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Cell Metabolism Energy _____________________________ the capacity to do work. Comes in different forms: ________________________________________ Two types of energy: o ________________________Energy: is the energy of moving objects; it is energy in use o ________________________ Energy: is stored energy; energy that has potential to do the work. A __________________________stores potential energy until it is released in the kinetic form of chemical or thermal (heat) energy. ___________________________________: the sum of potential and kinetic energy The amount of _____________________ that could be used to power other chemical reactions. Oxidation-Reduction Reaction Transfer energy between molecules in the form of ________________________________. The molecules that loses an electron is _____________________________, while the molecule that gains an electron is _______________________________. Example: NADH is a common energy carrier within cells. In the equation below, through a chemical reaction with hydrogen (2H), NAD+ is oxidized to NADH, while hydrogen is reduced to hydrogen ions (H+). In the process, the reverse direction, with NADH being reduced to NAD+ and hydrogen ion becoming oxidized to hydrogen NAD+ +2H NADH + H+ Endergonic Reactions Store energy within a molecule because the reactants have less free energy than the ______________________. These reactions require ________________________________ Example: The production of glucose from carbon dioxide (CO2) and water (H2O) is an endergonic reaction because it requires energy input. Because energy is expended in the process, this reaction cannot occur in the reserve direction. 6CO2 + 6H2O + energy C6H12O6 +6O2 Exergonic Reactions _________________________________, leaving the reactants with more free energy than the product Example: The breakdown of glucose into carbon dioxide (CO2) and water (H20) is exergonic reaction because it results in the release of energy. Because this reaction releases energy, it cannot occur in the reverse directions C6H12O6 (glucose) + 6 O2 6CO2 +6H2O +energy Cells often use the energy released from exergonic reactions to power endergonic reactions; these are called ______________________________ ATP Adenosine triphosphate, is referred to as the “____________________________________” (cell energy) because it powers most of the reactions that take place in a cell. ATP consist of o _______________________________, an adenine (a type of nucleotide) o Chain of three________________________________ groups The bonds that link the second and third phosphate group can be broken down to produce ADP (adenosine diphosphate), a free phosphate group (P), and a substantial amount of energy used for _________________________ reactions. ATP ADP + P + energy Example: The human body uses, on average, one kilogram of ATP every hour Enzymes ____________________________ reactions require a small initial input of energy, called activation energy, before the reaction can proceed. _________________________________ are proteins that lower the activation energy of a reaction. o _________________________________ of an enzyme binds with the reactants (substrate) and either changes them in some way or simply brings them in closer proximity to one another. Chemical reactions do not ________________________________________ the enzyme. Once the reaction has taken place, the product is _______________________________, and the enzyme is free to catalyze other reactions Enzyme Inhibitors The presence of other molecules may inhibit an enzyme, or prevent it from functioning. Inhibitions can occur in two ways: o _______________________________: occurs when the inhibitor binds with the active site of an enzyme. With the active site already occupied, the enzyme cannot bind with the substrate. o __________________________________: occurs when the inhibitor binds with an allosteric site (any site other than the active site) and changes the shape of the enzyme so that it no longer bonds with the substrate. Example: Inhibitors are often used as drugs, in many cases to prevent detrimental reactions in an organism. Aspirin, for instance, inhibits the enzymes that causes pain and inflammation. However, inhibitors can also be poisonous. Cyanide is a lethal toxin because it competitively inhibits cytochrome coxidase, an enzyme involved with cellular respiration. Cellular Respiration Organisms must obtain their own energy from the environment, usually in the form of __________________________________ radiation. The process of converting energy into a form that can be used by cells is called ____________________________. Two methods of cellular metabolisms: o __________________________________ and ____________________________________ Cellular respiration converts the energy found in food molecules, especially ________________________, to the more useable form of ______________. 36 ATP can be produced from a single molecule of Glucose Cellular Respiration Equation ____________________________________________________ _________________________ transfer is not efficient for organisms Cellular respiration only ____________ energy in glucose is converted to ATP. Cellular respiration occurs in four stages: 1- _______________________________ 2- Oxidation of pyruvate 3- _____________________ 4- ___________________________ Glycolysis Takes place in the ________________________ (cytosol) Converts glucose to two molecules of_______________________, the compound from which energy will be extracted in the Kreb Cycle. Produces 2____________ and 2 ________________________ (energy carrying molecule). Water is also released in this reaction. Oxidative of Pyruvate The two molecules of pyruvate are _____________________ and transformed into molecules of ______________________. Takes place in _________________________ Also produces one molecule of_____________________ Releases _______________ Kreb Cycle Takes place in matrix of the__________________________ Processes each acetyl CoA to produce 3 ________________, 1 ____________________, and 1 ____________________for a total of 6 NADH, 2 FADH2, 2 ATP per glucose. Carbon dioxide is also released in this reaction. Kreb Cycle Mnemonic Device Kreb Cycle (order) Can Intelligent Karen Solve Some Foreign Mafia Operations? Kreb Cycle Quiz on: _________________ Oxidative Phosphyloration After the Kreb Cycle, large amount of __________________ produced from NADH (produces 3 ATP) and FADH2 (produces 2 ATP) Requires the presence of oxygen in the mitochondria Electron Transport Chain Is series of molecules embedded in the inner membrane of the mitochondria The 10 NADH and 2 FADH2 (Produced from previous stages) power the production of the final ______________ ___________________________: coupling of the movement of electrons down the electron transport chain with the formation of ATP. ___________________________: A reaction that uses the product of one reaction as part of another reaction. Steps to the Electron Transport Chain 1- Electron carriers ___________________________ shuttle electrons to the inner mitochondrial membrane. 2- NADH and FADH2 donate their electrons to the first in a series of membrane proteins. Each protein uses the energy in the electron to pump H+ into the intermembrane space of the mitochondrion before passing the electron the next carrier. The final electron receptor is ________________, which combines with two protons, H+ to form water 3- By pumping H+ into the intermembrane space, the electron transport chain sets up a high concentration gradient. H+ flows down gradient through the ATP synthase, a membrane protein that catalyzes the production of ___________________ from ADP. Summary of Cellular Respiration Stage Location Reaction Glycolysis Cytosol Converts 1 molecule of glucose to 2 molecules of pyruvate 2 ATP and 2 NADH molecules are produced and water is released Oxidation of pyruvate Mitochondria Converts 2 molecules of pyruvate to 2 molecules of acetyl CoA 2 NADH molecules are produced and carbon dioxide is released Kreb Cycle Mitochondrial Matrix Electron Transport Chain Mitochondria Converts 2 molecules of acetyl CoA to 6 molecules of NADH, 2 molecules of FADH2, and molecules of ATP. Carbon dioxide is released 10 NADH molecules and 2 FADH2 are converted to 32 ATP molecules Oxygen is consumed and water is produced Fermentation Eukaryotic cells can produce ATP through _____________________________. Fermentation is much less efficient than the four stages of cellular respiration, but allows ATP to produce when oxygen is ______________________ Begins with glycolysis producing only _______________________. All other stages cannot be completed without _________________________. Two types of fermentation: 1- ___________________________________: Pyruvic acid is converted to ethanol. Used by fungi and some plants Used to make _____________________________ 2- ________________________________________: Pyruvic acid is converted to lactate. Lactic acid fermentation is used by animals and bacteria Muscle Cramps (occurs when over exercise your muscles) _________________________________ Example: The sour taste of sourdough comes from the lactic acid produced by the fermentation of bacteria Photosynthesis Plants, some protists, and bacteria, create food molecules (sugars) from carbon dioxide and solar energy through the process of ________________________ Equation for photosynthesis: Players of Photosynthesis Organelle: _____________________ Chloroplast is divded into inner and outer portion of the organelle ____________________________: inner fluid portion __________________________: Green disk membrane system (first stage of photosynthesis occurs) __________________________: Flatten channels and disk (thylakoid) arranged in stacks Label the Chloroplast _____________________: Organisms that is self-nourishing. _______________________: organisms that must consume food. Bundle Sheath cells: Cells that are tightly wrapped around the veins of a leaf. Site of the Calvin Cycle in C4 plants ______________________: interior leaf Mesophyll Cells: contains many chloroplast and host the majority of ________________________ _________________________: process by which water is broken up by an enzyme into hydrogen ions and oxygen atoms. Occurs in the light dependent reaction ________________________________: process by which ATP is produced during light-dependent reaction of photosynthesis _______________________________ process by which oxygen competes with carbon dioxide and attaches to RuBP. Plants that experience this has a lower capacity of growth. _____________________________: cluster of light-trapping pigments involved in photosynthesis. Photosystem I and Photosystem II are two most important. _______________________: a molecule that absorbs light of a particular wavelength. Pigments include carotenoids (orange), phycobilins, and ________________________ _______________________________: an enzyme that catalyzes the first step of the Calvin Cycle in C3 plants ________________________: Structure through which CO2 enters a plant and water vapor and O2 leave _____________________: natural process by which plants lose H2O via evaporation of leaves Light Dependent Reaction Convert solar energy into _____________________________, the reduced form of the electron receptor, NADP+. During these reactions, water is split, leaving _______________________ as a waste product. Why is oxygen considered to be a waste product? These reactions take place in _________________________in the choloroplast. __________________________ comprise cluster of molecules composed of light-absorbing pigments and a reaction center, which includes a primary electron acceptor and two chlorophyll a pigment molecules. There are two photosystems work sequentially, with light first being absorbed by _________________________ and later by photosystem I Steps to the light dependent reactions 1- Photosystem II absorbs solar energy in the form of _______________________. 2- The solar energy excites electrons in the reaction center of photosystem II, which then enter an ___________________________ chain. These electrons originate from the splitting of water, which produces free electrons and O2 3- As electrons pass down the electron transport chain, protons are pumped into the thylakoid membrane space of the chloroplast. Protons diffuse out of the thylakoid membrane space through an ATP synthase, creating ATP. 4- ________________________ accepts electrons from the electron transport chain and uses light energy to excite the electrons further. ATP and NADPH made in the light dependent reaction Cellular Respiration and Light Dependent Reaction Cellular respiration and light dependent reactions of photosynthesis use similar processes to produce ___________. Scientist believe that the electron transport chain used in ______________________________ may have evolved from the transport system used in photosynthesis. Calvin Cycle Uses ATP and NADPH from the light-dependent reaction to convert CO2 into _______________ that the plant can use. CO2 is obtained through the _____________________. ________________________: incorporates the CO2 into organic molecules The incorporation is completed by the energy rich enzyme ________________ (ribulose biphosphate carboxylase (RuBP)), a protein made during light-dependent reaction of photosynthesis . Abundant in _________________ CO2 is split into: 3 carbon molecule ________________ (3-phosphoglycerate) Converts PGA into 3-carbon sugar molecule _____________________________ Used to make _______________& ___________________ The production of a single 3-carbon _____________________ molecule require 3 CO2, 9 ATP, 6 NADPH Calvin Cycle Quiz on: ______________________ Photorespiration When the enzyme rubisco incorporates oxygen, rather than CO2, into organic molecules, plants create energy through the process of _______________________________. Occurs most in ____________ regions where plants must close their stomata to prevent _________________ to the air. The results in a buildup of __________________ levels in the leaf, which makes rubisco more likely to bind with the oxygen. Detrimental to plants because it consumes more ATP to produce each 3-carbon ________________. Three different categories this type of method: C3 pathway, CAM pathway, and C4 pathway C3 Plants Found in areas with moderate temperature and above ________________________________ Exacerbated in Hot arid climates, where the rate of photosrespiration increases as the temperature goes up. Consequently C3 plants are ___________________ found in these climates Located in the __________________ zones Examples: Wheat, barley, and sugar beets C4 Plants Use the enzyme PEP carboxylase to fix CO2 in the _______________________cells of their chloroplast. The fixed CO2 is then shuttled to specialized structures known as ___________________________, where it is released and incorporated into the Calvin Cycle. Energetically expensive, but limits photorespiration by allowing high concentration CO2 to build up in the bundlesheath cells Examples: Corn and sugar cane are common in warm environments CAM Plants Plants reduce photorespiration and conserve ____________________ by opening their stomata only at night. ___________________ enters through the stomata and is fixed into organic acids, which are then stored in the cell’s vacuole. During the day, the acids break down to yield high levels of CO2 for use in the Calvin cycle Common in ________________ environments Examples: Pineapples and cacti