. 2004
The Impact of White-tailed Eagles on Sheep Farming
on Mull. Final Report. Centre for Ecology and
Hydrology, Banchory.
May R, Hoel PL, Langston R, Dahl EL, Bevanger
K, Reitan O, Nygård T, Pedersen HC, Røskaft
E, Stokke BG. 2010. Collision risk in white-tailed
eagles: Modelling collision risk using vantage point
observations in Smøla wind-power plant. NINA
Report 639. Norwegian Institute for Nature
Research, Trondheim.
Simms IC, Ormston CM, Somerwill KE, Cairns CL,
Tobin FR, Judge J, Tomlinson A. 2010. A pilot study
into sea eagle predation on lambs in the Gairloch
area – final report. Scottish Natural Heritage
Commissioned Report 370, Battleby, Perth.
Whitfield DP, Marquiss M, Reid R, Grant J, Tingay R,
Evans RJ. 2013. Breeding season diets of sympatric
White-tailed Eagles and Golden Eagles in Scotland:
no evidence for competitive effects. Bird Study 60:
67-76.
References
Dürr T. 2015. European Bird Collision reporting
spreadsheet: bird fatalities at wind turbines in
Europe, at 1 June 2015 (available at http://
www.lugv.brandenburg.de/cms/detail.php/
bb1.c.312579.de. Accessed 28 July 2015.
Evans RJ, Wilson JD, Amar A, Douse A,
Maclennan A, Ratcliffe N, Whitfield DP. 2009.
Growth and demography of a re-introduced
population of White-tailed Eagles Haliaeetus
albicilla. Ibis 151: 244–254.
Evans RJ, Pearce-Higgins J, Whitfield DP, Grant
JR, MacLennan A, Reid R. 2010. Comparative nest
habitat characteristics of sympatric White-tailed
Haliaeetus albicilla and Golden Eagles Aquila
chrysaetos in western Scotland. Bird Study 57:
437-482.
IUCN. 1998. Guidelines for Reintroductions. IUCN/
SSC Reintroduction Specialist Group, IUCN, Gland,
Switzerland and Cambridge.
Acknowledgements
We thank Alv Ottar Folkestad and members of the
NOF, RSPB, FCS and SNH staff, the Sea Eagle
Project Team, and acknowledge the support
and advice of west coast RSPB staff, the Scottish
Government, the Norwegian Government, Jo
Hedley, Alistair Lawrie, staff at the Lawrie
Veterinary Group and the SSPCA’s national wildlife
rehabilitation centre for care of sick and injured
birds. We also thank Natural Research, Tayside
and Fife Wildlife Crime Officers, Anna Meredith
and Joanna Hedley at EAWS, Air Partner and Air
Charters, our release site neighbours, particularly
Neil and Lesley Powrie, and all the volunteers who
devoted so much time and hard work to the project.
Local businesses in Tayside who provided food for
the captive eagles and the food dump. We are also
very grateful to the Heritage Lottery Fund, Rural
Tayside and Fife Leader for additional funding in
2012. Phil Whitfield provided invaluable comments
on the draft.
The SAF Partners
• Scottish Natural Heritage
• RSPB Scotland
• Forestry Commission Scotland
The Species Action
Framework Handbook
This account comes from the Species Action
Framework Handbook published by Scottish
Natural Heritage. For more information on
the handbook please go to www.snh.gov.uk/
speciesactionframework.
This document should be cited as follows:
Stevenson A, Evans, R. 2015. White-tailed eagle.
Version 1.0. In The Species Action Framework
Handbook, Gaywood MJ, Boon PJ, Thompson
DBA, Strachan IM (eds). Scottish Natural Heritage,
Battleby, Perth.