Download The Era of Bach and Handel

The Era of Bach and Handel
Michael Mays
Carse begins the chapter talking about the choice of transverse flutes, rather than
flútes-à-bec, as the most significant change in orchestral instrumentation in the beginning
of the 18th century, this in spite of the fact that the identity of the “wind section” per se
was yet to be defined. He remarks that “the hunting horn had no place in 17th century
orchestras,” and only started appearing in Dresden and Vienna in 1711 and 1712,
respectively, and Scarlatti’s Tigrane (1715) and Handel’s Water Music (1715) were the
first uses of horns in Italy and England. Most brass parts were for horns in C, D, F, or G
(mainly D and F), though Eb, E, and A horns, as well as Bb crooks, would be used
later.
Early on horns were scored in C, as with all other instruments. Eventually clefs
were created so that transposing horns could read “C” as the third space up the staff,
while the clef indicated true C. Transverse flutes were mainly tuned to D. Johann
Matheson’s book on the subject proves very useful. He speaks of the typical string
complement (or at least the instruments in use), woodwinds and their transpositions,
horns, trumpets, trombones, and timpani.
Carse remarks that though they were the most important figures, Bach and
Handel were not the only ones being of “little but historical significance.” With regard
to orchestration, they can be classified in two basic ways: conservatives (Bach, Handel,
and early Italian and Viennese composers), who were preoccupied with the part itself
rather than the instrument, and progressives (mostly Germans), whose choice of writing
for instruments based on technique and tone color would be the “policy” of today.
Bach’s orchestration was of the same stripe as Gabrieli’s in Italy and Schütz’s in
Germany, though it was mainly limited by his available forces as a church musician. He
typically scored for two flutes, two or three oboes, one or two bassoons (usually sharing
a part with basses and continue), and trumpets and horns in D. Basically the string and
wind parts are identical (or at least interchangeable); scoring for the counterpoint rather
than the instrument’s tone was the rule, and any alteration of instrumentation that
acknowledged tone was dealt with per movement, not per measure.
Handel may be somewhat credited with leading orchestration “from the old
contrapuntal manner… [to] the direction of modern orchestration.” He usually used
two oboes, one or two bassoons (which doubled the bass parts), the usual four-part
string orchestra, two or three trumpets (usually in D; when three parts are given, the
upper two play in the “clarino" range), horns in D, F, and G (when used), and timpani
in tonic and dominant, as well as a few flutes (typically higher than the oboes).
Handel’s string music is mostly “conceived in three parts, and fails to provide
independent movements for violas,” which he used instead to complete the harmony.
He mainly wrote either in duplicating the string and wind parts, or for tone color. In
fact, Carse asserts the parts were often so similar it would be difficult to tell whether
strings or winds were playing but for markings for strings. Handel even sometimes
scored the woodwinds on the same lines as the comparable strings, though the winds
were sometimes “less florid” than the strings.
“Handel’s work represents the maturity of the earlier orchestration rather than
the anticipation of what was to come.” His work came to embody the composing style
of the day; the French and Austrians were stuck in stylistic ruts, and the Italians wrote
fluff to show of vocal “stars” (though the parts were impressive, if not very interesting).
Basically, the key concepts for orchestration were thinness and conventionality.
The Period of Haydn and Mozart
Michael Mays
Carse begins by classifying composers and orchestra houses, but not until fitting
Haydn and Mozart onto a timeline (Mozart’s work mainly from 1781 to 1791, and
Haydn’s from 1785-1795, even as late as 1801 to include The Creation and The Seasons).
Famous orchestras were the Electoral orchestra at Mannheim; Dresden, which with
Naples Rousseau named the finest in Europe; Paris, for which Rousseau “had nothing
but abuse;” the Gewandhaus in Leipzig; Baron Esterhazy’s private consort; Salzburg and
Prague; and London and St. Petersburg.
Figured bass became obsolete by the end of the 18th century, and keyboard
instruments were used as much as “conductor’s desks” as for providing music.
Clarinets started appearing in 1750, as did trombones (but only in operas, oratorios and
masses). Most orchestras had 3-6 oboes, 3-6 bassoons, 3-4 flutes, 4 horns, and a string
complement averaging 26 players; Carse provides an interesting list charting the use of
instruments in different cities. Keyboards appeared in most orchestras, but some were
lacking in trumpets and drums.
Woodwind instruments began being improved with addition of keys, mainly for
flutes (the use of such devices on oboes and bassoons were irregular throughout the 18th
century). This was done not only to “provide for chromatic notes, but also to supply
some alternate fingerings, or even to make certain shakes possible.” The clarinet
(significant for its single reed, cylindrical tube, and the “overblow” hole near the
mouthpiece) is given a rather extensive treatment here, and Carse describes its
predecessors (the “rude chalumeau”), the nature of parts written for the instrument, and
notes on and dates for the inclusion of the instrument in various orchestras.
Anton Joseph Hampel discovered the concept of pitch-bending for horns by
pushing the hand into the bell of the instrument; crooks for “pitching” the instruments
were probably already in use. To assist this “hand stopping” the horn was turned so the
performer could reach the bell. Hand stopping was also used for trumpets, but with less
desirable results. One Kälbel of St. Petersburg is credited for the concept of installing
keys on the body of the horn, but diverting the sound through a hole rather than the
bell was apparently “even more unsatisfactory than that of the stopped notes.” Another
solution was to group enough horns in alternating notes to “fill in” chromatic passages.
The strings were changing more in the way of playing style than in construction
(modern cello fingerings were being devised by Duport), and the concerto grosso began
to decline as the solo concerto for violin or piano and orchestra came into prominence.
It was in this environment that Haydn came on the scene. Early on he two wrote for
small orchestra, the strings playing the “essential matter” and letting the other
instruments merely augment it. Eventually, however, they winds would graduate in
prominence, taking “responsibility for essential melodic matter on their own shoulders,
thus putting them on an equal footing with the strings.”
Mozart, too, wrote no real indepedence for the winds at first, but rapidly
matured to Haydn’s level in providing equality of material to the winds and strings. It
was after hearing the Mannheim orchestra that Mozart’s orchestration “reached its
apogee,” which probably in turn influenced Haydn’s style. He encountered the
crescendo/diminuendo, the clarinet, and concepts of ensemble that have become
uniquely Mozart. Now, finally, we have the “classical” orchestra: flutes, oboes, clarinets,
bassoons, horns, trumpets, drums, and strings. I like how Carse has put it: “The eightpart woodwind group was thus all but stabilized. Two horns, two trumpets, and drums
is the selection of brass and percussion instruments which, with the strings, constitutes
the concert-orchestra as Haydn and Mozart left it, and as Beethoven found it just before
the end of the 18th century.” As the players’ skills increased, so did the “scope for effect”
in the style of writing for winds and strings. Additionally, “accompanying figuration in
the tenor register is given to [the cellos] in preference to violas.” Effects like pizzicato,
sordino, measured tremolo, contrasts in loud and soft, and full or thin scoring are now
intentional rather than mere products of habit.
Carse then discusses the use and functions of winds, specifically clarinets, and
horns in Mozart’s (and, later, Haydn’s) scoring, as well as the inherent disadvantages of
horn construction. He observes that today we may have quarrel with some of the notes
in certain harmonies emphasized by use of brass, but that these were the only notes
available to them by period instruments; who can blame them for settling for these
imperfect voicings to get the desired effect? “From the point of view of color the
orchestra was already a three-part body, but harmonically only the woodwind and
strings were self-contained.” There was no tonality in which the brass could even play
the whole scale favorably. New instruments like the clarinet, basset horn, piccolo, and
trombones that were common to church and opera literature were being included in
symphonies, but would not at this time establish themselves as fixtures in the
symphonic orchestra.
Carse ends the chapter with a brief “sermon” on the eye of history, indicating
that truly great artists are usually not recognized as any more significant than their
contemporaries until subsequent generations.