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Emergence and Ideals of Nationalism and Liberalism Nationalism The idea of a nation consisting of people unified by common culture, language, and/or religion, who should all be ruled by one government Reaction against Cosmopolitanism • Enlightenment ideal that all human beings belong to one family. Enlightenment culture had emphasized A common language The universality of Reason. Common intellectual world of the educated middle class and nobility. Opposition to the Congress of Vienna, • Principle of states based on monarchies and dynasties, • Disregarding the ethnic makeup of countries as a factor for boundaries First phase (first half of the 1800s) Small nationalist groups Intellectuals (historians, professors, teachers, and other scholars) Imparted cultural history, bonds, and language on the people Meanings of Nationhood Some nationalists Argued that uniting ethnicities into one group would help economic and administrative success Thought that nationhood was imposed by God, or compared nationhood to divinity Difficulties in classifying nations Which ethnic groups could be considered nations with legitimacy to claim political and territorial independence? Would nationhood only be classified on which groups managed to create a stable economy and culture? Would ethnic uprisings be viewed as legitimate grasps for independence? The Impact of the French Revolution: Liberty, Equality and Fraternity French revolutionary ideas stressed the rights of the people. The people come to have their own significance as a unit. Reaction to French Revolution French spread their ideals all over Europe. dominated the other countries. Other countries took up the ideals of the French Rev. and applied them to their own situation, especially in Germany. • Never been a united German state, but Germans saw what power a united France had achieved. Centers of European Nationalism Ireland Ireland became directly governed by the British Crown after 1800, • Irish people elected members to the Parliament • Nationalists demanded either independence or autonomy Nationalism would persist in Ireland well into the 20th century Polish Nationalism Since the loss of Polish independence in the Partitions, Polish nationalists,urged for armed struggle to regain independence from Austria, Prussia, and Russia Most disturbances in the Russian portion of Poland November Insurrection of 1830-1831 January Insurrection of 1863-1864) Both doomed by bad military leadership or disunity Nationalist groups survived in Poland, After 1864, no uprisings occurred All social classes and sectors of Polish economy must be improved and equalized before independence Liberalism Roots in Enlightenment, English liberties, and principles of the French Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen Less autocratic government Establishment of legal equality, religious tolerance, and freedom of press Government relied on the consent of the people Parliament would represent the people Ministers in government should be responsible to the legislature rather than the monarch Sought democracy limited to the propertyowners • Had contempt for the lower class • Aristocratic liberty was thought by liberals to be a concept of privilege based on wealth and property rather than birth Economic Goals Sought the removal of mercantilism and regulated economy Promoted capitalism Favored removal of international tariffs and internal trade barriers France and Great Britain flourished with liberal establishments Germany was full of anti-liberal nobility Conservative Order in Europe Conservatism Pillars of Support • Absolute Monarchies • Landed Aristocracies • Established Churches Conservative Views Only aristocratic and/or upper-bourgeois governments could be trusted Aristocrats felt that their power was threatened by representative governments Conservatives would not agree to constitutionalism unless they created the documents Clerics only supported popular movements if they were based around the Church Clerics supported the status quo, and detested ideas of the Enlightenment Upper classes felt surrounded by enemies and gave up some former privileges Post-Vienna Europe confronted internal problems after external ones seemed to disappear Hungarian Nationalism Since Maria Theresa granted concessions to the Magyar nobility of Hungary Nobility persisted in gaining and retaining privileges Hungary troubled the stability of the Habsburg Empire until its end in World War I Nationalists launched several uprisings, and participated in the "Spring of Nations" in the Revolutions of 1848 • Agitations led to the eventual Compromise of 1867 Austria and Hungary became virtually separate nations in a personal union under the Habsburgs Threat of Nationalism to the Establishment Nationalists, sought to redraw Europe along ethnic lines Would effectively dissolve the Ottoman, Austrian, and Russian empires Nationalism and liberalism sometimes worked together, adding to the concern of absolutists and ultraroyalists Nationalism eventually succeeded, United the German and Italian states into unified, strong countries, challenging French and Austrian ambitions Reaction in Austria and Germany Austria Prince Klemens von Metternich • Architect of the Congress of Vienna settlement, • Symbol of conservative political reaction against nationalism and liberalism Austria was threatened as the most multi-ethnic country in Europe Recognition of aspirations of any ethnic groups = Dissolution of the empire Representative government was feared - national groups could gain their ambitions legally through parliaments To prevent success of nationalism and liberalism even further, the Austrians wanted to dominate the states of the German Confederation, Replaced the HRE Loose organization of 39, nominally independent kingdoms and principalities Moves toward constitutional government in each of the states of the Confederation were opposed and blocked by Austria Prussia King Frederick William III promised constitutional government in 1815, but went back on his word in 1817 Council of State was formed, which was not constitutionally-based, but effective 1819-1823 - Further steps away from liberalism had been undertaken by the King, • Establishment of eight Junker-dominated provincial estates (diets), • Reaffirmed link between Prussian monarchy, army, and landholders German Confederation Constitutional Governments established in three south German states of Baden, Bavaria, and Wurttemberg, • Did not recognize popular sovereignty • Confirmed powers of the monarchs Young Germans were loyal to the nationalism and liberalism that emerged from the Napoleonic occupation University students circulated nationalist writings and formed the Burschenschaften (student associations) • Sought to sever old provincial loyalties and replace them with national loyalty to a greater German state Student Uprisings 1817 Jena Bonfires and celebrations were organized for the anniversaries of the Battle of Leipzig and Luther's Ninetyfive Theses Nationalist celebrations accentuated the rise of the movement throughout Germany March 1819 Karl Sand, • Member of one of the student clubs, Assassinated the conservative dramatist August von Kotzebue and was tried and executed • Became a martyr for the young nationalists Metternich used the Sand incident to suppress the societies July 1819 the Carlsbad Decrees Metternich persuaded Dissolution of the Burschenschaften Press and university censorship Final Act limited the subjects discussed in the constitutional assemblies of Bavaria, Wurttemberg, and Baden Right of monarchs to resist constitutionalist demands • Led to the constant harassment of potential dissidents by the German monarchs Repression in Britain Prime Minister Lord Liverpool 1815 - Corn Law Unprepared for the emergence of the internal problems after the Napoleonic wars Tory ministry sought to placate and protect the interests of the landed and wealthy classes Maintain high prices for domestic grain through import duties on foreign grain 1816 - Parliament abolished the income tax for the wealthy, Replaced it with excise taxes on consumer goods paid by the wealthy and the poor English Discontentment Lower classes began to doubt the wisdom of the rulers Calls for reform were intensified Radical newspapers formed • Demanding change of the political system, including William Cobbett's Political Registrar Government • Feared workers as possible repetitions of France's sansculottes ready to murder the elites • Regarded the radical leaders, including Cobbett, John Cartwright, and Henry Hunt as demagogues betraying national allegiances December 1816 - Discontent mass meeting occurred at Spa Fields; • Government reacted by passing the Coercion Act of March 1817, Suspended habeas corpus and extended laws against seditious gatherings "Peterloo" After temporary stability, radical reformism grew again August 16, 1819 - Radicals met in Manchester at Saint Peter's Fields • Royal troops were called to keep order • Panic broke out, making the massacre famed as the "Peterloo Massacre" Liverpool supported the Manchester administration's decision • Became determined to stop the radical movements Radical leaders were arrested The Six Acts December 1819 - Six Acts passed Forbade large unauthorized public meetings Raised the fines for seditious libel Sped up the trials of political agitators Increased newspaper taxes Prohibited training of armed groups Allowed local officials to search homes in certain disturbed counties February 1820- the Cato Street Conspiracy was discovered Under the leadership of a man named Thistlewood, extreme radicals plotted to assassinate the entire British Cabinet Leaders were arrested and tried, four of them being executed Conspiracy served only to discredit the reform movement Bourbon Restoration in France Louis XVIII returned to power • Louis XVI's son, though he never formally ruled France, was regarded as Louis XVII Permitted a constitution, but it was largely his own creation - the Charter • Hereditary Monarchy • Bicameral legislature - royally-appointed upper house; lower house (Chamber of Deputies) elected on a very narrow franchise with high property requirements • Guaranteed the rights of the Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen • Religious toleration, with Roman Catholicism as the official religion • Property rights of current owners of land would not be challenged Rise of Ultraroyalists Count of Artois (the King’s brother) led the extreme royalists in demanding revenge against former revolutionaries and Napoleonic supporters • After “Waterloo” a "White Terror" occurred in the southern and western regions Extreme royalists also controlled the Chamber of Deputies, • Louis XVIII dissolved the chamber February 1820 - Duke of Berri, son and heir of Artois, was assassinated King persuaded the murder was the result of the royal concessions to liberals • Issued repressive measures Electoral laws were revised to give the wealthy two votes Press censorship and arrest of suspected dissidents Secondary education was given to control of the Roman Catholic clergy Reversed much of the appearance of liberal constitutionalism in France Challenges to the Conservative Order Spanish Revolution of 1820 1814 - Bourbon Dynasty restored to Spain following Napoleon's defeat • Ferdinand VII, promised to rule constitutionally Dissolved the Cortes, the Spanish Parliament 1820 - Group of army officers rebelled • March 1820 - King Ferdinand restored the constitution July 1820 - revolution broke out in the Italian states • Outside the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies (Naples and Sicily), the revolutions failed to establish constitutional governments Austrians were frightened by the Italian insurrections • Hoped to dominate the peninsula as a buffer against spread of the revolution into its southern domains Britain opposed intervention October 1820 - Congress of Troppau and the Protocol of Troppau Meeting between Austria, Prussia, Russia, Britain, and France Stable governments can intervene to bring back rule of law in unstable and revolutionary countries • Powers were hesitant, however, to sanction Austrian intervention in Italy January 1821 - Congress of Laibach authorizes Austria's intervention • Austrian troops marched into Naples and abolished the constitution, making the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies absolutist again • Metternich attempted to foster policies that would improve administration of the Italian governments to give them more direct local support 1822 - Congress of Verona Met to resolve the Spanish conflict • Britain refused to sanction joint action and withdrew from continental affairs • Austria, Prussia, and Russia supported French intervention in Spain • April 1823 - French troops enter Spain and within months suppress the Spanish Revolution, occupying the country until 1827 Significance of the Spanish situation French intervention was not an excuse to expand territory or power No other interventions of the era were undertaken to increase power at another country's expense New British Foreign Minister George Canning, who led Britain out of continental affairs, was interested in British commerce and trade • Sought to prevent political reaction from seeping into Spanish Latin America • Sought to exploit the revolutions in Latin America to crush the Spanish monopoly on trade Britain recognized the Spanish ex-colonies as independent nations Balkan Nationalism Numerous ethnic groups wanted independence, including Greeks, Serbs, Albanians, Romanians, and Bulgarians Serbs and Greeks gained independence in 1830 and 1821, from the Ottoman Empire Serbs envisioned a "Greater Serbia", including Ottoman and Austrian controlled Serbs • Most immediate cause of World War I Greek Revolution of 1821 Attracted liberals and Romantics from all over Europe as a "rebirth of ancient Greek democracy" Ottomans could hardly hold on to its European holdings Many fought among the revolutionaries European powers wanted Balkans Could not determine what to do if Ottoman’s fell apart Britain, France, and Russia An independent Greece would benefit them strategically and maintain domestic status quo 1827 - Treaty of London signed, demanding Turkish recognition of Greek independence 1828 - Russia sent troops into Ottoman Romania 1829 - Treaty of Adrianople • Russia gained control of Romania • Ottoman Empire would have to allow Britain, France, and Russia to decide the fate of Greece 1830 - Second Treaty of London affirms an independent Greek Kingdom Otto I, the Bavarian King's son, becomes the first king of Greece Serbian Independence 1804-1813 – Kara George waged a guerilla war against the Ottoman Empire 1815-1816 Milos negotiated greater administrative autonomy for some Serbian territory, Built national self-identity Attracted attention of the great powers few Serbs lived within the autonomy 1830 - Serbia formally given independence 1833 - Milos becoming hereditary prince Pressured the Ottomans to extend Serbian borders • Serbs would seek more territory, creating tension with Austria and the other minority groups in Serbia 1856 -Serbia became under collective protection of the great powers Deeper relationship had begun between Serbia and Russia Revolutions in Latin America Haiti Started by a slave revolt led by Toussaint L'Ouverture and Jean-Jacques Dessalines in 1794 Popular uprising of a repressed social group, rather than discontented Creoles Haiti became independent in 1804 Success of the Indians, blacks, mestizos, mulattos, and slaves in Haiti haunted the Creoles in Latin America Creoles became determined that revolutions not threaten their own power Reasons for Creole discontent Wanted to trade freely within the region and with North America and Europe Detested increase of taxes by the Spanish monarchy Resented the peninsulares who were favored for political and military promotions, Elites readand adopted the ideas of the Enlightenment philosophes, Napoleon's overthrow of the Portuguese (1807) and Spanish (1808) governments started rebellions Disappearance of Bourbon monarchy provided an opportunity and political vacuum for the Creoles in Latin America • Feared the liberal Napoleonic monarchy in Spain would try to implement reforms endangering their own power • Feared Napoleon would drain the resources and economies of Latin America to fund his war effort 1808-1810 Creole political committees (juntas) Claimed the right to govern regions of the continent, Claiming they ruled in the name of the deposed Bourbon monarchy Juntas did away with the privileges of the peninsulares Spain was permanently ousted from Latin America Rio de La Plata (Argentina) Started with a revolt in Buenos Aires, 1810 - Junta overthrew Spanish authority and sent troops into Paraguay and Uruguay to liberate the two regions The armies were defeated, but Paraguay became independent on its own, and Uruguay eventually became part of Brazil After the failure in Paraguay and Uruguay, Buenos Aires junta was determined to liberate Peru • A stronghold of royalism and loyalism in Latin America 1814 - Jose de San Martin, • General of the Rio de La Plata forces • Led an army across the Andes Mountains 1817 - San Martin occupied Santiago, Chile, • Allowed Chilean independence leader Bernardo O'Higgins to become dictator • San Martin organized a naval force and by 1820 set out to attack Peru by sea By 1821, San Martin defeated the royalists in Lima and declared himself Protector of Peru Venezuela 1810 - Simon Bolivar organized a junta in Caracas Bolivar advocated republicanism 1811-1814 - Civil war broke out between royalists and their supporters (slaves and llaneros Venezuelan cowboys) and the republican government • Bolivar forced into exile in Colombia and Jamaica 1816 - With help from Haiti, Bolivar invaded Venezuela • Captured Bogotá, the capital of New Granada (Colombia, Bolivia, and Ecuador), securing a base for attack on Venezuela 1821 - Bolivar captured Caracas and became president July 1822 - Bolivar joined San Martin to liberate Quito, Disagreed on the political future of Latin America, since San Martin was a monarchist • San Martin soon retired and went into exile, • Bolivar established control over Peru in 1823 New Spain (Mexico,Texas,California) A junta was organized Creole priest Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla called for rebellion to the Indians in his parish • Indians and other repressed groups responded • Father Hidalgo proposed social and land reform, • Controlled a loose organization of 80,000 followers, capturing several major cities and marching on to Mexico City July 1811 - Hidalgo was captured and killed, Leadership went to mestizo priest Jose Maria Morelos y Pavon, • Called for an end to forced labor and much more radical land reform 1815 - Morelos was executed, and the uprising ended United Spanish and Creole conservative groups in Mexico • Determined to halt all kind of reform New Spain continued. . 1820 - Conservatives' power was challenged, from the Bourbon monarchy in Spain • forced to adopt a liberal constitution Conservatives rallied behind royalist general Augustin de Iturbide • Declared independence in 1821 • Supported his declaration as emperor Imperial government did not last long, but Spain was never again in power in Mexico Brazil Brazilian independence was peaceful Portuguese royal family came to Brazil and transformed Rio de Janeiro into a court city • Prince regent Joao addressed local complaints and expanded trade 1815 - Brazil became a kingdom, no longer being a colony of Portugal 1820 - Portuguese revolution demanded that Brazil be restored to colonial status and Joao return to Portugal • Joao left his son Dom Pedro as regent as he returned to Portugal, encouraging him to be sympathetic to the Brazilians September 1822 - Dom Pedro embraced Brazilian independence and became Emperor of Brazil, the imperial government surviving until 1889 Consequences New Latin American countries, except for f Brazil, were often economically and politically unstable Disaffected populations threatened the stability of the new post-Spanish republics Economies plunged and trade suffered Wealthy peninsulares fled to Spain or Cuba, causing the Latin American governments to seek trade relations with Britain Russia Army Unrest and Dynastic Crisis Russian officers were exposed to ideas of the French Revolution • Radicals, in the Southern Society Advocated representative government and abolition of serfdom • Moderates, in the Northern Society, Advocated constitutional monarchy, abolition of serfdom Protection of the aristocracy Death of Tsar Alexander I caused two crises • Unexpected death occurred when he had no direct heir • Constantine, his brother, married a commoner and was excluded from the line of succession • Eventually, Nicholas, his younger brother, became Tsar • Legality of Nicholas's claim was uncertain, until a suspected conspiracy made Nicholas declare himself Tsar Decembrist Revolt Junior officers plotted to rally the troops under their command to reformism • December 26, 1825 - most of the army swore loyalty to Nicholas, less popular and more conservative • Moscow regiment marched into the Senate Square in St. Petersburg, Refused to swear allegiance Called for a constitution Demanded that Constantine become Tsar • Peaceful negotiation failed • Nicholas ordered the cavalry and artillery to attack the insurgents, and 60 people were killed in the melee 1826 - Nicholas presided over the sentencing of the Decembrists, executing or sending the plotters to exile in Siberia Absolutism of Nicholas I after the Decembrist Revolt Nicholas I came to symbolize extreme absolutism Knew economic and social improvement was necessary, he feared change • Abolition of serfdom would undermine aristocratic support of the monarchy • State repression and censorship flourished Official Russian Nationality Program presided over by Count S. S. Uvarov Slogan was "Orthodoxy, Autocracy, and Nationalism" Russian Orthodox Church • Basis for morality, education, and intellectuality • Part of the secular government • Russian youths were taught to oppose social mobility Autocracy championed absolute monarchy and absolute power of the Tsar Nationality glorified the Russian nationality and urged Russians to see religion, language, and customs as source of wisdom separating them from the West November Insurrection in Poland Since the Congress of Vienna, Grand Duke Constantine controlled the government, Tsar was the official King of Poland Polish aristocrats and Sejm fought with their Russian overlords for the Russians' constant violation of the Polish Constitution Liberal revolutions in France and Belgium encouraged Polish nationalists but had the reverse effect on the Russian Tsar The Russians planned to use the Polish Army to crush the revolutions The Poles protested and a riot in Warsaw on November 29 soon spread to revolution across the country December 13, 1830 - Sejm declared a national uprising and officially dethroned Nicholas I on January 25, 1831 Neither Britain, nor revolutionary France, supported the Insurrection Prussia and Austria deliberately made it hard for the rebels By the end of 1831, the Insurrection had fallen, the troops disarmed in Prussia February 1832 - The Tsar issued the Organic Statute, making Poland a part of Russia July Revolution in France Louis XVIII died in 1824 Count of Artois became Charles X Very ultraroyalist First action was to have the Chamber of Deputies in 1824 and 1825 assist aristocrats who lost property in the revolution by lowering interest rates on government bonds • Middle-class bondholders resented the measure Restored the rule of primogeniture Enacted a law that punished sacrilege with imprisonment or death Elections of 1827 - liberals gained majority in Chamber of Deputies and forced conciliatory actions from Charles, who appointed a less conservative ministry • Laws against the press were eased, but liberals were not satisfied • 1829 - Charles decided his appeasement policy failed and appointed a new ultraroyalist ministry • Liberal opposition, in desperation, negotiated with the liberal Orleanist branch of the Bourbon family Outbreak of revolution 1830 - Charles called for new elections, and liberals again won a vast majority King decided to attempt a royalist political coup and sent a fleet to Algeria, taking control of the pirate government • Reports of the victory reached the capital by July 9, and Charles took advantage of the euphoria to enact the Four Ordinances, Restricted freedom of the press, Dissolved the Chamber of Deputies, Restricted the franchise, Called for new elections under the new royalist, conservative franchise Liberal press called on national opposition to the Four Ordinances • People of Paris erected barricades in the street, Battles with royal troops took more than 1,800 lives Troops were unable to crush the uprisings • August 2 - Charles abdicated and fled into exile in Britain • Chamber of Deputies appointed a new ministry which supported constitutional monarchy Louis Philippe, the Duke of Orleans, as the new King of France The Monarchy of Louis Philippe Political developments • New constitution was regarded as a right of the people rather than privileges of the monarch • Catholicism became the religion of the majority, but not the official state religion, the new government being strongly anticlerical • Censorship was abolished • Voting franchise was extended moderately • King had to cooperate with the Chamber of Deputies Social order • Revolution did not improve the standards of the lower class Money was the only method of influence in government Plight of the poor was ignored • late 1831, the troops suppressed a workers' uprising in Lyons • July 1832, more than 800 people were killed in an uprising that happened during a Napoleonic general's funeral • 1834 - Another disturbance in Lyons was brutally crushed International development King Louis Philippe retained control of Algiers, the city that Charles X conquered, and began to expand the territory beyond just the coastal city • Occupation of Algeria opened new markets for France • Structures of the Ottoman government were dismantled in Algeria • French empire in Africa expanded further and flourished, French settlers coming in to Algeria in large numbers • Immigration of French people into Algeria compelled the French government to regard Algeria as a province rather than colony of France • The ethnic integration would pose a problem in the postWorld War II decolonization later on Belgian Revolution Causes Since 1815, Belgium had been merged with the Kingdom of Holland • Two countries differed in culture and economy • Belgians refused to accept Dutch rule Encouraged by the July Revolution in France Outbreak August 25, 1830 - Riots broke out in Brussels • Municipal authorities and property-owners formed a provisional government • Attempt at compromise failed and troops sent by King William of Holland were defeated by November 10 National congress wrote a liberal constitution, which was put into effect in 1831 International Reactions Major powers saw the Belgian Revolution as a distortion of the borders set by the Congress of Vienna, but none were willing to act Russia was fighting the Polish rebels Prussia and the German Confederation were crushing insurgencies in their own land Austria was crushing disturbances in Italy France favored Belgian independence in the hopes of dominating it Britain would tolerate Belgian liberalism as long as it was not influenced by other nations December 1830 - Lord Palmerston, the British Foreign Minister, gathered the major powers in London to persuade them to recognize Belgium as a neutral independent state July 1831 - Leopold of Saxe-Coburg became King Convention of 1839 guaranteed Belgian neutrality Great Reform Bill of 1832 Great Britain 1830 - House of Commons considered the first major bill to reform the British political system Catholic Emancipation Act • Britain was determined to maintain control of Ireland • In the 1820s, the Irish nationalists agitated for Catholic emancipation • Catholics could now become members of Parliament, ending Anglican monopoly of British politics Measure alienated Anglican supporters of the Duke of Wellington, the Prime Minister, King William IV turned to the leader of the liberal Whigs, Earl Grey, to form a new government The Whig ministry • Riots broke out when the Whig's attempt at passing a massive reform bill was blocked by the House of Lords • To stop the riots, William IV agreed to persuade a majority in the House of Lords to pass the Great Reform Bill Expanded the size of the electorate by almost 50% while keeping a property qualification and keeping it only for men Some franchise rights were taken away and actually disenfranchised some working class people Act laid the foundations for further reform Liberal vs. Conservative Nationalism the first half of 19th c. nationalism and liberalism went hand in hand In Liberal nationalists believed love of country led to love of all humanity Liberal ideals included equality, freedom, and representative government By 2nd half of 19th c. extreme nationalism subverted liberal values, contributed to World War I, and led to the rise of fascism.