Download The Paris Peace Conference

Versailles: The Paris Peace Conference
Background
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Losses during WWI - a few details?
Wilson's 14 Points (which, very briefly, were?) paved the way
Armistice (briefly, what were its terms?)
Bitterness - e.g. Geddes
January 1919, delegates from 32 countries met at Versailles
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Meat
At first Wilson was suspicious of Britain (Empire)
Wilson insisted that the LoN was set up first.
Clemenceau wanted punitive reparations
LG played both sides - sent Cecil (an appeaser) to negotiate the
LoN, but hardliners (Sumner and Cunliffe) to negotiate
reparations.
• Wilson and Clemenceau soon came to stalemate over LoN v
reparations
• 25 March Fontainbleau Memorandum - forces Clemenceau to be
moderate, then Wilson to accept War Guilt Clause.
End
• 7 May draft sent to Germans, who protest that it breaches selfdetermination and will destroy Germany, but
• they are forced to sign on 28 June 1919.
Versailles: What the Big Three Wanted
Wilson
Clemenceau
Lloyd George
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
1.
2.
3.
4.
14 Points (know some details)
a better world ‘safe for democracy’
fair peace
self-determination
International Co-operation (League of Nations)
blamed Germany = punishment/ ‘hard justice’
angry = revenge.
wanted to ’make Germany pay’ for the Damage = reparations
threatened = wanted independent Rhineland/ get AlsaceLorraine/
5. peace = wanted Germany weak and crippled .
1. compromise (nb Fontainbleau Memorandum)
2. had promised Parliament/November 1918 election that he would
punish/make Germany pay, but did not want revenge like France
3. protect British Empire (=Mandates)/ British navy (=German navy)
4. trade
5. peace: did not want to create anger in Germany which would lead
to war in the future.
Versailles: What the Big Three Got
Wilson
Clemenceau
Lloyd George
LIKED/GOT
• League of Nations
• self-determination for Poland, Czechoslovakia etc,
DISLIKED
• many of his 14 points were ignored
• Britain opposed freedom of seas
• only defeated powers were made to disarm
• colonies were given no say in their future
LIKED/GOT
• Clause 231
• disarmament
• Reparations
• Getting back Alsace-Lorraine
• getting mandates
DISLIKED
• Saar (only got for 15 years)
• wanted an independent Rhineland, not just demilitarised.
LIKED/GOT
• reducing German navy
• getting German colonies as British mandates
DISLIKED
• Wilson’s ideas about colonies and freedom of the seas
• Clemenceau’s harshness
• JM Keynes said that reparations would cause another war
• Harold Nicolson thought the Treaty ‘neither just nor wise'.
Versailles: Importance of the Big Three
Wilson
Clemenceau
Lloyd George
1. Gave the Conference its moral authority (14 points) - regarded as
great and good man from America, bringing a new world order
2. Secured the LoN - influenced world peace for two decades/
brilliant new PRINCIPLE of 'collective security' still seen today (in
UN).
3. 'Self-determination' was the dominating principle of foreign affairs
for the next two decades - countries like Estonia, Yugoslavia,
Czechoslovakia owed their existence to him.
4. Almost ruined the conference because he fell out with
Clemenceau
5. Failed to get US Congress to agree ToV or LoN - so made sure
they both failed
1. Demanding war-guilt/ reparations/ Rhineland angered the
Germans and gave Hitler his platform.
2. Almost ruined the conference because he fell out with Wilson
3. Got back Alsace-Lorraine for France, and Saar for 15 years
4. Got Germany disarmed and Rhineland demilitarised - and so set
the scene for politics in Europe (e.g. France could invade in
1920, 1921 AND 1923) until Hitler re-armed in 1935 and reoccupied the Rhineland in 1936.
1. Increased the British empire by getting the mandates
2. Secured the British navy by getting the German navy reduced to
6 ships - and the rest given to Britain at Scapa Flow/ defeated
Wilson's ideas for freedom of the seas
3. Continually mediated between Wilson and Clemenceau - the
Fontainbleau Memorandum saved the Conference
4. His determination to get a lasting peace got a Treaty which
survived 20 years
5. Managed to please the electorate (to 'make Germany pay') YET
Germany made a trade treaty with Britain in 1924.
Versailles: The Treaty of Versailles
Guilt
Army
Reparations
Germany
lost land
LoN
Extra
• clause 231- Germany accepted blame ‘for causing all the loss and
damage’ of the war.
• army: 100,000
• no submarines
• no aeroplanes
• 6 battleships
• Rhineland de-militarised
• Conference couldn't decide - handed it over to a Commission of the
LoN which reported in April 1921
• £6,600 million – in instalments, until 1984
• Alsace-Lorraine to France
• Saar to France (15 years)
• Malmedy to Belgium
• North Schleswig to Denmark
• West Prussia and Upper Silesia to Poland
• Danzig a ‘free city’
• Memel to Lithuania
• In all, Germany lost 10% of its land, all its colonies, 12% of its
population, 16% of its coalfields, half its iron and steel industry,
most of its army and navy, all its airforce.
• set up: first 26 articles of the Treaty (and of St Germain, Neuilly,
Trianon) were the Covenant of the LoN
• forbade Anschluss
• Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania independent states.
Versailles: How Germany felt about the Treaty
Unfair
Guilt
Army
Reparations
Germany
lost land
LoN
Extra
•
•
•
•
Facts
no part in the Conference talks
forced to sign
few of 14 Points in the Treaty.
based instead on Armistice
• ‘Such a confession in my
mouth would be a lie’, said
Count Brockdorff-Rantzau.
• Rhineland clearly unreasonable
• France invaded in 1920 when
Germany sent in troops to
quell a riot
• too big for the weakened
Germany economy to pay
• a humiliation
• contrary to self-determination
• took farm land (W Prussia) and
industrial land (Saar).
• an insult
• treats Germany as an outcast
nation
• forbidding Anschluss was
against the principle of selfdetermination.
Effects
•
•
•
•
riots in Berlin
Deutsche Zeitung attacked ‘the disgraceful treaty’
Kapp Putsch (1920) to try to overturn the Treaty
led to the 'Stab-in-the-back' legend, and hatred of the
'November criminals' = Weimar government lacked support
• led Germany to publish all documents
• Hindenburg denied it in 1927 = first successful challenge by
Germany to ToV
• Germany could not defend itself against even small countries
(whom they called the Dungervolker - Dung people).
• gave moral force to Hitler's demands for the Rhineland/
rearmament
• Germans said the allies were trying to starve their children.
• needed Dawes Plan (nb Hungary and Austria also needed
economic help)
• made Germany economy too weak to pay reparations =
problems in 1923
• gave moral force to Hitler
• meant that Germany could not defend itself in the League of
Nations.
• meant that the 'November criminal' German politicians could
not even say they had restored Germany to a place amongst
the nations
• made nationalist German determined to achieve it
• gave moral force to Hitler's demands for
Versailles: Importance of the Treaty of Versailles
Big Three negotiated Versailles - it had all the authority of the Allies. Other countries sent delegations to them
= an IMPOSED treaty, not a negotiated treaty.
Outlined principles (self-determination/Guilt/Army reduced/Reparations/loss of land) - the treaties of St Germain,
Neuilly and Trianon were designed by officials who simply copied the principles of Versailles.
League of Nations was set up by Versailles - set political agenda for next 20 years/ a force for peace/
forerunner of the United Nations of today
Major Powers - it said how GERMANY was to be treated. Drew the political map of Europe for the next 20
years.
Afterwards, Versailles led to Hitler and World War II:
• Unfairness of Treaty outraged Germans (see above) and led them to hate the Weimar politicians ('November
Criminals' who had 'stabbed the army in the back', and to support Hitler when he promised to overthrow it.
• Severity of reparations caused 1923 crisis in Germany/ led to Dawes Plan. Hitler could still get support by
promising to stop paying them in 1933.
• Unfairness of Treaty demoralised Britain and France and gave force to 'appeasers' who thought Hitler's
claims were 'reasonable'
• Failure of US to ratify/support it led to the failure of the LoN and peace.
League of Nations: Membership
Background
Meat
End
• 42 countries joined at the start (i.e. all which signed the ToV).
• By the 1930s this had risen to 60.
• The leading members (of the Council) were Britain, France, Japan
and Italy.
• May 1920, the US Senate voted against Versailles - biggest setback
(expand from below)
• Germany was not allowed to join the League as a punishment for
causing WWI. Admitted 1926 (Stresemann) but Hitler left in 1933.
• The USSR did not join the League - instead it set up the Comintern
(1919) to cause world revolution. It joined in 1934 when Germany
was rearming, but left in 1938 in protest at appeasement.
• Japan left in 1933 when a vote went against it over Manchuria
• Italy left in 1937, after making the Anti-Comintern Pact with Germany
and Japan
• Eight other countries (Spain and countries in Latin America) left as
the League failed 1935-1939.
• Britain and France stayed members till the end, but they abandoned
the principle of collective security to follow appeasement after
1936, and Hoare-Laval betrayed the League over Abyssinia (1936)
• the League was formally disbanded by the United Nations in 1946
League of Nations: America
Background
Meat
End
1. Wilson had suffered a number of 'headaches' (small strokes) during
the Versailles Conference, and was not as strong as he had been.
2. He failed to consult powerful Senators such as Taft/ Cabot Lodge.
3. Many Americans were 'isolationist' - as early as May 1919, Lodge
rejected the idea of 'mutual guarantee' in the Covenant (i.e. would
not support other member countries if they were attacked)
4. NB other factors:
• many German Americans thought the ToV was unfair
• most Americans hated the British Empire
• most Americans were worried about the cost of involvement
1. Wilson returned home on 8 July 1919. He told the Senate: 'The
stage is set, the destiny disclosed.'
2. July 14-28: Lodge read all 246 pages of Treaty to Senate out loud.
3. Great opposition in the Senate (a Senate Committee proposed 14
'Lodge reservations').
5. In Sept 1919 Senator Borah set off on an anti-Treaty campaign
1. 4 Sept 1919: Wilson set off on a 8000 mile tour, planning speeches
in 29 cities in 22 days to advocate the League to the public.
2. 25 Sept 1919: Wilson collapsed in Pueblo, suffered a stroke soon
after; was ill for 7 months
3. Jan 1920: Hitchcock and Taft both proposed reservations giving
America the chance NOT to go to war for another country unless
Congress agreed. Wilson refused ALL changes to the Treaty.
4. 19 March 1920: the Senate rejected the ToV/LoN
5. Nov 1920: Harding was elected president promising 'a return to
normalcy' (i.e. isolationaism).
League of Nations: Aims, organisation and work
Stop War
Improve
lives and
jobs
Disarmament
ORGANISATION
• Article 10 of the Covenant proposed 'collective security'
• Assembly (met once a year - needed a unanimous decision)
• Council (GB+Fr+It+Jap+ Ger after 1926) met 4-5 times a year and in crises)
• Secretariat (too small for all work)
• Court of international justice
• Conference of Ambassadors (informal meeting of main powers; made a lot of 'deals' in secret)
SUCCESSES
• Aaland Islands, 1921: the League said they should belong to Finland; Sweden and Finland agreed.
• Bulgaria, 1925: Greece invaded Bulgaria, but withdrew when Bulgaria appealed to the League.
FAILURES
• Vilna, 1920: the League could not stop Poland invading Lithuania.
• Ruhr, 1923: the League did not stop France invading the Ruhr.
• Corfu, 1923: Italy occupied Corfu. The League ordered Mussolini to leave, but the Conference of
Ambassadors overruled & made Greece pay compensation to Italy.
• Manchuria and Abyssinia in the 1930s.
ORGANISATION
Article 23 of the Covenant agreed to improve lives, which was to be accomplished by the 'agencies' of the
League:
• Health committee/ International Labour Organisation/ Refugees committee/ Mandates commission/
Slavery commission
SUCCESSES
• 400,000 Prisoners of War repatriated/ Turkish refugee camps (1922)/ Leprosy/ Drugs companies
closed down/ Attacked slave owners in Sierra Leone and Burma/ Economic help to Austria and
Hungary
FAILURES
• The ILO failed to get an agreement to a 48-hour week•
ORGANISATION
• Disarmament Conferences in 1923 and 1931
SUCCESSES
• Kellogg-Briand Pact, 1928: signed by 23 nations and supported by 65, to outlaw war.
FAILURES
• Britain objected to the 1923 conference
• Hitler wrecked the 1932-1934 conference by demanding parity with France
League of Nations: Importance of the Powers
Moral
Persuasion
Arbitration
Sanctions
Military force
ORGANISATION
• Article 10 of the Covenant proposed 'collective security'
• Wilson spoke of a 'Community of Power'
SUCCESSES
• Bulgaria, 1925: Greece invaded Bulgaria, but withdrew when Bulgaria appealed to the League.
FAILURES
Conference of Ambassadors made a lot of 'deals' in secret
• Corfu, 1923: The League ordered Mussolini to leave, but the Conference of Ambassadors overruled & forced Greece to pay
compensation to Italy
'Moral persuasion' did not work with powerful or determined countries
• Vilna, 1920: the League could not stop Poland invading Lithuania.
• Ruhr, 1923: the League did not stop France invading the Ruhr.
• Manchuria and Abyssinia in the 1930s
• Hitler
ORGANISATION
• Court of international justice
SUCCESSES
• Aaland Islands, 1921: said the islands should belong to Finland; Sweden and Finland agreed.
FAILURES
Useless where countries determined to go to war:
• Vilna, 1920: the League could not stop Poland invading Lithuania.
• Ruhr, 1923: the League did not stop France invading the Ruhr.
• Manchuria and Abyssinia in the 1930s
• Hitler
ORGANISATION
• Article 16 of the Covenant gave the League the right to impose trade sanctions
SUCCESSES
• None.
FAILURES
The problem with sanctions is that they hurt countries by damaging trade, so nobody wanted them:
• Manchuria, 1931: the League decided not to impose sanctions because they wouldn't work without the USA and the USA wasn't in the
League
• Abyssinia, 1935: the League banned weapons sales, and put sanctions on rubber and metal, but this hurt Abyssinia more than Italy. It
did NOT close the Suez Canal or ban oil sales, which would have stopped the Italian invasion. America took the opportunity to
increase their oil sales to Italy. In 1936 Britain and France got sanctions lifted.
• Rhineland, 1936: France and Belgium asked for sanctions against Germany, but Britain opposed the idea and it was defeated.
ORGANISATION
• Article 16 of the Covenant gave the League the right to raise an army to protect the Covenent.
SUCCESSES
• The League sent soldiers to make sure LoN plebiscites (e.g. Schleswig 1920, Silesia 1921, Saar 1935) took place peacefully.
FAILURES
• The problem with this was that Britain and France were the only countries supporting the League big enough to do this, and they were
not prepared to pay/go to war.
• The absence of America from the League was terminal.
League of Nations: Manchuria
Background
Meat
End
• The Nationalist government of China led by Chiang Kai-shek was
weak, corrupt and busy fighting the Communists.
• Because of the Great Depression, Japan wanted to build an empire
to secure supplies of raw materials.
• The Japanese government was controlled by the army
• China ruled Manchuria, but the Japanese army ran the railway there.
• Sept 1931: Japan claimed the Chinese had sabotaged the railway.
• They invaded Manchuria and set up the 'independent' (i.e.
Japanese-controlled) state of Manchukuo under the former
Emperor of China, Henry P'ui. In 1932 they bombed Shanghai.
• China appealed to the League.
• Dec 1931: the League appointed a commission led by Lord Lytton to
investigate. He did not arrive in Manchuria until April 1932 and did
not report until October.
• Oct 1932: Lytton's report stated that Japan was the aggressor and
should leave, but that Manchuria should be independent.
• 24 Feb 1933: The Assembly voted that Japan return Manchuria
(Japan walked out of the meeting)
• The League could not agree economic sanctions or arms sales ban.
• Japan stayed in Manchuria.
• In 1933 Japan resigned from the League, and invaded and
conquered Jehol (next to Manchuria).
League of Nations: Results/importance of Manchuria
1. The Japanese got everything they wanted by ignoring the League - they kept
Manchuria.
2. This was the beginning of Japanese expansion in the Pacific. In 1933 they
invaded and conquered Jehol (next to Manchuria) and in 1937 they invaded China.
3. The Manchuria affair showed the weaknesses of the League:
• A country could get its own way if it just ignored the League
• The 'moral force' of the League's principle of 'collective security' was powerless
where national interests were involved - especially during the Great Depression.
• The League was slow and cumbersome (the Lytton Report took almost a year)
• Even the great powers within the League (Japan was on the Council) were
prepared to ignore it.
League of Nations: Abyssinia
• The government of Abyssinia led by Haile Selassie was Christian, but Abyssinia was very
poor.
• Because of the Great Depression, Italy wanted to build an empire to secure supplies of raw
materials.
Background • Mussolini was a fascist, and wanted to revive the glories of Rome
• Mussolini signed the Stresa Pact (1935) with France and Britain, who needed his support
against Hitler
• The border between Abyssinia and Italian Somaliland was uncertain and disputed - in Dec
1934 there was a small skirmish at Wal-Wal.
• Mussolini demanded an apology and prepared to invade
• There was great anger in Britain, and Hoare made a strong speech supporting sanctions
and collective security.
• Feb 1935: The League set up a commission, which reported Sept. It did not blame
Abyssinia for the Wal-Wal incident, but suggested giving part of Abyssinia to Italy.
• Oct 1935: Mussolini rejected the plan and invaded Abyssinia. He used tanks and flamethrowers and attacked red Cross hospitals.
Meat
• The League banned weapons sales, and put sanctions on rubber and metal (though this
hurt Abyssinia more than Italy). It did NOT close the Suez Canal or ban oil sales, which
would have stopped the Italian invasion.
• Dec 1935: news leaked out of the Hoare-Laval Pact, a secret plan by Britain and France to
give most of Abyssinia to Italy.
• Britain and France asked that sanctions be lifted, and only Abyssinia voted against lifting
them.
• Mar 1936: Hitler marched into the Rhineland - everyone forgot about Abyssinia
• May 1936: Mussolini completed his conquest of Abyssinia.
End
• June 1936: Haile Selassie went in person to appeal to the League of Nations to ask the
League to reconsider its 'terrible precedent' of giving way to force. He was ignored.
League of Nations: Results/importance of Abyssinia
1. Mussolini got everything he wanted by ignoring the League - he conquered
Abyssinia.
2. This was the beginning of fascist expansion in the west. In Nov 1936: Axis Treaty
between Mussolini and Hitler/ Hitler and Mussolini supported the fascists in the
Spanish Civil War etc.
3. Hitler TOOK ADVANTAGE of the Abyssinia crisis to invade the Rhineland in March
1936 - France could not do anything.
4. After Abyssinia, Britain and France abandoned the League as a way to keep the
peace, and turned instead to the policy of appeasement.
4. The Abyssinia affair is sometimes said to have 'killed' the League. It showed:
• A strong country could get its own way if it just ignored the League
• The 'moral force' of the League's principle of 'collective security' was powerless
where national interests were involved - especially during the Great Depression.
• Even the greatest powers within the League (Italy was on the Council) were
prepared to ignore it.
• Even Britain and France were prepared to betray it.
• The League was slow and cumbersome (the Commission Report took 8 months,
and a further 5 months to decide whether to impose oil sanctions). Mussolini had
taken advantage of this slowness, by conquering Abyssinia while the League was
investigating - it made the league look weak and foolish.
• 9 countries left the League after 1936.
• The historian AJP Taylor said Abyssinia showed the League to be 'a useless
fraud'.
Road to War: Hitler's Aims and Policies
Abolish the
Treaty of
Versailles
Lebensraum
and Aryan
supremacy
Destroy
Communism
Until Munich, most of Hitler's policies were pointed towards the destruction of the Treaty of
Versailles:
1. Hitler claimed that the ToV was 'worthless', and that Germans were 'on fire with shame
and anger' about it. The Treaty was a constant reminder to the Germans of their
humiliation in WWI.
2. Hitler did not accept Germany had lost WWI, and wanted to make Germany great again.
3. He objected to:
• The tiny armed forces (and so he re-armed German after 1935).
• Rhineland demilitarised (and so he marched in in March 1936).
• Anschluss forbidden (so he annexed Austria in March 1938)
• Germans under Czech and Polish rule (so he took over the Sudetenland in Sept 1938,
and attacked Poland in Sept 1939).
After Munich, Hitler began to pursue his other gaols of Lebensraum, Aryan supremacy and the
destruction of Communist Russia:
1. Hitler said that the German population was growing and would need 'living space' in
eastern Europe. 'Destiny points us towards Russia' he said in Mein Kampf.
• The Nazi-Soviet Pact Aug 1939 gave him half of Poland, which he attacked in Sept
1939.
• In June 1941, he attacked Russia.
2. This was connected to his belief in Aryan supremacy - he believed this gave him the
right to invade eastern Europe and make the Slav peoples Germany's slaves.
• He moved Poles into certain areas of Poland (ethnic cleansing so Germans could take
the rest) and used them as labourers for the German war effort.
• The Nazis used Jews and Gypsies and slave labourers in workcamps.
• Nazi governors (eg Hans Frank in Poland) were told to 'Germanize' the population.
Poles were not to be educated, and educated Poles were put to death.
• in places like Norway and Poland, the Nazis took lebensborn (German-looking) children
and sent them to be brought up as Germans.
1. Hitler hated and feared the Communists, esp. Russia - 'the menace of Russia hangs
over Germany', he said in Mein Kampf.
• In June 1941, he attacked Russia, before he had fully defeated Britain.
Road to War: Steps to War
Saar
Rearmament
Rhineland
Austria
ACTIONS
• The ToV had put the Saar under League control for 15 years; plebiscite due in 1935 to decide
future.
• Many anti-Nazis had fled to the Saar in 1933. Seeing what Hitler was doing in Germany,
Communists and Social Democrats formed a 'united front' campaign to try to retain LoN status.
• The Nazis formed a 'German Front' with the Catholics. Helped by the police and the Nazi
Gestapo, they attacked their opponents.
• The LoN knew what was happening, but it was afraid to stop them
• Spaniol and 17,000 Nazi Saarlanders (who had joined the SA in Germany to) threatened to
invade. This was stopped Dec 1935 when Britain offered to send soldiers to keep the peace.
• 13 Jan 1935: plebiscite - 90.3% voted to return to Germany.
IMPORTANCE/RESULTS
• It was, says one historian, 'the greatest triumph of the Nazis in a free election' = massive boost to
Hitler's prestige.
• Showed that Germans outside Germany hated the ToV & loved Germany more than they feared
Hitler.
• Gave moral authority to Hitler's claims on Austria/ Sudetenland.
• Showed the LoN was scared in the face of violence - and FAILED to notice that the Nazis
immediately backed down when Britain promised to send soldiers.
ACTIONS
• 1933: Hitler begins rearming in secret - by 1935 army had risen 3x to 300,000, and airplanes
from 36 to 2500.
• 1934: Hitler wrecked the LoN Disarmament Conference by demanding parity with France
• 1935: Hitler introduced conscription, and formed the Luftwaffe. Both broke the ToV. A huge
Military Rally openly showed off how he had broken the ToV. Br & Fr did nothing
• 1935 Britain made a treaty with Hitler letting Germany have a navy one-third as big as Britain's.
• By 1939 Hitler was spending 25% of his budget on armaments - 'guns before butter'
• By 1939, Germany had 95 warships, 8250 airplanes and an army of almost 1 million.
IMPORTANCE/RESULTS
• Hitler openly broke the ToV and go away with it
• Britain HELPED him - beginning of appeasement
• NB not necessarily aggressive - Hitler said he only wanted them as a deterrent ... but he later
used them to threaten and bully.
ACTIONS
• Demilitarised under ToV (and Germany had accepted this at the Treaty of Locarno, 1925).
Hitler now overturned them both.
• In 1936, France and USSR signed a defensive alliance - Hitler claimed this threatened
Germany's safety.
• Br & Fr/ LoN were distracted by the Abyssinian crisis with Italy.
• 7 Mar 1936: Hitler ordered his army into the Rhineland; it had orders to retreat if the French
opposed it (they did not).
• The LoN condemned Hitler, but refused to impose sanctions.
• The German troops were welcomed as heroes.
IMPORTANCE/RESULTS
• Hitler openly broke the ToV and the LoN let him
• Hitler's prestige soared - especially in Germany
• It was the start of a feeling that he would always get away with it (Br & Fr would always back
down) that led to WWII in the end
• Encourages him to try to change Anschluss.
ACTIONS
• Mein Kampf had said that Austria was part of 'Greater Germany'.
• 1934: nightmare year for Austria - economic depression, in February the Social Democrats
rebelled, then in July the Austrian Nazis rebelled and assassinated the Austrian Chancellor
Dollfuss. Hitler wanted to help the Nazis, but Mussolini moved his army to the Austrian border
and Hitler was forced to back down.
• Nov 1936: Hitler made the Axis alliance with Mussolini.
• 1938, Austrian Nazis rioted, calling for Anschluss. Hitler supported them. Br & Fr refused to
defend Austria. The Austrian Chancellor Schuschnigg suggested a plebsicite.
• 11 Mar 1938: Fearing that he would lose, Hitler invaded.
• 20,000 Austrians arrested/ plebiscite held - controlled by Nazi army - 99.75% vote for Anschluss.
IMPORTANCE/RESULTS
• Hitler openly broke the ToV and LoN let him
• Hitler's prestige soared - especially in Germany
• It was the first time Hitler had tried aggression outside Germany
• Hitler grew in confidence to attempt the Sudetenland
Road to War: Appeasement
You should not get asked directly about:
● why Chamberlain appeased Hitler, or
● whether appeasement was sensible, or even
● who was to blame
but make sure you have thought about these questions.
However: THIS IS THE LIST YOU MUST LEARN:
Appeasement was believing that Hitler's claims were REASONABLE, and that he was reasonable, and that if we gave in to
his reasonable demands he would stop what they were fulfilled - that is why Chamberlain set so much store by Hitler's
promise at Munich that he had no more demands.
Appeasement involved treating Hitler's Germany, not as a troublemaker or an outcast, but as an equal and 'a man who can
be trusted':
1933
1935
1935
7 March 1936
April 1938
Sept 1938
Prime Minister Ramsey MacDonald ignored German rearmament
Prime Minister Stanley Baldwin ignored Hitler's open rearmament
rally and introduction of conscription
Baldwin made the naval agreement with Germany
Baldwin ignored the reoccupation of the Rhineland
Chamberlain did nothing about Anschluss
Chamberlain GAVE Hitler the Sudetenland at Munich after a
humiliating series of meetings.
Road to War: Results/importance of Appeasement
1. Britain gained time to build up her armed forces - but so did Hitler.
2. Hitler decided that Britain and France were afraid of him and that they would not
stop him whatever he did. Historians have suggested that in this way
appeasement ENCOURAGED Hitler to start WWII.
3. Russia decided that Britain and France would never stand up to Hitler, and that
war with Germany was inevitable (this led to the Nazi-Soviet Pact).
4. The people of Britain realised that they had been duped, and decided that war was
inevitable.
5. But it also improved the morale of the British people, who knew they had done
everything possible to avoid war.
Road to War: Sudetenland and Munich
Background
Meat
End
• By 1938, Hitler expected Br & Fr to appease him.
• He was buoyed up by the successful invasion of Austria.
• 7 Sept 1938: the Sudeten Nazi Party (led by Konrad henlein)
demanded union with Germany – riots.
Hitler accused the
Czechs of atrocities and threatened to support the Sudeten
Germans with military force.
THREE MEETINGS:
• 15 Sept 1938: Chamberlain met Hitler at Berchtesgaden. They
agreed on a plebiscite. Hitler promised him that this was the ‘last
problem to be solved’. Chamberlain decided Hitler was ‘a man
who can be relied upon’. Chamberlain got the Czech to agree.
• 22 Sep 19382. Chamberlain met Hitler at Bad Godesberg.
Hitler made more demands. Chamberlain refused, but then he
decided that Czechoslovakia was not one of the ‘great issues’
which justified war, but just ‘a quarrel in a far-away country
between people of whom we know nothing’.
• 29 Sep 1938: Chamberlain and Daladier met Hitler at Munich and
gave the Sudetenland to Germany. Czechoslovakia was not
even invited to the talks.
• 30 Sept 1938: Chamberlain returned to England with his ‘piece of
paper’: ‘I believe it is peace for our time’, he told the cheering
crowd.
• 1 Oct 1938: Hitler marched into the Sudetenland and boasted that
it was the start of a 1000-year Reich.
Road to War: Sudetenland/Munich - results/importance
1. Czechoslovakia was weakened (only a matter of time before Hitler took the rest - 15
Mar 1939).
2. Hitler decided that Britain and France were afraid of him and that they would not stop
him whatever he did (historians have suggested that in this way appeasement
ENCOURAGED Hitler to start WWII).
3. Russia decided that Britain and France would never stand up to Hitler, and that war
with Germany was inevitable (this led to the Nazi-Soviet Pact - Aug 1939).
4. The people of Britain immediately realised that they had been duped, and decided that
war was inevitable (Winston Churchill said: 'It is a total defeat. Czechoslovakia will be
swallowed up by the Nazis. And do not suppose that this is the end. This is only the
beginning').
5. Britain gained a year to prepare for war (but so did Hitler)
‘National Register’ of who would do what if there was a war.
Plans to strengthen navy and RAF
A quarter of a million free air raid shelters are given to Londoners.
Territorial Army doubled in numbers.
Parliament increases defence spending. Civil Defence Act – plans to
evacuate women and children from London to the countryside.
May Military Training Act – conscription.
31 Aug
First children evacuated from London.
Dec 1938
Jan 1939
Feb
Mar
Apr
6.
It improved the war morale of the British people, who knew they had done everything
possible to avoid war, and now decided that Hitler was evil.
Road to War: The Slide to War, 1938-9
It is arguable that Chamberlain realised that war was coming even as he was negotiating the Munich Agreement (or
immediately afterwards). Remember that - throughout the year - Britain was preparing for war. However - even if
Chamberlain still thought Hitler could be trusted - events during 1938-39 pushed him and Britain into war:
•
•
Events in
Britain
•
ending
appeasement
•
•
Event
Winston Churchill
3 Oct 1938: Duff Cooper (head
of navy), resigned over
Munich.
27 Oct 1938: anti-appeasers
do well in the Oxford byelection
28 Feb 1939: MPs shouted
‘Heil Chamberlain’
8 Nov 1938: Kristallnacht
• 28 Feb 1939: Fascists won the
Spanish Civil War.
• 15 Mar 1939: Hitler invaded
Czechoslovakia
Events in
Europe
bringing war
• 13 Apr 1939: Mussolini
conquered Albania.
• 23 Aug 1939: Nazi-Soviet Pact
• 1 Sep 1939: Hitler invaded
Poland
Significance
• led campaign against appeasement
• showed growing hostility to appeasement in the
government
• showed growing hostility to appeasement amongst
ordinary people
• showed growing hostility to appeasement in parliament
• Shows the Nazis as evil racists
• People wonder what life would be like in a Nazi Europe
• Seems that fascism was triumphing everywhere
• Chamberlain promised to defend Poland.
• The first time Hitler had attacked non-Germans.
• Chamberlain called it a ‘shock to confidence’ (= showed
Hitler lied at Munich).
• proved that fascists wanted to take over the world
• freed Hitler to attack Poland
• ended any hopes of alliance with Russia against Hitler only answer now was war
• 3 Sep: Britain declared war.
Road to War: Nazi-Soviet Pact
•
•
Background
•
•
Meat
•
•
•
•
End
•
31 Mar 1939: Chamberlain promised to defend Poland. Churchill
said that the only way to do this was by an alliance with Stalin.
Chamberlain approached the Russian ambassador to open
negotiations. Stalin, who was also afraid of Hitler, agreed.
Chamberlain did not trust Communist Russia. Negotiations went
very slowly.
Meanwhile, Stalin did not trust the British, who he believed would
eventually appease Hitler and leave him in the lurch. On June 15
the Soviets secretly sounded out the Nazis for an alliance. While
Stalin was negotiating with Britain, he was negotiating with Hitler
behind Chamberlain's back.
Aug 1939: the British eventually sent a minor official called
Reginald Ranfurly Plunckett-Ernle-Erle-Drax. He travelled by
slow boat. He did not have authority to make any decisions, and
had to refer every question back to London.
3 Aug: Hitler agreed to pay the Soviet price for a pact with Russia.
19 Aug: a Nazi-Soviet trade treaty was signed.
23 Aug: the Nazi-Soviet Pact was concluded. Hitler pounded on
the wall with his fists and shouted, "I have the world in my
pocket!"
The public text of the Nazi-Soviet Pact was merely a nonaggression pact.
A secret protocol agreed to attack and partition Poland between
them – Russia was also to get Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania.
Road to War: Nazi-Soviet Pact - results/importance
1. Freed up Hitler to invade Poland - he knew that Britain couldn't do
anything to defend Poland (he invaded 9 days later).
2. Ended Britain's hopes of an alliance with Russia to stop Hitler - people in
Britain realised that nothing would stop Hitler now but war.
3. Improved morale of British people for war - showed Hitler as an
opportunist and a trickster, who could never be trusted.
4. Anger at Russia was to become a cause of the Cold War.
Road to War: Poland
•
Background
•
•
Meat
End
•
•
•
•
•
The Polish corridor had been given to Poland by the ToV/ Danzig
was a LoN 'free city'.
31 Mar 1939: Chamberlain had guaranteed Poland against
German attack. Hitler was not afraid of Britain, but he did fear
war with Russia
Hitler demanded Danzig and right of way through the Polish
corridor
The Germans in Danzig demanded union with Germany.
Hitler accused the Polish government of atrocities. He
threatened war if Poland did not give way.
23 Aug: the Nazi-Soviet Pact removed the fear of war with Russia.
1 Sep 1939: Hitler invaded Poland
3 Sep 1939: Chamberlain declared war on Germany.
Cold War: The Ideological Conflict
What you need here is to be able to flesh out the table that you remember from this Causes of the Cold War diagram:
America
Ideology
Capitalist
Democracy
Human Rights
Aims
History
Recovery
Protect democracy
1939
Russia
Communist
Dictatorship
No personal
freedoms
Reparations
Buffer states
1918
1944
Cold War: Results/significance
1. Post-1991 historians now believe that the ideological clash was the chief
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
cause of the Cold War.
Because democracy and Communists were beliefs, they gave the Cold War
the feeling of a religious war, with the kind of bitterness that attends a religious
war (e.g. the 'kitchen debate' between Nixon and Khrushchev in 1959).
Because capitalism and communism were ideologies, they both felt the need
to prove that they were better than the other by competing (e.g. led to the
arms race, the space race, the Olympics, propaganda war etc.)
Because they were beliefs, they affected people INSIDE the country, which led
to fear (e.g. McCarthy 'witch-hunts' of the 1950s/ USSR arrested 'dissidents').
Russia was on the back foot re human rights - led to Poland and Hungary
(1956) and Czechoslovakia (1968) trying to get free, which caused
international crises.
Russia's desire for a buffer led to 'salami tactics', and because the USA
interpreted this as empire-building, it led to the Truman Doctrine and Marshall
Plan.
Britain and America's desire to build up West Germany as a prosperous
capitalist trading partner led to the Berlin Blockade and (because so many
people in the east were defecting) to the Berlin Wall.
Cold War: Yalta and Potsdam
Yalta
Potsdam
Background
February 1945
Stalin •
Roosevelt (liked and trusted Stalin) •
Churchill (hated Communism, but good-humoured
towards Stalin) •
Stalin had broken through and was advancing on Berlin from
the east Britain and America, from the west, had still not managed to
invade Germany
Roosevelt wanted Stalin to help him against Japan
July 1945
• Stalin
• Truman (anti-Communist, anti-Stalin)
• Attlee (disliked Stalin)
Germany had surrendered and Hitler had committed suicide.
America had developed the atomic bomb - Truman did not
need Russia's help against Japan
Protocols (Agreements)
to divide Germany into four ‘zones’, which Britain, France,
the USA and the USSR would occupy after the war
to bring Nazi war-criminals to trial
to set up a Polish Provisional Government of National
Unity 'pledged to the holding of free and unfettered
elections as soon as possible'
'The Declaration of Liberated Europe' - to help the
freed peoples of Europe set up self-governing
governments and hold democratic elections
to set up a commission to look into reparations
that Russia would join the United Nations
to set up the four ‘zones of occupation’ in Germany, destroy
the Nazi thinking, and build a democracy in Germany.
to bring Nazi war-criminals to trial.
to recognize the Polish Provisional Government of National
Unity and hold 'free and unfettered elections as soon as
possible'.
(Stalin had arrested large numbers of non-Communist Polish
leaders)
Russia was allowed to take reparations from the Soviet
Zone, and also 10% of the industrial equipment of the
western zones.
America and Britain could take reparations from their zones
if they wished.
Stalin offered to help the Americans defeat Japan .
Cold War: Results of Yalta
1. Many historians believe that Yalta was when the Cold War began.
2. Germany remained divided until 1990.
3. Certainly, tension was growing throughout the conference, notably about the
fate of Poland and eastern Europe, and especially between Churchill and
Stalin. After the conference, Churchill wrote to Roosevelt that ‘The Soviet
Union has become a danger to the free world.’
4. Churchill was forced to make the 'percentages agreement' with Stalin - allowing
him a 'sphere of influence' in eastern Europe. Many historians have claimed
that Yalta thus handed over eastern Europe to Russia, and condemned
millions to Communist oppression - President George Bush described it as
'pone of the greatest wrongs in history'.
5. Downing and Isaacs (makes of TV series on the Cold War) say: "Yalta revealed
cracks in the Grand Alliance. Only the common objective of defeating Hitler
had kept it together."
6. Time magazine in 1945 said that - compared with the Treaty of Versailles Yalta was a good peace.
Cold War: Results of Potsdam
1. Potsdam just repeated the decisions of Yalta
2. The tensions of Yalta came out into open disagreement - it arguable that
Potsdam was the moment when the Cold War actually broke out.
3. Truman and Churchill HATED the reparations agreement at Potsdam. Truman
presented it as a 'compromise', but really he was furious.
4. The British were furious about Poland - Polish freedom was why they had
fought WWII in the first place! Soon after, Truman invited Churchill to Fulton,
to give his 'Iron Curtain' speech.
5. The Russian offer to help defeat Japan terrified Truman, who feared the Soviets
doing in the far east what they had in eastern Europe)
6. Stalin was FURIOUS that Truman did not tell him that he had the atomic bomb.
Cold War: Salami Tactics
Background
Meat
End
• Stalin wanted a 'buffer' to protect the USSR
• In the so-called 'percentages agreement' Churchill had agreed to a Russian 'sphere of influence' in
eastern Europe.
• The Red Army conquered eastern Europe 1944-46 - there was • nothing America or Britain could do
to dislodge it.
• East Germany was made the Russian 'zone' at Yalta
• In 1945-7, Communist governments came to power in Bulgaria, Albania and Romania.
• HOW the Communists did it was described by Rakosi as 'slicing salami' - case studies:
• Hungary
• 1945 - Russian troops stayed there.
• Stalin allowed elections, which the non-communists won. However, some communists were
elected (led by Rakosi).
• 1946 - Rakosi got non-Communist parties banned, saying that otherwise the Russians would take
over the country.
• He got control of the police, and had his opponents arrested.
• He set up a brutal secret police, the AVO.
• 1947 - Rakosi had complete control over Hungary.
• Poland
• 1945 - Russians set up a Communist government (though at Yalta Stalin agreed to let nonCommunists join it).
• Stalin invited 16 non-Communist leaders to Moscow and imprisoned them.
• 1946 - Elections were delayed a number of times.
• 1947 - Thousands of non-Communists were imprisoned.
• Czechoslovakia
• 1945 - the Red Army stayed there
• a government was set up with non-Communists and Communists (led by Gottwald).
• Gottwald had non-Communists arrested, claiming they had helped the Nazis during the war
• He made sure that Communists were in charge of the police, radio and army.
• 1947 - a secret police was set up
• 1948 - The leading anti-Communist Jan Masaryk 'committed suicide' by throwing himself out of his
bathroom window.
• By 1948, hard-line Stalinist governments ruled in every country of eastern Europe.
Cold War: Results of Soviet expansion
1. In the 1960s, historians blamed Soviet expansion for causing the Cold War they said the USSR was empire-building (this Illingworth cartoon shows was
the west thought about it).
2. The peoples of eastern Europe fell under the control of hard-line Stalinist
government = lack of freedom (e.g. Hungary 1956, Czechoslovakia, 1968).
3. Soviet expansion led directly to the Fulton speech, the Truman Doctrine and the
Marshall Plan
Cold War: Fulton Speech
Background
Meat
End
• Churchill feared Communism - in 1944, he suggested that America
and Britain make peace with Germany and attack Russia!
• At Yalta, he had been forced to make the percentages agreement,
but regretted it.
• After Yalta, told Roosevelt that ‘The Soviet Union has become a
danger to the free world.’
• Truman was very anti-Communist, and FURIOUS about Potsdam.
• George Kennan, the US Ambassador in Moscow, sent Truman a
'Long Telegram' , saying that the Soviet Union was growing and without going to war - had to be stopped (by 'educating the
public').
• 5 Mar 1946, Truman invited Churchill to give a speech in Fulton,
Missouri - it was all pre-agreed, and Truman gave a speech of
introduction
• Churchill said that an 'iron curtain' had come down across Europe,
behind which the Communists had taken over.
• He described the Communist governments as a 'shadow' over
civilisation - of 'totalitarian control [and] police governments'.
• Stalin said that Churchill had 'declared war' on the USSR
Cold War: Results of Fulton
1. Fulton warned the people of America and Britain (who were used to thinking of
'Uncle Joe' as their ally) that their governments were becoming alarmed at
Soviet expansion - nb Kennan's advice about 'educating the public'
2. Fulton prepared the ground for the Truman Doctrine and the Marshall Plan.
3. Stalin was furious - he said that Churchill had 'declared war' on the USSR. The
Soviets became openly hostile towards the west - thereby bringing on a Cold
War.
4. 5 Mar 1946 can be said to be the date on which the Cold War broke out.
Cold War: Truman Doctrine
Background
Meat
End
• Stalin was taking over eastern Europe by 'salami tactics'
• George Kennan's 'Long Telegram' assured Truman that Russia
COULD be stopped by resolute action.
• At Fulton, Truman had got Churchill to give the 'Iron Curtain'
speech
• In the 'percentages agreement', Stalin had promised to leave
Greece alone - but Communists were still attacking the Greek
government.
• British soldiers were defending Greece, but in Feb 1947 the British
told Truman they could not afford to keep them there any more.
• As after the First World War, many Americans had hoped to be
able to return to 'isolation'.
• 12 Mar 1947 he told Congress:
a. that Communism was growing
b. that it was America's 'responsibility ... 'to ensure the peaceful
development of nations, free from coercion'.
• Although the word was not in the speech), the Truman Doctrine
came to stand for 'containment' - not trying to 'roll back'
Communism, but stopping further advance.
• Congress supported Truman, who asked for $400 million for
military intervention in Greece and Turkey
• Truman sent General George Marshall to Europe to see what else
needed to be done to stop Communism.
Cold War: Results of Truman Doctrine
1. America changed her policy - overturned for ever the 'Monroe Doctrine' of
isolation (which they had followed since the 19th century) - and adopted
instead the 'Truman Doctrine' . Truman's speech was in fact America's
declaration of 'Cold War' on Russia.
2. Congress allocated $400 million for immediate military intervention in Greece
and Turkey - the Communists were quickly defeated/stopped in both countries.
3. Truman sent General George Marshall to Europe to see what else needed to be
done - this led immediately to the Marshall Plan
4. Although the word was not in the speech), the Truman Doctrine came to stand
for 'containment' - not trying to 'roll back' Communism, but stopping further
advance - this idea led to the Korean and Vietnam Wars
5. Truman's idea of Soviet advance led to the 'domino theory', which lay behind
the Korean and Vietnam Wars
6. Truman's decision to give military support to countries resisting Communism led
eventually to the formation of NATO
Cold War: Marshall Plan
Background
Meat
End
• All the background of - Salami tactics; Kennan; Fulton; Greece.
• 12 Mar 1946, Truman had secured the support of Congress for the
'Truman Doctrine' of 'containing' Communism.
• Truman sent General George Marshall on a tour of Europe to see
what needed to be done to stop the spread of Communism.
Marshall came back believing that Europe was so poor after the
war that ALL EUROPE was 'a breeding ground of hate' and in
danger of turning Communist.
• 5 June 1947, Marshall gave a speech advocating spending vast
sums of money to get the European economy going.
• He said that the war had caused: 'the dislocation of the entire fabric
of the European economy'.
• He insisted that: 'Our policy is directed not against any country or
doctrine but against hunger, poverty, desperation, and chaos.'
• He said that the countries of Europe needed to decide how much
they needed for what - on 12 July 1947 Britain arranged a meeting
in Paris to decide.
• In 1948, the European Recovery Program (ERP) went into effect.
• Congress at first hesitated to spend so much money. However, in
March 1948 Czechoslovakia turned Communist, and Congress
voted the funding.
Cold War: Results of the Marshall Plan
1. Europe asked for $22bn, Truman asked for $17bn, and Congress voted
£13bn.
2. The money was spent as the countries of Europe decided - on roads and
railways, factories, tractors, fishing nets, food aid .. everything down to
donkeys.
3. Note that a substantial proportion of the money was spent on the military and
weapons.
4. Britain (got $3bn) and West Germany benefited most, also France, Italy and the
Netherlands.
5. This money worked - it stopped further countries from turning Communist.
6. The Russians (correctly) interpreted this as America going to war with them,
using money not weapons.
7. Stalin forbade Iron Curtain countries to seek Marshall Aid (Czechoslovakia,
which had at first asked for Aid, had to 'change its mind').
8. Stalin set up Cominform as a counter-influence.
9. Co-operating over the Marshall Plan led eventually to the 'European Economic
Community' (the EU).
Cold War: Germany after WWII
1. At Potsdam (July 1945) Germany had been divided into four zones. Berlin (in
the Russian zone) was also divided into four zones.
2. BOTH sides had huge military forces stationed in Germany.
3. America and Russia had different Aims for Germany:
4. Stalin wanted to ruin Germany:
• The USSR took reparations from west Germany and stripped the
Russian zone of its wealth and machinery
5. Britain and the USA wanted to rebuild Germany’s industry to become a trading
partner:
• they joined their two zones together into Bizonia (Jan 1947)
• Germany was eligible for Marshall Aid (31 March 1948), but Stalin forbade
the Russian zone to take part.
• June 1948, they announced that they wanted to create the new country of
West Germany
Cold War: Berlin Blockade and Airlift
Background
Meat
End
• Britain and the USA wanted to rebuild Germany’s industry to become a wealthy trading
partner. They joined their two zones together into Bizonia (Jan 1947).
• the US gave west Germany Marshall Aid (31 March 1948), but Stalin forbade the Russian
zone to take part, and the Russians started stopping and searching all road and rail traffic
into Berlin.
• June 1948, America and Britain announced that they wanted to create the new country of
West Germany; this was a direct affront to the USSR, which had not been consulted.
• 23 June 1948 America and Britain introduced a new currency into ‘Bizonia’ and western
Berlin. This caused an economic crisis in the Russian zone, as people in eastern Europe
rushed to change all their money into the new western currency, which was worth more.
• 24 June 1948 Stalin stopped all road and rail traffic into Berlin.
• Gen. Clay, the American commander in Germany, wanted to fight its way into Berlin – that
would have caused a war.
• Instead, Truman decided to supply Berlin by air ('Operation Vittles').
• Stalin offered to supply food to west Berlin but this was refused.
• The blockade lasted 318 days (11 months).
• The situation was bad at first, but got better as time went on.
• In the winter of 1948–49 Berliners lived on dried potatoes, powdered eggs and cans of
meat. They had 4 hours of electricity a day.
• 275,000 flights carried in 1½ million tons of supplies. A plane landed every 3 mins.
• Pilot Gail Halvorsen dropped chocolate and sweets.
• The USA stationed B-29 bombers (which could carry an atomic bomb) in Britain - Stalin
didn't dare shoot down the supply planes.
• The Blockade was portrayed in the west as an attempt to conquer Berlin by starvation
• It became clear that the Blockade was failing, and on 12 May 1949, Stalin re-opened the
border..
Cold War: Results of Berlin Blockade
1. Cold War got worse - the US stationed B-29 bomber (which could carry an
atomic bomb) in Britain
2. Germany split (until 1990) into East and West Germany. In May 1949,
America, Britain and France united their zones into the Federal Republic of
Germany (West Germany). In October 1949, Stalin set up the German
Democratic Republic (East Germany).
3. Armed stand-off: in 1949, the western Allies set up NATO (North Atlantic
Treaty Organisation) as a defensive alliance against Russia. NATO countries
surrounded Russia; in 1955, the Soviet Union set up the Warsaw Pact – a
military alliance of Communist states.
4. Arms Race - after Berlin, the USA and the USSR realised that they were in a
competition for world domination and began to build up their armies and
weapons.
Cold War: Korea after WWII
After the war, the Americans and Russians divided Korea (which had been ruled by Japan) into a Communist north
and a capitalist south.
It was divided along the 38th parallel because the only map available was a small-scale map of the world.
The North Korea ruler was the hard-line communist Kim Il Sung. The President of South Korea was Syngman Rhee.
North and South Korea hated each other - there were constant border clashes, and fear of invasion.
1.
2.
3.
4.
Cold War: The Korean War
Background
Meat
End
• The Americans developed the 'domino theory' to explain Communist expansion.
• In April 1950, the American National Security Council issued a report (NSC 68)
recommending abandoning 'containment' to start 'rolling back' Communism.
• In 1949, Kim Il Sung visited Stalin and persuaded him to let him invade South
Korea. Stalin saw a chance to continue the cold war and discomfort America, but
‘at arm’s length’
• Kim II Sung also went to see Mao Zedong, the leader of China, who promised his full
support.
• In 1950, Syngman Rhee boasted that he was going to attack North Korea. It gave
Kim Il Sung an excuse to invade South Korea (on 25 June 1950).
• The North Korean People's Army (NKPA) easily drove back the Republic of Korea's
army (the ROKs) to Pusan
• The Americans persuaded the United Nations to pass a resolution supporting South
Korea, and sent troops to Korea.
• 15 Sept 1950: Gen. MacArthur with 300,000 UN troops led an amphibious assault at
Inchon; the NKPA were driven back to the Chinese border.
• 25 Nov 1950: the Chinese 'People's Volunteers' attacked to help the North Koreans.
They drove back the Americans, and the war reached a stalemate at the 38th
parallel.
• In 1953, Eisenhower became American president. He threatened to use the atomic
bomb if China did not stop fighting.
• The Chinese agree to a truce, which was signed on 27 July 1953.
Cold War: Results of the Korean War
1. Human cost - perhaps a million Chinese and half a million North Korean
soldiers died in the war. Many civilians - perhaps 8 million - died.
2. Korea stayed split and still is; North Korea is STILL regarded as a 'problem'
state.
3. Cold War/ Vietnam - the Americans believed that Korea proved the domino
theory, and this made them try to stop Communist expansion elsewhere especially in Vietnam. They also used some of the tactics (e.g. napalm) they
developed in Korea.
4. Atomic War. Many Americans had wanted to use the atomic bomb in Korea,
and the world came close to nuclear war. This led to fear of 'Armageddon' in
the west, CND and Ban-the-Bomb campaigns.
Cold War: Khrushchev's policies
Background
Meat
End
• Stalin died in 1953 and, after a leadership battle, Nikita Khrushchev became
leader.
• In 1957, Khrushchev gave a speech calling Stalin a murderer and tyrant.
Khrushchev:
a said he wanted 'destalinisation', and a relaxation of the tyranny in the countries
of eastern Europe.
• he told Tito of Yugoslavia there were 'many roads to communism'.
b said he wanted 'peaceful co-existence', and that the alternative was nuclear
war and the end of humankind.
• he met Western leaders at summit meetings (e.g. Paris 1960/ Vienna 1961).
BUT:
a destalinisation and 'many roads to communism' did not mean he was going to
let the Iron Curtain countries turn capitalist, or get free from Russian control:
• he sent in troops when countries tried to leave Russian control (e.g. Poland
and Hungary, 1956)
b by peaceful co-existence, Khrushchev meant ‘free competition’:
• he loved to argue (e.g. the kitchen debate with Nixon)
• he built up allies (e.g. Afghanistan, Burma and Cuba) by giving economic aid
in return for support.
• he entered into the Arms Race (including forming the Warsaw Pact in 1955).
• he entered into the Space Race
• When Khrushchev came to power, the West saw him as a jolly, laughing man
who they hoped would end the Cold War.
• In fact, Khrushchev's policies INCREASED tension, and 1955-1963 was the
time of greatest danger in the Cold War.
Cold War: Results of Khrushchev's policies
a
b
c
When Khrushchev came to power, the West saw him as a jolly, laughing man who
they hoped would end the Cold War. They hoped that 'destalinisation' would give
Iron Curtain countries freedom, and that 'peaceful co-existence' meant Russia
would be less expansionist.
In fact, Khrushchev's policies INCREASED tension, and 1955-1963 was the time
of greatest danger in the Cold War. Crisis after 1955 included Poland and
Hungary (1956), U2 crisis (1960), Berlin Wall (1961) and the Cuban Missiles crisis
(1962).
America's response was aggressive:
• In the 1950s, McCarthy conducted a 'witchhunt' for Communists in America
• America tried to build up allies (especially in Central America)
• America supported wars against communists (e.g. in Vietnam)
• America entered the Arms Race with Russia
• America entered the Space Race with Russia.
• American U2 planes spied on Russia
• In 1961 the Americans elected a new president (Kennedy), who promised to get
tougher on Communism.
Cold War: The Arms Race
Both sides raced to build up as many weapons as possible. The idea was that this would be a 'deterrent' to the
other side, to stop them daring to attack. America had more nuclear weapons, Russia had more conventional
forces.
By the 1960s, both sides had enough ICBMs, trained on the other, to destroy every living thing on earth many
times over (= '100x overkill')
1945
America – Atomic Bomb
1949
Russia – Atomic Bomb
1949
NATO formed
1955
1955
Warsaw Pact set up
NATO agreed to an army of 0.5million men in West Germany
Cold War: The Space Race
Both sides argued that they were exploring space for its military, or mineral, possibilities - but really, they were
just trying to prove that they were more 'advanced' than the other.
Although the Americans were the first to put a man on the moon (1969), it was the Russians who led the space
race at first.
1957
Russia – Sputnik (first satellite)
1958
America – NASA set up
1961
1961
Gagarin – first astronaut to orbit the earth
Kennedy promises to put a man on the moon by 1969
Cold War: The Hungarian Revolution
Background
Meat
End
• Khrushchev's policy of 'destalinisation' undermined all the Stalinist
govts of Eastern Europe (e.g. riots in Poland and
Czechoslovakia).
• The Hungarians hated Russian control - sending food to Russia,
Russian control of education, and Russian troops in Hungary.
• They hated Rakosi's Stalinist government, especially censorship,
the AVH, and repression of Catholicism (Cardinal Mindzenty in
prison)
• They were led to believe that Eisenhower or the UN would help.
• 23 Oct: revolution - students attacked the AVH and Russian troops,
and toppled a huge statue of Stalin.
• Khrushchev refused to help Rakosi, who fell from power.
• 24 Oct–3 Nov: a new government led by Imre Nagy introduced
democracy, freedom of speech and religion (Cardinal Mindzenty
joined the government)
• Nagy asked Khrushchev to take Russian troops out of Hungary Khrushchev agreed.
• But then Nagy announced Hungary was leaving the Warsaw Pact.
• 4 Nov: 1000 Russian tanks crushed the revolution.
• Western powers protested but didn’t send troops.
Cold War: Results of the Hungarian Revolution
In Hungary
• 4,000 Hungarians (including Nagy) were executed.
• 200,000 Hungarians fled to the West.
• The Russians put Janos Kadar into power.
Cold War:
• Russia stayed in total control behind the Iron Curtain.
• Communism was utterly discredited in the west - many western communists
resigned from the Communist party.
• Western leaders became more determined to oppose communism.
Cold War: The U2 Crisis, 1960
Background
Meat
End
• By 1960, Cold War tension was at an all-time high:
• Russia was winning the space race (Sputnik 1957/Gagarin 1961)
and had a HUGE army in eastern Europe.
• The Communists had taken over Cuba in 1959, and China was
very aggressive, demanding that Russia get tough with the West.
• Russia wanted the Americans out of West Berlin.
• The Americans wanted an 'open skies' agreement giving them the
right to fly over Communist countries.
• A Summit meeting was arranged for May 1960 in Paris to try and
sort all this out.
• 1 May 1960: Soviets shot down an American U2 spy plane over
USSR, and captured pilot Gary Powers.
• (neither Russian planes nor guns could get high enough to shoot
down a U2 plane, but the U2 got shot down by accident when a
Russian gun trying to shoot it down blew up a Russian plane
trying to shoot it down)
• At first the Americans claimed it was a weather plane, but they
were shown to be liars when the Russians put Gary Powers on
trial as a spy - the Americans had to admit he was a spy.
• When the Paris summit met 14 May 1960, Khrushchev immediately
demanded apology + end to spying flights.
• Eisenhower agreed to end spy-flights, but refused to apologise, so
Khrushchev walked out.
Cold War: Results of the U2 Crisis
• The Paris summit was ruined - Cold War tension increased
• Eisenhower’s planned visit to Russia was cancelled
In America:
• America came off badly (had been caught lying) = propaganda victory for USSR.
• Eisenhower lost prestige. In 1961 the Americans elected a new president
(Kennedy), who promised to get tougher on Communism.
In Russia
• Attitudes hardened - Khrushchev demanded that US left West Berlin
Cold War: The Berlin Wall, 1961
Background
Meat
End
• Tension in Cold War - Kennedy was helping the war in Vietnam.
• Tension over West Berlin - by 1961, 2000 people a day (3 million
since 1945) were fleeing to the West through West Berlin.
• West Berlin was a centre for American spies
• At the Vienna Summit (June 1961) Khrushchev again demanded
that the Americans leave West Berlin.
• Instead, in July 1961, Kennedy INCREASED his arms spending
• 13 August 1961: the East Germans erected a barbed wire wall
overnight, later replaced with concrete.
• All movement between East and West was stopped.
• The Wall was fortified with barbed wire and guns.
• Western powers protested but couldn't do anything.
• Wall remained until 1991, a symbol of the division between East
and West.
• MANY East Germans died trying to escape through the Wall.
Cold War: Results of the Berlin Wall
• Cold War tension grew - both sides began testing nuclear bombs.
• Berlin was split into two.
• The Wall remained until 1991, a symbol of the division between East and West.
• At first, it was a Russian propaganda victory - the Americans couldn't do anything.
• BUT as time went on, MANY East Germans died trying to escape through the Wall it became a symbol of the failures of Communism, poor, oppressed, and cut off
from the West.
• It therefore also inspired people in the West to try to defeat communism - the West
became more anti-Communist.
• In 1963, President Kennedy went to West Berlin and - in his 'I am a Berliner'
speech, given right next to the Wall - made HUGE propaganda out of the Wall,
about the need to defeat communism. He said that it showed that there could be
no accommodations made with the communists - they must be opposed. (On the
other side of the Wall, East Berliners listened and cheered him).
Cold War: Background
1. By 1960, superpower tension was at an all time high:
• arms race - both sides were nuclear testing, and the Americans had recently put
ICBMs in Turkey
• America was funding anti-Communists in Vietnam,
• the U2 crisis
• the failed summit meetings at Paris (1960) and Vienna (1961)
• the Berlin Wall.
2
•
•
•
•
•
•
There were especial problems in Cuba:
In 1959, Fidel Castro took power in Cuba.
In 1960 he nationalised all American-owned companies.
In retaliation, the Americans stopped trading with Cuba.
So Castro made a trade agreement with Russia, whereby Cuba sent sugar to
Russia, in return for oil, machines and money. Castro became a Communist.
April 1961: the CIA supported the failed Bay of Pigs invasion
Sept 1961: Castro asked for (and Russia publicly promised) weapons to defend
Cuba against America.
Cold War: The Bay of Pigs, 1961
Background
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Meat
•
•
•
•
End
•
•
Background of tension - arms race/ U2/ Berlin Wall
In 1959, the Communist Fidel Castro took power in Cuba.
In 1960 he nationalised all American-owned companies.
In retaliation, the Americans stopped trading with Cuba.
So Castro made a trade agreement with Russia, whereby Cuba
sent sugar to Russia, in return for oil, machines and money.
Castro became a Communist.
President Eisenhower told the CIA to collect, fund and arms a force
of Cuban exiles.
The CIA persuaded Kennedy to agree to an invasion.
17 April 1961, a force of 1500 Cuban exiles was transported to the
Bay of Pigs in Cuba.
The local inhabitants immediately betrayed them to Castro's forces.
They were easily defeated - by 21 April 1,173 had been taken
prisoner.
Kennedy was humiliated.
In Sept 1961: Castro asked for (and Russia publicly promised)
weapons to defend Cuba against America - this led directly to the
Cuban missiles crisis of 1962.
In 1962, America paid $53 million dollars-worth of food and
medicines to ransom the captured soldiers.
The CIA internal report on the failure blamed CIA ignorance and
incompetence - Kennedy never trusted the CIA again
Cold War: The Cuban Missiles Crisis, 1962
Background
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Meat
•
•
End
•
•
Background of tension - arms race/ U2/ Berlin Wall
In 1959, the Communist Fidel Castro took power in Cuba.
In 1960 he nationalised all American-owned companies.
In retaliation, the Americans stopped trading with Cuba.
So Castro made a trade agreement with Russia, whereby Cuba sent sugar to Russia, in return for oil,
machines and money. Castro became a Communist.
April 1961: the CIA supported the failed Bay of Pigs invasion
Sept 1961: Castro asked for (and Russia publicly promised) weapons to defend Cuba against America.
14 Oct: an American U2 spy-plane took pictures of missile sites being built on Cuba. Kennedy called
the National Security Council, who told him he had 10 days to act. Some options (e.g. invasion of
Cuba) were very dangerous because they would have caused a World War.
22 Oct: Kennedy announced on TV that he was mounting a naval blockade of Cuba. He said he
would not 'shrink from the risk' of world war. Khrushchev accused him of 'piracy', and promised ‘a
fitting reply to the aggressor’.
25 Oct: the first Russian ship reached the naval blockade. It was an oil ship and was allowed
through. All the other Russian ships turned back. Secretly, the US government offered to remove
US missiles in Turkey in exchange for those in Cuba.
26 Oct:
Kennedy was about to authorise an invasion of Cuba.Then, at 6pm,Khrushchev sent a
telegram offering to dismantle the sites if Kennedy would lift the blockade and agree not to invade
Cuba.
27 Oct:
Before Kennedy could reply, Khrushchev sent another letter, demanding that Kennedy
also dismantle American missile sites in Turkey. On the same day, a U2 plane was shot down over
Cuba. War was about to happen. But Kennedy ignored the U2 incident AND the second letter. He
offered to lift the blockade and promise not to invade Cuba if the missile sites were dismantled. He
also offered secretly to dismantle the Turkish missile sites.
28 Oct: Khrushchev agreed. The crisis finished.
20 Nov: The Turkish missiles sites were dismantled. Russian bombers left Cuba, and Kennedy lifted
the naval blockade.
Cold War: Results of Cuba
1
2
3
4
5
Cuba remained a Communist dictatorship, and America left it alone.
Surprisingly, Kennedy gained prestige. Although he had lost, it looked as though
he had faced down the Russians.
Surprisingly, Khrushchev lost prestige – although he had won, it looked as though
he had failed. Particularly, China broke from Russia. In 1964, he fell from power.
Both sides had had a fright. They were more careful in future. The two leaders
set up a telephone ‘hotline’ to talk directly in a crisis.
In 1963, they agreed a Nuclear Test Ban Treaty. Cuba was the start of the end
of the Cold War.
Britain & WWII: The BEF and Dunkirk, 1939-40
ISSUES
1. At first, Britain could not hope to help Poland, so far away, so the government was forced to prepare at home as best it
could, and wait until Hitler attacked - this period of no fighting was called the 'Phoney War'.
2. When Hitler attacked, the British Expeditionary Force in France and the French were utterly unable to resist Hitler's
'Blitzkrieg' tactics.
3. How valid are newsreels of Dunkirk from the time? - by concentrating on small craft heroically taking soldiers from
beaches, and the 345,000 troops evacuated, the government succeeded in presenting Dunkirk in the media as a
wonderful salvation and example of British determination and team-work ('the myth of Dunkirk'), but really it was the
HUGE defeat.
FIVE FACTS
1. 11 Sept: British Expeditionary Force of four divisions – 158,000 men with 25,000 vehicles – went to France,
but too small and poorly-equipped.
2. ‘Phoney War’ – no fighting, but 38 million gas-masks were issued.
3. 9 April: Norway fell – British naval force utterly failed to help.
4. 10 May: Hitler invaded Holland, Belgium and France. Churchill became PM.
5 22 May-2 June: ‘Operation Dynamo’ - the BEF lost 2,500 guns, 84,500 vehicles, 77,000 tons ammunition,
416,000 tons supplies, 165,000 tons petrol and 68,000 soldiers killed/taken prisoner.
Britain & WWII: Evacuation
ISSUES
1. Evacuation began BEFORE the declaration of war.
2. The government removed the women and children so that morale would not fall when they began dying in the bombing
raids that were expected. The government was VERY anxious that children should go.
3. Arrangements were - by today's standards - dreadful, and many children ended up in abusive or dirty homes.
4. Many hosts were shocked by the poverty, ignorance and dirtiness of the evacuees - after the war, this led to the Welfare
State.
5. Hosting an evacuee was a VERY burdensome task.
6. Many evacuees went home - in the end, morale was better served keeping them at home.
7. How valid are fictional representations of evacuation such as Carrie's War or Goodnight Mr Tom?
FIVE FACTS
1. 1-3 Sep 1939: 827,000 children and 535,000 pregnant mothers were evacuated from towns to the country.
2. Teachers evacuated with their pupils - overload village schools
3. Some excited, some homesick. Some evacuees like Kenneth Williams MUCH PREFERRED their new
homes to their real families.
4. Many ignorant - some had never seen farm animals. Some nightmare evacuees – swore/ pee-ed on
wallpaper/ had never worn underclothes, eaten food from a table or slept in a bed/ filthy/ naughty/ many wet
the bed.
5. Many went home during Phoney War.
Britain & WWII: Battle of Britain and the Blitz
ISSUES
1.
2.
3.
4.
The heroism of the pilots - and how close Britain came to defeat in the Battle of Britain.
The Blitz was GOOD for Britain's war effort, because it gave the RAF time to recover.
The mechanisms of coping with the Blitz- blackout/ shelters etc.
Did the Blitz wreck morale? Churchill and the newsreels of the time said no; Nazi propaganda (and some facts turned
up by historians) suggest all was not as well as Churchill said.
5. How valid were wartime newsreels and films of the Battle of Britain?
6. How valid are fictionalised representations of the Blitz such as the film Hope and Glory?
FIVE FACTS
Battle of Britain
1. Radar was the key to Britain's success - so the Luftwaffe attacked the radar stations first, but FAILED to put
them out of action.
2. Churchill put Lord Beaverbrook, owner of Daily Express, in charge of aircraft production.
3. The young pilots were called ‘Dowding’s chicks’, after Air Chief Marshall Dowding The RAF lost 1,173
planes and 510 pilots and gunners. The Luftwaffe lost 1,733 planes and 3,368 airmen.
4. The turning point came on 2 Sep, when Hitler switched the Luftwaffe to bombing cities.
5. 15 Sep major Luftwaffe raid repulsed. Sealion called off.
Blitz
1. FOUR kinds of shelter: Anderson / Morrison / Underground and ‘trekking’ to the fields
2. FOUR kinds of bomb: HEs / ‘Molotovs’ / Parachute bombs / ‘Carpet- bombing’
3. Coventry was so badly bombed that the Nazis coined the word: ‘coventrate’
4. Baedecker Raids on tourist and historical sites.
5. EIGHTS ways of helping: Firemen/ Fire-watchers/ Rescue workers/ Blackout/ ARP/ ‘ack-ack’/ Bomb
disposal/ Local Defence Volunteers (‘Dad’s Army’)/ Women’s Voluntary Service.
Britain & WWII: Conscription and Internment
ISSUES
1. The need for conscription - other forms of service such as the Home Guard.
2. The need to conscript people (including women) into industry.
3. Initial over-reaction and wide-scale internment of foreign nationals (some had lived in Britain for generations) - later
separating them into categories of risk.
4. How valid is the comedy series Dad's Army as an image of life in the Home Guard?
FIVE FACTS
Conscription
1. 3 Sept 1939: National Service (Armed Forces) Act - so in Jan 1940: two million men aged 20–27 were called
up.
2. Tax inspectors, engineers, coal miners exempt.
3. Tribunals for Conscientious Objectors (sent to farms, hospitals, in the Pacifist Service Units, Friends
Ambulance Unit). 60,000 sent to prison.
4. May 1940: Emergency Powers Act (could conscript workers into essential industries - e.g. 22,000 ‘Bevin
boys’ conscripted to mines).
5. Mar 1941: Essential Works Order (women 20-30 could be conscripted into war work).
Internment
1. 1939: 74,000 Germans interviewed to see if they were loyal - 64,000 were ‘Category C’ (=loyal).
2. At first only 600 ‘Category A’ (=a danger to Britain) Germans interned.
3. When Italy declared war on Britain (1940), Churchill had all Italians in Britain arrested: by 1940, 27,000
Germans and Italians were interned.
4. First women interned during 1940.
5. By summer 1941 fear of invasion had fallen, and this had fallen to 5,000.
Britain & WWII: Censorship and Propaganda
ISSUES
1.
2.
3.
4.
Based on detailed research ('Mass Observation').
Improved until very successful - sophisticated and amusing.
Different media used (e.g. radio, cinema, posters, Churchill's speeches).
Censorship covers up pictures etc which the Ministry of Information thought would damage morale (e.g. pictures of
dead children/ a picture of a bombed underground station) BUT the success of British propaganda was that it usually
told the truth, only put a positive 'slant' on it.
4. 'Black propaganda', misleading the Germans.
FIVE FACTS
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
22 Jan 1940: newspapers and newsreels were censored by the government Ministry of Information.
6 Feb 1940: MoI ‘Careless Talk Costs Lives’ campaign.
Mass Observation monitored public morale.
Radio: Listen while you Work/ The Kitchen Front/ ITMA/ Vera Lynn sang for British soldiers.
Black propaganda (Political Warfare Executive pretended to be a rebel German radio station).
Britain & WWII: U-boats, rationing and the role of women
ISSUES
1. Britain depended on supply by sea for most of her raw materials - if Hitler could cut this off, he would win. Churchill
said that the U-boat menace was the only thing that worried him during the war.
2. Protecting the convoys and the merchant seamen - advances in technology/ importance of intelligence.
3. VITAL importance of the 'home front' and women in this 'total war'.
4. The population in general were HEALTHIER during the war, because rationing shared food more equally - nb
especially the feeling of 'pulling together'.
5. Note that women were often NOT welcomed into industry by the men, because they 'diluted' men's wages.
6. How valid are fictionalised accounts such as Sink the Bismark! and U571?
FIVE FACTS
Battle of the Atlantic
1. An early disaster was convoy HX–84 (1940) – HMS Jervis Bay and five merchant ships sunk.
2. August 1940: US gave Britain 50 destroyers in exchange for Atlantic naval bases.
3. Many things helped the Allies to stop the U-boats, but key were the codebreakers at Bletchley Park (especially when Britain captured an Enigma
code machine)
4. The turning point was Convoy ONS–5 (1943). Although 13 merchant ships were lost, the U-Boats were detected by HF-DF, and six sunk.
5. Nazi counter-measures - anti-aircraft guns, Snorkel (U-Boats refresh air without surfacing) and ‘Bottoming’ - did not work.
Rationing and the effects of submarine warfare
1. 22 Sept 1939: petrol rationed
2. 30 Jan 1940: national campaign to collect scrap metal, paper, and food waste (for pig-swill)
3. 3 Apr 1940: Lord Woolton appointed Minister of Food
4. 1940: butter, sugar and bacon, then meat rationed
5. TEN FACTS OF RATIONING LIFE: Coupons/ Black market/ Dig for Victory/ Potato Pete and Dr Carrot/ SPAM/ Dried eggs/ Women’s Voluntary
Service collections/ Utility clothing and furniture/ swapshops/ 6” water in the bath.
The role of women
1. Sept 1939: 25,000 women join the Women’s Land Army.
2. After Dec 1941, women aged 20–30 could be conscripted to the women’s armed forces (though not to fight)
3. THREE WAYS WOMEN SERVED: WRNS/ WAAF/ 450,000 in the ATS.
4. The number of women employed rose from 5 to 8 million/ by 1943, nine out of every ten single women were doing war work.
5. Until 1943 the government did not conscript married women, and women with children under 14 could not be sent away from home.
Britain & WWII: D-Day and the defeat of Germany
ISSUES
1. Preparations for D-Day.
2. Great difficulty and losses of D-Day.
3. Did the Americans 'win the war'?
4. How valid are film representations of D-Day, such as The Longest Day and Saving Private Ryan?
FIVE FACTS
1. ‘Operation Overlord’ was led by the American General Ike Eisenhower.
2. Some men at Dover (+ wooden tanks) AND a Spanish double agent convinced the Nazis that the main
invasion was at Calais, and that the Normandy attack was just a diversion.
3. 3 am, 6 June 1944: 6,000 ships/ 200,000 seamen/ 185,000 soldiers/ 20,000 vehicles/ 20,000 men dropped
by parachute or landed in gliders behind enemy lines/ 11,000 planes/ 7 battleships, 23 cruisers and 105
destroyers.
4. British and Canadians at Gold, Juno, Sword (4500 casualties but captured a large area). Americans at Utah
(only 210 casualties) and Omaha.
5. Disaster at Omaha - B17 bombers overshot/ Nazi defences dug into the cliffs/ the Nazis had just moved in
their crack 352nd Division/ powerful tide sank many landing craft = 3,000 casualties.