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AP Psychology Review Sheet for the AP Exam History Wundt – Structuralism, 1st psychology laboratory William James – 1st Psychology textbook Max Werthehimer – Gestalt psychology Mary Calkins Margaret Flow Washburn – 1st woman with Ph.D. is psychology G. Stanley Hall – 1st president of APA, 1st psychology lab in U.S.A. Sigmund Freud –Psychoanalysis John B. Watson- Behavioral perspective Ivan Pavlov – Behavioral perspective B. F Skinner – Behavioral perspective Maslow – Humanistic perspective Rogers - Humanistic perspective Chares Darwin – Evolutionary perspective Biopsychology/neuroscience perspective Aaron Beck - Cognitive perspective Ellis - Cognitive perspective Jean Piaget – Cognitive perspective Social-Cultural perspective Bio-psycho-social perspective Research Methods Hindsight bias Overconfidence Descriptive research: case studies, Naturalistic observation, & surveys Hypothesis vs. theory Operational definition Correlational research methods Positive vs. negative correlations Correlactional coefficient (r=____) Scatter plot Regression line Field experiment Experimental research Population Representative sample Random sample Stratified sample Independent variable vs. dependant variable Confounding variable Experimental group vs. control group Random assignment Experimenter bias Participant bias Single-blind procedure vs. Double-blind Placebo Hawthorne effect Placebo effect Counterbalancing Normal distribution – normal curve Frequency distribution Measures of central tendency: mean, mode, median Measures of variation: standard deviation, variance & range Z score Skewed distributions: positively skewed & negatively skewed distributions Inferential statistics Sampling error Statistically significant – p value =.05 APA ethical guidelines: informed consent, anonymity, debriefing, no coercion, do no harm, right to withdraw Institutional Review Board (IRB) Biological Bases of Behavior (Biology) Parts of a neuron: dendrite, axon, synapse, myelin sheath, axon terminals Action potential All or none principle Threshold Depolarization Neurotransmitters: Dopamine, ACh, Serotonin, GABA, Norepinephrine, Endorphins Agonist vs. antagonist Central nervous system Peripheral nervous system Autonomic nervous system Somatic nervous system Sympathetic nervous system Parasympathetic nervous system Afferent neuron Efferent neuron Interneuron Phineas Gage Lesion EEG CT scan MRI scan fMRI PET scan Hindbrain Medulla Pons Cerebellum Reticular formation Thalamus Hypothalamus Amygdala hippocampus Cerebral cortex Fissures Left hemisphere vs. Right hemisphere Contralateral control Corpus callosum Roger Sperry & Michael Gazzangia: Split-brain patients Association areas Frontal lobes - Prefrontal cortex Motor cortex Paul Broca – Broca’s- area Parietal lobes Somatosensory cortex Occipital lobes Temporal lobes Carl Wernicke - Wernicke’s area Brain plasticity Endocrine system Adrenal glands Gonads- ovaries & testes Thyroid glands Parathyroid glands Pancreas States of Consciousness Circadian rhythm Sleep stages & sleep cycles Sleep waves – alpha, beta & delta REM sleep – paradoxical sleep Sleep disorders – night terrors, narcolepsy, insomnia, sleep apnea Dream Theories -Sigmund Freud: Latent vs. manifest content -Activation-synthesis theory -Information-processing theory Anton Mesmer – hypnosis Ernest Hilgard – dissociation theory Psychoactive drugs Blood-brain barrier Tolerance Withdrawal Stimulants Depressants Hallucinogens - psychedelics Opiates Sensation & Perception Vision (sight) sense: parts of the eye (pupil, lens, iris, retina, rods & cones, fovea, optic nerve) Blind spot Accommodation Transduction Visual capture Davis Hubel & Torsen Wisel – feature detectors Young-Helmholtz - Trichromatic theory Afterimages Opponent-process theory Audition (hearing) sense: parts of the ear (hammer, anvil, stirrup, semicircular canals, cochlea) Amplitude vs. frequency Place theory vs. frequency theory Conduction hearing loss vs. sensorineural hearing loss Tactile sense Gate control theory Gustation (taste) sense Types of taste – sweet, salty, sour, bitter & umami Olfaction (smell) sense Vestibular (balance) sense Kinesthetic sense Gestalt psychology Absolute threshold Ernst Weber- Weber’s law Difference threshold Just-noticeable difference Sensory adaptation Cocktail-party effect Signal detection theory Selective attention Top- down processing vs. Bottom-up processing Gestalt principles – closure, proximity, continuity, similarity, figure-ground Size constancy Shape constancy Brightness constancy Stroboscopic effect Eleanor Gibson – visual cliff Monocular depth cues - linear perspective, relative size, relative height, relative clarity, interposition cue, texture gradient Binocular depth cues – retinal disparity & convergence Muller-Lyer illusion Perceptual set Extrasensory perception Learning Pavlov – classical conditioning (UCS, UCR, NS, CS & CR) Watson –baby Albert experiment Edward Thorndike – law of effect B.F. Skinner – operant conditioning Positive reinforcement vs. negative reinforcement Positive punishment vs. negative punishment (omission training) Primary reinforcers vs. secondary reinforcers Token economy Premack principle Partial schedules or reinforcement - fixed-ratio, variable-ratio, fixed-interval, variable-interval Acquisition Extinction Spontaneous recovery Discrimination Shaping Aversive conditioning John Garcia- taste aversion Robert Rescorla – contingency model Albert Bandura – observational earning (social learning theory) & Bobo doll experiment Edward Toleman - Latent learning Woldfang Kohler – insight learning Learned helplessness Cognition (Memory, Thinking & Language) Atkinson-Shiffring - three stage memory model sensory memory Short-term memory (5 + or – 2) Long-term memory Encoding failure Storage decay Retrieval failure Iconic memory vs. Echoic memory Chucking Mnemonic device Episodic memory Semantic memory Procedural memory Prospective memory Explicit memories vs. implicit memories Eidetic (photographic) memory Recognition vs. recall Hermann Ebbinghaus- Rehearsal Forgetting curve Elaborative rehearsal Serial position effect Spacing effect Tip-of- tongue phenomenon Flashbulb memory Mood-congruent memory State-dependant memory Elizabeth Loftus – constructed memory Proactive interference vs. Retroactive interference Long-term potentiation Anterograde amnesia vs. retrograde amnesia Priming Concept (schema) Mental set Prototype Algorithm Heuristics – availability heuristic vs. representativeness heuristic Belief bias Belief perseverance Functional fixedness Confirmation bias Framing Convergent thinking vs. divergent thinking Fluid intelligence vs. crystallized intelligence Phonemes Morphemes Syntax Semantics Noam Chomsky - Language acquisition & language acquisition device Holophrastic stage (one-word stage) Telegraphic speech (two word stage) Overgeneralization (overregularization) Benjamin Whorf – linguistic relativity hypothesis Testing & Individual Differences (Intelligence) Reliability vs. validity Standardization Francis Galton Norms Psychometrician Split-half reliability Types of validity – face, criterion, construct & predictive Aptitude test vs. achievement test Alfred Binet –mental age Charles Spearman – g factor Howard Gardner – multiple intelligences Daniel Goleman – emotional intelligence (EQ) Robert Sternberg – triarchic theory Louis Terman - Stanford-Binet IQ (IQ) IQ = mental age /chronological age X 100 David Wechsler – Wechsler adult intelligence scale (WAIS) & Wechsler intelligence scale for children (WISC) Flynn effect Motivation & Emotion Drive reduction theory Homeostasis Arousal theory Yerkes-Dodson theory – social facilitation Incentive theory Abraham Maslow – hierarchy of needs & selfactualization Hunger – lateral hypothalamus vs. ventromedial hypothalamus Set point theory Metabolic rate Externals vs. internals Garcia effect Bulimia vs. anorexia nervosa Masters & Johnson – sexual response cycle Alfred Kinsey Sexual orientation Achievement motivation Intrinsic motivation vs. extrinsic motivation Management theory – theory X vs. theory Y Motives conflict -Approach-approach -Approach –avoidance -Avoidance-avoidance James-Lange emotion theory Cannon-Bard emotion theory Schachter –Singer two-factor theory of emotion Holmes & Rahe – social readjustment rating scale with stress Hans Selye’s - general adaptation syndrome (GAS) -Alarm stage -Resistance stage -Exhaustion stage Locus of control – internal locus of control vs. external locus of control Developmental Psychology Nature vs. nurture Cross sectional vs. longitudinal studies Teratogen Fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS) Reflexes – rooting, sucking, grasping, Moro & Babinski Konrad Lorenz – imprinting Harry Harlow – monkey attachment study Mary Ainsworth – strange situation study (stranger anxiety) & types of attachment -Secure attachment -Insecure attachment or avoidant attachment -Anxious/ambivalent attachment Diana Baumrind- parental styles Lev Vygotsky – zone proximal development Schema Assimilation Accommodation Piaget – stages of cognitive development Object permanence Egocentric Theory of mind Conservation Abstract thinking & logic Metacognition Erikson – psychosocial stages of development Kohlberg – stages of moral development Carol Gilligan Gender identity vs. gender role Gender schema Identical twins vs. fraternal twins Turner’s syndrome Klinefelter’s syndrome Down syndrome Personality Type A vs. Type B personality Freud – psychosexual stages of development Oedipus complex vs. Electra complex Fixation – oral, anal, phallic, genital Id, ego, superego Libido Pleasure principle vs. reality principle Defense mechanisms – repression, denial displacement, projection, reaction formation, regression, rationalization, intellectualization & sublimation Karen Horney – womb envy vs. penis envy Alfred Adler – inferiority complex & superiority complex Carl Jung – collective unconscious & archetypes Projective tests -Rorschach inkblot -Thematic Apperception test (TAT) Hans Eysenck – trait theory Raymond Cattell – 16 PF Paul Costa & Robert McCrae – Big five (extraversion, agreeableness, conscientiousness, openness, & emotional stability) Factor analysis MMPI Barnum effect Myers-Brigg Gordon Allport – cardinal dispositions Heritability Temperament William Sheldon – somatotype theory Julian Rotter – locus of Control Maslow – hierarchy of needs Self-actualization Carl Rogers- unconditional positive regard Abnormal Psychology (Disorders) DSM V Anxiety disorders – GAD, OCD, PTSD, phobias – social and specific phobias Agoraphobia Somatoform disorders – conversion disorder & hypochondriasis Dissociative disorders – DID, fugue, amnesia Mood disorders – major depression, seasonal effective disorder, bipolar disorder, dysthymic disorder Mania Aaron Beck – cognitive therapy (cognitive triad) Martin Seligman - positive psychology Schizophrenic disorders Delusions of persecution vs. delusions of grandeur Inappropriate affect Clang associations Flat affect Waxy flexibility Negative symptoms vs. positive symptoms Dopamine hypothesis Tardive dyskinesia Diathesis-stress model Paraphilias – psychosexual disorders Personality disorder – paranoid personality disorder, narcissistic personality disorder, histrionic personality disorder Autism spectrum disorder Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder David Rosenhan – labels with disorders Treatment of Psychological Disorders (Therapy) Albert Ellis – rational emotive behavior therapy Trephining Philippe Pinel Dorothea Dix Deinstitutionalization Psychotherapy Freud- Psychoanalysis Free association Resistance transference Psychodynamic therapy Carl Rogers – client-centered therapy Eclectic approach Fritz Perls – gestalt therapy Mary Cover Jones - Counter-conditioning Joseph Wolpe – systematic desensitization Token economy In vivo covert desensitization Flooding Aversive conditioning- electric shock Aaron Beck – attributional style & cognitive triad Psychopharmacology or chemotherapy Antipsychotic medication – Thorazine & Haldol Tricyclic antidepressants MAOI’s SSRI’s – Prozac & Zoloft Lithium Antianxiety medications – Xanax & Valium ECT Psychosurgury Prefrontal lobotomy Psychiatrist Clinical psychologist Counselor Social Psychology Solomon Asch study – conformity study Bandura – reciprocal determinism Self-efficacy Self-concept Self-esteem Stanley Milgram study – obedience study Mere exposure effect Reciprocal liking Central route of persuasion vs. Peripheral route of persuasion Richard LaPiere – prejudice study Leon Festinger - Cognitive dissonance theory Foot-in-door phenomenon Door-in-face phenomenon Norms of reciprocity Attribution theory – dispositional vs. situational attribution Self-fulfilling prophecy Robert Rosenthal & Lenore Jackbson’s Pygmalion in the classroom experiment Fundamental attribution error False consensus effect Self-serving bias Just-world phenomenon Stereotype Prejudice Discrimination In-group vs. out-group In-group bias Muzafer Sherif – Superordinate goals (Robbers Cave study) Instrumental aggression vs. Hostile aggression Frustration-aggression hypothesis Prosocial behavior Bystander effect Kitty Genovese Diffusion of responsibility Pluralistic ignorance Social facilitation Social impairment Group polarization Group think Social loafing De-individuation Phillip Zimbardo – Stanford prison experiment
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