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REVIEWS AND COMMENTARY
䡲 REVIEW FOR RESIDENTS
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Basics of Imaging Informatics:
Part 21
Barton F. Branstetter IV, MD
Part 1 of this review on the basics of imaging informatics
discussed the elements that make up a picture archiving
and communication system (PACS), as well as some of the
useful software that can be used to enhance PACS performance. Part 2 will focus on the impact of informatics in the
radiology reading room and on recent technologies that
may be unfamiliar to residents and practicing radiologists
outside the informatics community.
娀 RSNA, 2007
1
From the Departments of Radiology and Otolaryngology,
University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, PUH Room
D-132, 200 Lothrop St, Pittsburgh, PA 15213. Received
June 7, 2006; revision requested June 9; revision received June 9; accepted June 21; final version accepted
August 15; final review and update by the author January
31, 2007. Address correspondence to the author
(e-mail: [email protected]).
姝 RSNA, 2007
78
Radiology: Volume 244: Number 1—July 2007
REVIEW FOR RESIDENTS: Basics of Imaging Informatics: Part 2
P
art 1 of this review focused on
picture archiving and communication systems (PACS) and on related software that improves PACS
functionality or radiologist efficiency. As
PACS has become a mature commercial
product, innovation in this field has increasingly come from PACS vendors.
Other areas of imaging informatics,
however, still require attention from academic researchers to reach maturity.
The application of informatics to the radiology reading room is frequently overlooked in the transition to a digital radiology department, but imaging informatics can have a substantial impact on
the radiologist’s work environment. Recent technologies, not yet fully mature,
may soon become just as important as
PACS to the way in which radiologists
work and interact with their colleagues.
Informatics in the Reading Room
Workflow Analysis
Workflow analysis is a means of deconstructing the complex tasks that professionals perform as part of their everyday work. Workflow analysis usually involves listing tasks, measuring the time
required to perform them, and quantitatively valuing the tasks. Redundant or
inefficient tasks may then be eliminated
or reengineered. Time-motion analysis
Essentials
䡲 When radiology departments
move from a film-based to a digital environment, radiologists’
workflow must be reengineered to
achieve maximum benefit from
the digital technology.
䡲 Quality assurance is the responsibility of every interpreting radiologist, and the quality assurance
needs of a digital radiology department are different from those
of a film-based department.
䡲 The advent of additional informatics technologies is inevitable; radiologists should be aware of recent
technologic developments that will
affect the way they interact with
patients and other physicians.
Radiology: Volume 244: Number 1—July 2007
is a type of workflow analysis in which
an individual is videotaped and each
movement is analyzed for efficiency. It is
even possible to deconstruct the workflow of an entire radiology department
(Fig 1) (2). The major goals of workflow
analysis are to eliminate interruptions,
remove bottlenecks, and appropriately
incorporate out-of-band tasks.
Out-of-band tasks.—Out-of-band tasks
are nonmemorable events that are easily
forgotten in the stream of a normal workflow. Examples might include preparing
scanning protocols for the next day’s
cases or checking for older, undictated
cases that do not appear on the PACS
work list. Out-of-band tasks are particularly troublesome when they may be accomplished by several different people,
and thus no one person is required to
take responsibility. Proper workflow incorporates out-of-band tasks in a manner
that makes them logical and memorable.
Dynamic alerts incorporated into the
PACS can help to control errant outof-band tasks.
Load balancing.—Film-based radiology departments often clustered radiologists into large arena-like reading
rooms. This was useful because all the
radiographs could be brought to one
place and overburdened radiologists
could be relieved by their less busy colleagues. In a PACS environment, however, radiologists are often distributed
across the hospital or even at different
hospitals because PACS allows the images to follow the radiologists to virtually any location. In this setting, it may
become difficult for radiologists in one
location to assess the workload of radiologists elsewhere in the enterprise.
This results in an unbalanced workload
and decreases the efficiency of the department as a whole.
Load balancing refers to the ability
of the PACS to alert less busy radiologists to the needs of their busier colleagues and to establish mechanisms to
correct the discrepancy. (The term load
balancing is similarly used when assigning tasks to network components to ensure that no one component is overburdened.)
Digital dashboards.—The dashboard
in a car summarizes the state of a com-
Branstetter
plex machine in a few key metrics. Similarly, digital dashboards can summarize
the state of a PACS from the perspective
of a radiologist, a radiology administrator, or PACS support personnel (Fig 2)
(3). Dashboards are useful, when incorporated into a PACS, for alerting radiologists to forgotten out-of-band tasks or for
load balancing between radiologists. Digital dashboards are a dynamic means of
rapidly correcting workflow inefficiencies.
Very large data sets.—The explosion of data in radiology presents a challenge not only for data storage, but also
for interpretation (4). Radiologists confronted with examinations consisting of
thousands of images need to find different ways to evaluate the huge amounts
of data. Potential solutions include different tools for human-computer interaction, software that presents the images in different ways, and departmental policies regarding the need to
examine every image in a study. Such
innovations will require focused research for discovery and validation lest
the workflow improvements of the digital environment be lost to an overload of
data.
Quality Assurance and Quality Control
The terms quality assurance (QA) and
quality control (QC) are often used interchangeably (or in tandem), but they
have different meanings. QA is an assessment of the process by which a
product (“deliverable”) is created. QC is
an assessment of the deliverable itself.
In the setting of radiology, QC refers to
the final quality of either the images or
Published online
10.1148/radiol.2441060995
Radiology 2007; 244:78 – 84
Abbreviations:
CPOE ⫽ computerized physician order entry
CR ⫽ computed radiography
DR ⫽ digital radiography
EMR ⫽ electronic medical record
PACS ⫽ picture archiving and communication system
QA ⫽ quality assurance
QC ⫽ quality control
Author stated no financial relationship to disclose.
79
REVIEW FOR RESIDENTS: Basics of Imaging Informatics: Part 2
the radiologists’ reports. QA refers to
the policies and processes of the radiology department and thus is related
closely to workflow.
Further confusing the semantics are
the less well-defined terms quality assessment and quality improvement.
Quality assessment is used as a generic
term for both QA and QC. Quality improvement expands on QA and QC by
including a feedback mechanism to improve the system (feedback is implied,
but not explicit, in QA and QC).
Although QA and QC were critical
to any radiology department in the film
era, the advent of PACS has produced
unforseen categories of potential errors
that need to be addressed with QA and
QC systems. Digital images are created
and processed with different parameters that must be continually assessed,
different artifacts are possible from the
digital processes, and complex computer systems can fail in subtle ways.
Radiology departments need to incorporate appropriate QA mechanisms to account for recently adopted technologies.
Fortunately, informatics also provides a means of collating and analyzing
QA data, along with more rapid and less
intrusive ways of providing feedback.
Ergonomics and Reading Room Design
A digital radiology environment may provide increased efficiency for the radiologist, but it also carries risks such as eye
strain and repetitive motion injuries.
Often, when radiology departments
convert from film to PACS, the radiologists continue to use the same workspace, rather than changing the physical
environment to suit the revised workflow. Failure to redesign the workspace
Branstetter
can result in discomfort and decreased
satisfaction among radiologists (5).
Ergonomics is a field of study that
focuses on the redesign of work environments to better suit human body
mechanics. The goals of ergonomics in
imaging informatics include improving
radiologist comfort, preventing repetitive stress injuries, reducing eyestrain,
and improving efficiency. This is accomplished by creating workstations that
adapt to individual users and are designed for specific tasks (6,7). Lighting
considerations are of particular importance in a radiology reading room—
glare on computer screens and excess
ambient light can diminish diagnostic
accuracy.
The layout of the radiology reading
room should be tailored to the digital
environment. It is counterproductive to
use the same room that was optimized
Figure 1
Figure 1: Radiology department workflow. In this diagrammatic representation of workflow, personnel are represented by boxes, and each task performed by an individual is listed inside his or her box. (Reprinted, with permission, from reference 1.)
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Radiology: Volume 244: Number 1—July 2007
REVIEW FOR RESIDENTS: Basics of Imaging Informatics: Part 2
for films and alternators after moving to
computer workstations. The positions
of personnel and equipment need to be
carefully considered to minimize interference and maximize productivity. Specialized chairs, specialized desks, arm or
hand supports, and policies regarding
continuous use of computer displays are
all helpful to improve radiologist ergonomics.
Teleradiology
Because PACS allows worldwide distribution of images, there is no absolute
need for the radiologist who is interpreting the images to be in the same
building (or even the same country) as
the imaging modality equipment. Teleradiology is the interpretation of images
at sites outside the hospital at which
they were obtained.
Teleradiology is most commonly applied to overnight interpretation of urgent studies within a hospital system.
One example is a single radiologist covering many hospitals within an enterprise to reduce the total number of radiologists on call. Another example is ra-
diologists reading films from their homes,
usually when a trainee needs assistance
or when a particularly complex case
arises. Smaller practices, with few overnight studies, may use exclusively athome teleradiology after hours. Teleradiology may also be used for subspecialist
consultation, as when general radiologists
at a community hospital request assistance from a subspecialist at an academic
center.
Less common, but receiving greater
attention, is the practice of international teleradiology (8). In this scenario,
radiologists in other countries read images, usually in American patients. There
are several advantages to this model: Because of differing time zones, international radiologists can be on daylight
shifts when overnight examinations are
performed in the home country. Not only
does this make overnight call responsibilities less burdensome for the home radiologist, it diminishes sleep deprivation as a
cause of interpretive errors. Although
technical barriers to teleradiology were
numerous in the past, they have now
been almost completely surpassed (9).
Figure 2
Figure 2: Digital dashboard. A color-coded display (circled) summarizing key PACS metrics is embedded
into the PACS worklist so that the data are consistently being presented to the radiologist in a nondistracting
manner. A traffic light analogy (red, yellow, and green lights) permits rapid interpretation.
Radiology: Volume 244: Number 1—July 2007
Branstetter
Nevertheless, many ethical and practical
issues remain (8).
It is worth reinforcing that teleradiology in any form requires high levels of
network security. Because patient data
are being transmitted outside the physical boundaries of the hospital enterprise, robust security formats such as
virtual private network, or VPN, are
necessary.
Recent Technologies
Most of the technology discussed so far
in this article is found in the majority of
academic medical centers. There are
other technologic advances that are
only now becoming part of mainstream
radiology practice. Radiology residents
should be familiar with these technologies, not only so that they are prepared
when the technology is introduced, but
also so that they can be aware of potential improvements to the workflow of
their departments.
Interacting Information Systems
Radiologists are exposed to a myriad of
acronyms for the information systems
that store medical data. Besides the
PACS, there is the radiology information system, or RIS, which is designed
for scheduling patients, storing reports,
and patient tracking; the hospital information system, or HIS, which keeps
track of patient demographic data and
locations; and the electronic medical
record (EMR), which is designed to organize all medical data from an entire
enterprise.
These different data systems, and a
variety of other systems tailored to individual departmental and administrative
needs, often exchange information. Communication standards have been developed to facilitate this exchange. Frequently used communication standards
include Digital Imaging and Communications in Medicine, or DICOM, and
Health Level 7, or HL7.
Integrating the Healthcare Enterprise, or IHE, is an initiative that strives
to establish criteria by which different
medical information systems can work
together efficiently (10). IHE breaks
down the actions of any software sys81
REVIEW FOR RESIDENTS: Basics of Imaging Informatics: Part 2
Branstetter
Figure 3
Figure 3: Structured reporting. (a) A traditional free-text radiology report. (b) The same report in a structured format. Key findings are easier to identify in the structured report.
tem so that each system can claim the
tasks at which it excels. This reduces
redundancy and ensures that responsibility for critical tasks is well-defined.
Computed Radiography versus Digital
Radiography
Computed radiography (CR) and digital
radiography (DR) are competing technologies that replace conventional radiographs (11). CR is similar to traditional imaging with film except that a
storage-phosphor imaging plate replaces
the traditional combination of fluorescent
phosphor screen and film. The cassette
around the phosphor plate is essentially
the same as for film, and the cassette
generally incorporates a scatter grid.
Thus, the CR cassette can be used with
the same x-ray source equipment and
tables that were used in the film era.
This substantially decreases the cost of
upgrading from film to CR.
CR phosphor storage plates are processed differently than film. Because the
phosphor storage plate is not light sensitive, darkrooms are no longer necessary. The cassette is fed into a storagephosphor reader, which interrogates
the phosphor plate to elicit the image
data. The plate is then heated to remove
the latent image, and the plate can be
returned to the cassette and immediately used again. The lack of film and
film developing materials is a major factor in the cost savings of CR systems.
DR is a more recent technology to
mature. Instead of fluorescent phosphors, DR relies on scintillators, such as
82
cesium or selenium, that convert x-rays
directly into electric charges. These are
placed next to an amorphous silicon
transistor layer that captures the electric charges and forms a digital image
(12).
The DR panels are fixed to a wall or
table and do not use cassettes. Thus,
DR is somewhat less flexible than CR for
unusual projections and portable radiography. DR image quality is somewhat
higher than CR image quality, but the
clinical impact of this difference remains unclear.
The major advantage of DR over CR
is that DR does not require processing of
cassettes or plates. DR images are immediately available on the computer once
the patient has been irradiated. This allows for greater patient throughput, since
less technologist time is spent processing
and storing images. The major disadvantage of DR, compared with CR, is increased cost. To take advantage of the
increased throughput of DR and thus offset its higher cost, radiology departments
must redesign their workflow to remove
other system bottlenecks (11).
One of the major advantages of both
CR and DR systems is the wide dynamic
range of the medium compared with film.
Increased dynamic range allows the technologist or radiologist to adjust the visible
image (akin to the use of windows and
levels at computed tomography), correcting for overexposure or underexposure
after the image has been stored.
To summarize, CR provides an inexpensive, low-impact transition from
screen-film technology to digital technology. DR is a more efficient system in
the long run, but it is more expensive
initially and requires an overhaul of the
workflow in the radiology department.
Enhanced Radiology Reports
Traditional radiology reports consist of
unstructured free-form text. There are
a variety of ways that these bland reports can be enhanced to better convey
information, educate, and ensure that
critical information is not overlooked.
Structured reporting.—Only minimal structure (eg, history, findings, impression) is imposed on most radiology
reports. One of the major drawbacks of
this free-form approach is the inability
to reliably search radiology reports for
specific diagnoses or findings. Another
concern with free-form text is that clinicians who skim the report may not understand the critical aspects of the interpretation or may overlook important
findings or recommendations. Clinicians
consistently report a preference for a
more structured radiology report to avoid
these errors.
Structured reporting, or SR, results
in a different output format for radiology reports (Fig 3). The content of the
report is codified to provide consistency
between different radiologists. This allows the data contained in the report to
be retrospectively analyzed in a more
reliable fashion.
The major drawback of SR is that it
requires radiologists to learn another
method of authoring reports. This results
Radiology: Volume 244: Number 1—July 2007
REVIEW FOR RESIDENTS: Basics of Imaging Informatics: Part 2
in decreased radiologist efficiency, at
least during the transition to SR, with potential permanent efficiency losses. Software that automatically converts free text
to structured reports may overcome this
barrier and permit greater radiologist acceptance of SR (13).
Radiology lexicon.—Another important aspect of consistent radiology
reporting is the development of a complete radiology lexicon (14). Mammography remains the only radiology subspecialty with a universally accepted set
of terms to describe radiographic findings. Extending this lexicon to the rest
of radiology would provide consistency
for both referring clinicians and radiology researchers. Unfortunately, given
the vast vocabulary found in modern
radiology reports and the difficulty of
achieving terminology consensus among
radiologists, a complete and universally
accepted radiology lexicon remains a
daunting task. The Radiological Society
of North America has begun to address
this issue with its RadLex initiative (15).
Multimedia reports.—The incorporation of select radiologic images into reports can improve the radiologist’s ability
to communicate complicated findings. To
be useful, the images must be associated
with specific words or phrases in the text.
Ideally, the incorporated images can be
presented to referring clinicians in an
electronic context (such as the EMR) and
can serve as a launch point for review of
the entire study in the PACS.
Other multimedia content, such as ultrasonographic or fluoroscopic movies,
links to teaching files or reference cases,
and educational links, can similarly enhance the quality of the radiology report.
Such enhancements will become of increasing importance as images are widely
distributed and radiologists are pressured
to demonstrate their added value to patient care.
Physician Order Entry
Computerized physician order entry
(CPOE) is the electronic equivalent of a
prescription for a radiologic test (16). By
allowing (or forcing) referring physicians
to use a computerized ordering system,
the radiology department can ensure that
sufficient patient history is provided and
Radiology: Volume 244: Number 1—July 2007
that appropriateness criteria are met. Alternative diagnostic tests can be suggested at the time of ordering (decision
support). The challenge for successful
CPOE lies in making the system convenient enough for the ordering physician,
so that CPOE is not seen as burdensome.
One of the major benefits of CPOE is the
ability to track ordering patterns, which
can be of interest to hospital administrators and third-party payers, as well as
radiologists.
Data Exchange between Hospitals
Patients are frequently treated at more
than one medical enterprise, either
within the same geographic region or in
different parts of the world. Ideally, all
pertinent patient data, and in particular
medical images, would accompany the
patient when switching facilities. The
Regional Health Information Organization, or RHIO, initiative from the United
States Department of Health and Human Services attempts to enhance the
secure exchange of patient information
within geographic areas (17).
Initiatives are also underway within
the radiology community to ensure that
imaging data can be easily exchanged.
Standards are being created for the formatting of the portable media (such as
compact disks) that have replaced conventional film for the storage and transfer of patient images. This will facilitate
the evaluation and incorporation of images acquired at outside institutions.
Imaging Informatics Outside of Radiology
Because radiology is an inherently dataintensive part of medicine, radiologists
have become leaders in medical informatics. But radiologists are hardly the
only consumers of imaging within the
medical enterprise. For example, dermatologists take pictures of skin lesions,
otolaryngologists and gastroenterologists obtain endoscopic images, and pathologists review microscopic images.
Many of the advances that have been
pioneered in radiology informatics have
applications in other parts of medicine.
Radiologists should attempt to leverage
our experience and assist other physicians in applying informatics to their
fields.
Branstetter
Conclusion
Imaging informatics is a distinct subspecialty of radiology that endeavors to improve the efficiency, accuracy, and reliability of radiology services within the
medical enterprise. Because this is a relatively young field of study, research opportunities abound, and the state of the
art is constantly in flux. Imaging informatics may appeal particularly to the
computer-savvy members of the radiology community, but there are far-reaching implications for every radiologist,
involving every aspect of radiology practice.
Residents (and other trainees) who
are interested in imaging informatics
should visit the Society for Imaging Informatics in Medicine, or SIIM, website
(http://www.siimweb.org), where there
is a resident community that discusses
training, fellowship, and research issues.
Glossary
Listed below are some commonly encountered imaging informatics acronyms and terms.
CPOE (computerized physician order
entry; also, computerized provider order
entry)
A system by which referring clinicians
can order radiologic tests on a computer, rather than by writing prescriptions.
CR (computed radiography)
Radiographic technology that replaces
traditional film-screen cassettes with
digital media. Compare with DR.
DICOM (Digital Imaging and
Communications in Medicine)
A communication standard for medical
imaging devices developed by the American National Standards Institute (ANSI).
DR (digital radiography)
A radiographic technology that replaces
film cassettes with mounted digital receivers. Compare with CR. (DR was
historically used as a generic term that
included CR.)
83
REVIEW FOR RESIDENTS: Basics of Imaging Informatics: Part 2
EMR (electronic medical record)
A data collection and distribution system that replaces all paper records in an
entire hospital enterprise. Compare
with HIS, RIS.
HIS (hospital information system)
A data collection and distribution system that records basic demographic and
laboratory information about patients
but is not designed to completely replace paper within the enterprise. Compare with EMR, RIS.
HL7 (Health Level 7)
A communication standard for passing
data between HIS, RIS, EMR, and similar systems.
IHE (Integrating the Healthcare
Enterprise)
An initiative sponsored in part by the
Radiological Society of North America
that endeavors to improve the ways in
which medical computer systems share
information.
PACS (picture archiving and
communication system)
A computer network dedicated to the
storage, retrieval, and display of medical images.
QA (quality assessment; also, quality
assurance), QC (quality control), and QI
(quality improvement)
Formal methodologies for ensuring delivery of appropriate, efficient patient care.
RHIO (regional health information
organization)
A group of health care organizations that
electronically exchange health information in a secure format. This allows patients to travel between facilities without
misplacing pertinent medical data.
RIS (radiology information system)
A data collection and distribution system that tracks patient data specifically
84
relevant to radiology. Ideally integrated
with PACS into a single RIS-PACS system.
SCAR (Society for Computer Applications
in Radiology)
In April of 2006, SCAR changed its
name to SIIM.
SIIM (Society for Imaging Informatics in
Medicine)
The subspecialty society devoted to imaging informatics.
SR (structured reporting)
Predefined formatting of radiology reports that facilitates clinician comprehension and clinical radiology research
methodologies. (The acronym SR may
also be used for speech recognition; see
part 1 of this review.)
VPN (virtual private network)
Security software that allows users outside the hospital environment (eg, radiologists viewing images from home) to
safely view private patient information.
References
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key to success when using PACS. AJR Am J
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2. Thrall JH. Reinventing radiology in the digital age. III. Facilities, work processes, and
job responsibilities. Radiology 2005;237:
790 –793.
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6. Horii SC, Horii HN, Mun SK, Benson HR,
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8. Goldberg M, Thrall J. Teleradiology: meeting the challenge of the ’90s. Adm Radiol
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9. Kalyanpur A, Neklesa VP, Pham DT, Forman HP, Stein ST, Brink JA. Implementation
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10. Siegel EL, Channin DS. Integrating the
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13. Langlotz CP. Automatic structuring of radiology reports: harbinger of a second information revolution in radiology. Radiology 2002;
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http://www.rsna.org/RadLex/. Accessed June
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$260
$278
$373
$420
$453
$500
$575
$635
$623
$728
$805
$753
$883
$990
$880 $1,040 $1,165
$1,010 $1,208 $1,350
$1,143 $1,363 $1,525
$118
$218
$320
Domestic (USA only)
400
500
$295
$495
$693
$888
$1,085
$1,285
$1,498
$1,698
$428
$313
$530
$755
$965
$1,185
$1,413
$1,638
$1,865
$530
# of
Pages
1-4
5-8
9-12
13-16
17-20
21-24
25-28
29-32
Covers
International (includes Canada and Mexico)
# of
Pages
1-4
5-8
9-12
13-16
17-20
21-24
25-28
29-32
Covers
50
100
200
300
400
500
$218
$343
$471
$601
$738
$872
$1,004
$1,140
$95
$233
$388
$503
$633
$767
$899
$1,035
$1,173
$118
$343
$584
$828
$1,073
$1,319
$1,564
$1,820
$2,063
$218
$460
$825
$1,196
$1,562
$1,940
$2,308
$2,678
$3,048
$320
$579
$1,069
$1,563
$2,058
$2,550
$3,045
$3,545
$4,040
$428
$697
$1,311
$1,935
$2,547
$3,164
$3,790
$4,403
$5,028
$530
International (includes Canada and Mexico))
50
100
200
300
400
500
$263
$415
$563
$698
$848
$985
$1,135
$1,273
$148
$275
$443
$608
$760
$925
$1,080
$1,248
$1,403
$168
$330
$555
$773
$988
$1,203
$1,420
$1,640
$1,863
$308
$385
$650
$930
$1,185
$1,463
$1,725
$1,990
$2,265
$463
$430
$753
$1,070
$1,388
$1,705
$2,025
$2,350
$2,673
$615
$485
$850
$1,228
$1,585
$1,950
$2,325
$2,698
$3,075
$768
Minimum order is 50 copies. For orders larger than 500 copies,
please consult Cadmus Reprints at 800-407-9190.
Reprint Cover
Cover prices are listed above. The cover will include the
publication title, article title, and author name in black.
# of
Pages
1-4
5-8
9-12
13-16
17-20
21-24
25-28
29-32
Covers
50
100
200
300
400
500
$268
$419
$583
$742
$913
$1,072
$1,246
$1,405
$148
$280
$457
$610
$770
$941
$1,100
$1,274
$1,433
$168
$412
$720
$1,025
$1,333
$1,641
$1,946
$2,254
$2,561
$308
$568
$1,022
$1,492
$1,943
$2,412
$2,867
$3,318
$3,788
$463
$715
$1,328
$1,941
$2,556
$3,169
$3,785
$4,398
$5,014
$615
$871
$1,633
$2,407
$3,167
$3,929
$4,703
$5,463
$6,237
$768
Tax Due
Residents of Virginia, Maryland, Pennsylvania, and the District
of Columbia are required to add the appropriate sales tax to each
reprint order. For orders shipped to Canada, please add 7%
Canadian GST unless exemption is claimed.
Ordering
Shipping
Shipping costs are included in the reprint prices. Domestic
orders are shipped via UPS Ground service. Foreign orders are
shipped via a proof of delivery air service.
Multiple Shipments
Reprint order forms and purchase order or prepayment is
required to process your order. Please reference journal name
and reprint number or manuscript number on any
correspondence. You may use the reverse side of this form as a
proforma invoice. Please return your order form and
prepayment to:
Cadmus Reprints
P.O. Box 751903
Charlotte, NC 28275-1903
Orders can be shipped to more than one location. Please be
aware that it will cost $32 for each additional location.
Delivery
Your order will be shipped within 2 weeks of the journal print
date. Allow extra time for delivery.
Note: Do not send express packages to this location, PO Box.
FEIN #:541274108
Please direct all inquiries to:
Rose A. Baynard
800-407-9190 (toll free number)
410-819-3966 (direct number)
410-820-9765 (FAX number)
[email protected] (e-mail)
Page 2 of 2
Reprint Order Forms
and purchase order
or prepayments must
be received 72 hours
after receipt of form.