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Physical Anthropology 101
Notes & Assignments Packet
Fall 2010
Professor K. Markley
Table of Contents
Overview of the Reading Packet Pgs. 4-7
Tips for a Successful Semester
How to figure out your grade/ Extra Credit Options
Chapt. 1- Science pages 8-9
Chapt. 2- Natural Selection 10-14
What Darwin Never Saw- Video Questions
Chapt. 3- Genetics pages 15-21
Nature/Nurture Debate
Chapt. 4- Processes of Evolution pages 22-23
Chapter 5- Origin of Species pages 24-31
Evolution, Creationism, and Pseudo-Science
History of Life on Earth- Overview
Brief History of Life on Earth- Notes
Mammals
Great Transformations- Video Questions
Testing Evolution, Sexual Selection and Hardy Weinberg- Pages 32-36
Taxonomic Categorization and Primates pages 37-44
Taxonomic Classifications
Primates Overview
Primate Studies Overview
Science and Kuhn
Ultimate Guide to the Great Apes- Video Questions
New Chimpanzees- Video Questions
Studying the Past Pages 45-47
Dating Techniques
Origin and Evolution of Primates
Hominin Fossil Record pages 48- 57
Hominin Fossil Record Overview
Hominin Family Tree
In Search of Human Origins- Video Questions
Modern Human Origins debate
Evolution and Adaptation in Human Populations- pages 58-66
Human Populations
Epidemiological Transitions
Human Biological Diversity and the Race Concept
Race: The Power of An Illusion – Video Questions
Chapter 15- Biological Anthropology: Applications and Lessons
Anthropology: The Study of Humans- pages 67-68
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Assignments Pages 69-89
Info on MIR’s, Annual Edition questions, Assignments Info
(AE) Annual Editions Questions
Physical Anthropology True/False Survey
What Happened to the Dinosaurs/Science
Darwin/Lamarck
Protein Synthesis and Sickle-Cell Anemia
Punnett squares/ Genetics Assignment
Processes of Evolution
Sickle Cell Anemia
Hardy Weinberg Problems
Baboon Studies
Zoo Report- Extra Credit Option
Human Variation Fieldwork (Race Fieldwork
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Overview of Notes and Assignments Packet
This reading packet contains notes to accompany classroom lecture and your homework
assignments. Bring this packet to class each day. To get the most out of each class session, read
your assigned text material and work to answer the questions and fill in the blanks in the notes
packet PRIOR to CLASS. It is expected that you will not understand all of the material or be able
to fill in all of the blanks but you will do much better in class if you read and answer before class
lecture. Your class schedule will list what topics, readings are assigned for the day.
To be successful in this class read Park’s textbook and the Annual Editions articles and
work to answer the questions in this notebook PRIOR to class. Read, Answer Questions,
Study, Complete assignments. Come to class ENGAGED to learn! 
SYLLABUS & CLASS SCHEDULE
Read the syllabus! The syllabus gives you the information you need to be successful in the class.
If you have a question, more often than not your syllabus will contain the answer.
The class schedule has three columns; the date, readings and topics, and assignments due. Refer
to your class schedule EVERY week to keep up to date on reading assignments and homework
assignments. The dates for when your assignments are due is listed in your class schedule but
may also be announced in class (any changes will be announced in class- make sure that you
either attend class every day or get notes from a fellow student).
Attendance
Success in this class (success= passing this class with a C or better) will require that you attend
class regularly. It is not uncommon to miss one class at some point during the semester, either
due to an illness or some other serious problem. If you miss class it is your responsibility to
get the information that you missed. I DO NOT GIVE OUT NOTES FROM A MISSED
LECTURE. I advise you to get to know a couple of other students in the class and exchange email
or phone numbers (if you feel comfortable doing this) so that you can find out what you missed if
you are absent. It can be helpful to connect with a fellow student in class who is reliable note
taker. If you have questions about the material covered while you were absent (and you have
already gotten notes from another student) feel free to make an appt. during my office hours.
Annual Edition Articles (AE)
This is your secondary text for this class and it contains articles to complement the material in the
Park text. The class schedule contains the readings for each week as well as a list of the AE
articles that you must complete as a part of your class assignments. Once you complete each
article you should be able to explain in a few sentences what the main idea(s) are, the supporting
data and reasoning for the main idea(s), and be able to answer the questions for each article
(these are in the back of this Notes Packet). AE articles are a source for both quiz and exam
questions
FYI- It is common to have to read the articles more than once to clearly understand the key
point(s). Often the authors will include a lot of data and reasoning to support their key point(s) and
it takes time to filter through the supportive information to get at the main point(s).
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Tips for a Successful Semester
Learning is an ACTIVE endeavor. At the college level if you are passively listening or passively
reading/memorizing classroom material you will not gain the type of understanding that is needed
to be successful. To be successful you will need to know the definitions for concepts and terms but
this is only the start. To do well on exams you will need to be able to recognize and apply what
you are learning. If you can explain what you are learning to someone else that is generally a good
test as to how well you know the material. Make sure you can put concepts into your own words
(although make sure the words mean the same thing!). Ultimately to be successful you will need to
be engaged in class lecture, discussion, and outside studying and assignments. Being an active
learner includes; raising your hand and asking questions, making observations and comments on
the material presented.
Read your textbook and articles before class lecture. Check your class schedule and note the
topics/readings for the day’s lecture. It is a good idea to first skim over the material to get an idea
as to what the reading is about, where it is going and what you should look for. Then read the
assigned chapters and articles before class lecture. Familiarize yourself with the terminology used.
Make sure that you have a dictionary to look up unfamiliar words (definitions are often in the back
of the text).
Class lecture & Note taking: Use this notes packet and be an active note taking during lectures.
Overheads are used to highlight important concepts and are useful for test reviews.
 One of my professors gave students the following recommendations to do well in college
classes; read your text at least 3 times (first just read it, then read it and underline/highlight
key points, lastly read and take notes on key parts and terms), read class notes at least 3
times (same strategy as above), then write up your notes and review them at least 6 times.
 When I was in school I made 3 x 5 cards for important concepts and terms and then I
carried them around with me wherever I went. When I had a free moment; waiting in line,
waiting for a friend to show, up, etc., I would quiz myself and see how well I was learning
and retaining class material.
Exam essay questions: Essay questions will be given to you at least one week ahead of time. To
do well on an essay question you will generally need to outline your answer ahead of time and
write out your answer ahead of time. Make an outline of your essay on a 3 x 5 card and use it to
study for the exam (this is to be used to study for the exam, not necessarily on exam day).
ASK QUESTIONS, if you are in doubt or unsure about something ask!
 If you are having difficulty understanding class material, or are doing poorly on quizzes,
homework, etc. take action EARLY. Check to first make sure you are spending the appropriate
amount of time studying (estimated to be 2 hours outside of class for every hour in class). If you
are having difficulty make an appointment with the instructor, or visit the tutoring center. Do not
wait until the week before the exam to try and learn the material. There are only three exams in
the semester and they each cover a great deal of information. To do well on the exam you will
need to dedicate a certain amount of time each week. Regular attendance is CRUCIAL to do well.
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How to figure out your grade: I believe strategizing in regards to your grade and keeping track of
your grade is critical to being a successful student. I also believe it is the students responsibility to
keep track of your grade. I do not calculate your grade until you have completed your final, so
please do not come to me and ask what your grade is. I hand back exams, quizzes, assignments
in a timely fashion so you can keep track of your own grade. Use the grade sheet in your syllabus.
To calculate your grade during the semester you will need to determine how many points you have
earned in relationship to how many points are possible at a given time.
Sample: If you want to figure out your grade after the first exam you can see from the
grading page in your syllabus that the maximum points you can have earned is 120 points
Maximum Points Possible
Points that you earned
Exam 1 - 100 pts.
72 pts
Quiz 1 - 10 pts.
6 pts
Quiz 2 - 10 pts.
9 pts
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------120 pts. possible
84 points earned
Take the 84 points you have earned and divide it into the 120 points that were possible and you will
get .70 this means that you are getting a C at this point (70% = C, 80%= B, etc.). However, if you
have read your syllabus you will see that you get to drop one quiz so if you do well on your future
quizzes you will likely want to drop quiz 1.
You can keep track of the Class Points by keeping track of which assignments you completed.
The point value for each assignment will vary depending on how many assignments are given
(both inside and outside of class). If you do all of your assignments, and earn full points for them,
you can leverage yourself in regards to exam scores.
Your syllabus contains a list of all the assignments and the points they are worth. I advise you to
keep a list of the scores on each assignment in your syllabus. I also recommend that you keep all
of your graded assignments until you receive your grade at the end of the semester.
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EXTRA CREDIT
I do not accept late work, but I do give a few extra credit options for students to make up missed
work. If a student does not miss any assignments they can use the extra credit option to bolster
their quiz and/or exam scores. Extra credit can be turned in anytime prior to the due date (see
your class schedule). I suggest you do not wait until the last minute to turn in extra credit. All extra
credit must be typed.
Extra Credit: Students have the option of turning in two extra credit assignments worth up to 20
points total. Extra credit work can be turned in at anytime during the semester just so long as it is
before the deadline listed in your class schedule. You may complete each option ONCE.
Option One: Take advantage of one of the services offered on campus; skills center,
library orientation, transfer center, etc. or attend a campus event. Then type up a ½ to 1
page description of what you did and what you learned. This option is worth up to 5 points.
Option Two: Attend a museum, view a film, or read a book or article pertaining to physical
anthropology. This option gives you a chance to further your knowledge of physical
anthropology and it is worth up to 15 points. Write a three page, typed, double-spaced
paper, with three subheadings:
(1) What you read or observed, be specific as well as descriptive. Where did you
go, what did you read, etc. Make sure to identify your source(s).
(2) Incorporate three concepts or terms learned in class. This should be the bulk
of your paper. Discuss what you did in relationship to what you have learned
in this class this semester. You will earn the highest amount of points for the
way in which relate what you did with terms and concepts from class.
(3) Give your personal analyses and reaction to the event/reading/film. Prior
verbal approval of the instructor is recommended for Option Two extra
credit assignment (just to make sure you’re on track with what you need to do).
You may also visit the zoo for Option Two, see the instructions for the zoo
option in this reading packet in the primate section.
Physical Anthropology Museum Options: San Diego Museum of Man, Los Angeles
Natural History Museum, and the Los Angeles La Brea Tar Pits.
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Chapter One- Once you have read this chapter you should be able to answer the questions in the
introduction on page 3.
Science: is a method of _________________________and a body of ______________________.
As a method of Inquiry: Science involves the ____________________ collection of data
(observed and inferred), hypothesis are formed, tested and then either accepted, rejected or
_____________________. Science works both inductively and _________________________.
Induction: scientists gather evidence/data, and when they have sufficient data they work to
generate a _________________________.
Example: Darwin observed that life forms that existed in his day were similar to fossils found
from earlier times (although they often were different in some ways) and he also noted that
similar life forms existed in different _________________________locations (although they
were often different in some ways, their size for instance). He formed a _________________,
which stated “Life forms change and evolve over time and space.” He was then left to discern
the mechanism that produced these changes. He believed that the environment played a part
in change of life forms over time.
Deduction: scientists develop hypotheses and then test these hypotheses against the data.
Example: Darwin proposed the following hypothesis, “Life changes over time and space
due to _________________________ differences.” Darwin stated (after much research)
that “populations of species will be different in time and space due to different
environments.” ____________________ or the environment will “select” which individuals
are best adapted to a particular environment. These individuals, with the traits best suited
to the environment will out-compete others in their population, they will live longer, produce
more offspring and over time the population will change to reflect the “selection” for these
traits. A good hypothesis should always make predictions as to what will be found in the
data collection. Darwin proposed that animals would vary in specific traits in relationship to
their environment. An example would be the way in which foxes vary in their coloring
depending on the environment. White colored foxes are best suited to artic environments
and that is where we find them. Brown and darker colored foxes are best suited to
woodland environments and that is where we find them.
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Science is limited to studying the ________________________________world. Science assumes
the universe operates according to certain rules, and these rules or laws can be determined
through testing and inference. Science includes the body of ____________________________
that has been developed utilizing the scientific method. Science is a ___________________
reviewed discipline in which scientists, as a group, work to determine what is accepted as a
fact, a hypothesis and a theory.
Facts__________________________________________________________________________
Hypthesis_______________________________________________________________________
Theory (in the natural sciences) _____________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
Pseudoscience_________________________________________________________________
Belief _________________________________________________________________________
Hypothesis testing: According to Karl Popper, a seminal philosopher of science, scientific
hypotheses can never be _____________________ absolutely. Science works best when
scientists work to disprove or _______________________ their hypothesis. After many, many
tests (always corroborated by other scientists) if a hypothesis is not _________________________
then it can be accepted as ____________________.
1.
2.
3.
4.
Do good scientists work to prove their hypothesis are true? Why or why not?
What is the status and/or role of theories in science?
Can you come up with an example of how culture affects science in a given society.
Can you come up with an example in which science and religion are compatible in their
explanations about the world?
5. Can you come up with an example in which science and religion are incompatible in their
explanations about the world?
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Chapter 2- Be able to answer the following questions after reading chapter 2.
1. What were the scientific understandings that laid the groundwork for Darwin in his development
of natural selection?
2. How have biblical beliefs affected the development of the modern story of evolution?
3. Come up with at least one difference between the creation stories of Genesis 1 and Genesis 2.
4. List at least one hypothesis, in regards to the earth and/or life on earth that was formulated to
be compatible with the bible.
5. Is uniformitarianism compatible or incompatible with the bible?
6. Is catastropism or uniformitarianism the current scientific view of how the earth changes over
time?
***Argument from Design*** This concept is not discussed in your text so make sure to read
these notes carefully. The argument from design has been around for a long time and was
formulated by William Paley with his watchmaker analogy. The argument states that the
complexity and apparent design in living things (i.e. various parts all fit together to create a working
whole and all parts are needed to make the thing work) proves that there is a designer of the
universe and life on earth. Paley (in Natural Theology, 1802) said that a watch is proof that there is
a designer who made the watch. As a watch cannot come into being without a designer, living
beings could not come into being without an intelligent designer. This intelligent designer can be
framed as “god” or as an unknown being. The argument from design says that all beings and all of
their body parts were uniquely created for the purpose for which they are used. So the wings of a
bat were uniquely created for flying. The arms of a human were uniquely created for the
manipulation of objects. The legs of a horse were uniquely created for walking.
The development of comparative anatomy cast doubt on the argument from design when it was
found that the wings of a bat, the arms of a human and the legs of a horse were very similar in their
structure (undermining the idea of unique creations for specific purposes). Our limbs share a
similar bone structure with bats, horses, lizards and many other animals because our basic body
plan was inherited with modification from a common______________. We can track the evolution
of limbs with digits at the end (fingers and toes) to fish hundreds of millions of years ago!
The Argument from Design has recently re-appeared under the name Intelligent Design.
Intelligent Design is the newest incarnation of creationism. Creationists work to explain the history
of life through their beliefs instead of through science. Intelligent Design proponents recently tried
to force the teaching of their belief system in biology classes in Pennsylvania. A number of parents
sued the school (they didn’t want their children being taught the theology of a specific sect of
Christianity in a science class) and it went all the way to the Pennsylvania Supreme Court. The
judge stated that ID was not science, it was a belief system and therefore did not belong in a
science class.
Questions: What is comparative anatomy? What does comparative anatomy reveal
about different life forms on earth? Is the argument from design a scientific hypothesis?
Why or why not?
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Earlier beliefs about the
For each item make sure to
Earth and Life on Earth
know and understand the
(data/reasoning used)
data/reasoning used
Age of the Earth- data used to
determine age of the earth
Catastrophism
Modern scientific
understandings of the earth
and life on earth
(data/reasoning used)
Uniformitarianism
Great Chain of Being
Argument from Design
Extinction of life forms
Speciation of life forms
Change of life over time
Lamark’s Inheritance of Acquired Characteristics or Use/Disuse Hypothesis
a. Life _________________ over time
b. Plants and animals _________________ in relation to their environment
c. Change in life forms over time is ___________________________, going from
imperfect to perfect.
d. The ____________ stimulates subtle fluids and leads to the acquisition of traits.
Variation in individuals is acquired through this will (and fluid). Traits ______________
in an individuals lifetime are then passed onto their offspring through _____________.
e. Traits are acquired in an individuals lifetime through ____________ and traits are lost
over time through ______________________.
f. Environments change over time.
Is Lamarck’s hypothesis scientific? Are parts of it scientific? Is it valid?
What is the key difference between Lamarck’s and Darwin’s view of variation?
What is the key difference between Lamarck and Darwin’s view of progress in change of life
over time?
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Natural Selection- definition: a process of evolutionary change based on ________________________
reproductive success or fitness of _____________________________________ within a
_______________________________.
Key aspects of natural selection (this is REALLY important, make sure you understand this!):
Variation exists in all individuals within a population or species. Individuals within species vary in their
_______________such as their size, speed, ability to resist disease, coloring, etc. Variation is helpful or
necessary for natural selection to be able to operate?
Competition: In all populations there are more individuals born than the environment can accommodate.
Competition for survival exists between __________________________ within all populations. Individuals
_____________________the same population compete for _________________________ based on the
variable traits that they posses. Variation in traits allows some individuals to be better at getting food,
avoiding predators, avoiding illness, and therefore live longer and produce more _____________________.
The environment or nature ___________________for or against individuals based on their traits:
Individuals with the “best” traits in a particular environment are “selected” for. The environment (nature)
selects which __________________ are most advantageous for survival. Depending on the environment
it may be better to be small or large, dark or light in coloring, etc. Selection is evidenced by the
______________________ reproductive _____________________of individuals within a population.
Fitness in Darwinian terms is “differential _________________________success.” Differential reproductive
success is when an individual produces more ____________________ that live to a reproductive age than
other individuals in their population. An individual has been “selected” for when they are more __________
than others in their population (i.e. they produce more offspring than other individuals within their
population).
Inheritance: The traits that are significant in natural selection are those traits that are passed on by parents
to offspring through _____________________ inheritance. Offspring inherit their traits from their biological
parents.
Environments change: the environment or nature is not ____________________. Traits that are selected
for today may not be ____________________________ or selected for in another environment. The
“environment” includes the climate, predators, food availability, etc.
Natural selection. The individual’s that make up a __________________ change as nature selects for or
against individuals based on the variable traits that they posses. Individuals with “_________________”
traits live and reproduce offspring, those with “_______________________” traits die young and do not
produce offspring. Over enough time new _______________________ can form.
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So… how does natural selection work to shape populations over time? You will be asked to write an essay
outlining how natural selection works to shape populations over time. How does each component or aspect
of natural selection work to change populations over time? Look up antibiotic resistance, staph infection or
TB, to gain insight into how natural selection works on living populations over time.
1. What is the role of variation in natural selection? According to Darwin does variation exist in populations
or does variation appear as it is needed?
2. What is the role of competition in natural selection? Is competition within the population or between
populations? Who helped Darwin see the significance of competition?
3. What role does the environment play in natural selection?
4. What is the role of inheritance in natural selection?
5. What is fitness in Darwinian evolution?
6. What evolves? Individuals? or Populations?
7. Is natural selection progressive (leading to the evolution of more perfect organisms)?
8. According to Park (the author or your text) did Darwin set the stage for a conflict between religion and
science?
As regards Natural Selection, keep in mind:
Selection operates at the ___________________________ level. Selection is for or against
______________________________ based on the ____________________ that they possess.
It is _______________________________ that evolve, not _____________________________.
Populations change over _______________________ as the ______________________ with the
most advantageous traits are _________________________ for and they produce offspring that
__________________________ their parent’s traits.
Natural Selection is not _______________________________. It doesn’t lead to more
_________________________ organisms. Natural selection, selects for __________________
that are “positive” in a particular _____________________________, in relation to reproductive
success. Natural selection does not have any particular _______________________ or teleology.
Natural Selection is not foolproof. __________________________________ is the norm.
________________________________ must be present to be selected for or against. There must
be _______________________ for selection to occur. If environmental change is too sudden or
too ____________________________natural selection won’t work to keep a population in an
adaptive relationship with it’s environment.
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What Darwin Never Saw- Video Questions
K. Markley
1. In the beginning of the video the narrator uses two phrases which are incorrect in their scientific,
biological context and in the way that he uses them. What should he have said?
A. He said “…the finches held the secret to the origin of life.” He should have said
“…the finches held the secret to the origin of _____________________
B. He said “…but it was only a theory.” He should have said
“…but it was only a ______________________.”
2. What are the two species of finches the Grant’s are observing on Daphne Major?
3. The three questions the Grants were working to answer in their observations of the finches
a. Do species compete?
b. Why are some populations so variable?
c. _________________________________________________________________
4. How did the Galapagos Islands (which are fairly recent volcanic islands) become populated with
the finches, plant life and other animals (speculate on this question)?
5. How many species of finches currently inhabit the Galapagos Islands?
6. What specific knowledge do the Grant’s need to document natural selection (think about the
components of natural selection).
-variation
-competition
-inheritance
-environment
-fitness
7. What species of finch undergo natural selection events and what is the most important trait
impacting their survival?
8. The Grant’s observed two natural selection events. What happened?
9. (lecture) What were the two important things that the Grant’s study of Darwin’s finches
revealed?
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Genetics Notes: This is a general outline of what you need to know for the section on genetics.
To make the best use of this information, read your text, attend class, take notes and use these
sheets as an outline for key concepts and understandings. The section on genetics can often be a
bit overwhelming at first, but if you follow my recommendations you should do well.
When Darwin developed his theory of ______________________________ he
understood the significance of variation but he did not know where it came from. He knew that
___________________ reproduction and ____________________________ played a role in
variation but he didn’t know exactly how (he thought there was some sort of blending). The study
of genetics focuses on how sexual reproduction and inheritance play a role in variation.
Genetics: the study of how traits are transmitted from one generation to the next. The study of
genetics informs us as to where variation comes from and how inheritance works.
Brief Overview: Humans (along with all other animals and plant life) are made up of cells. _____
are the basic unit of life in all living organisms. DNA resides in the nucleus of the cell directing cell
replication (for growth and repair) and protein synthesis. DNA contains the genetic code. The four
DNA bases (cytosine-C, guanine-G, adenine-A, and thymine-T), combine in units of three (codons)
to form amino acids, which then code for the tens of thousands of proteins that comprise a human
being. We are basically made up of proteins (enzymes, hormones, collagen, hemoglobin, are all
proteins).
How Genes Work: Once you have read and studied this section you should know;
Where DNA resides _________________________________________________________
The structure or shape of the DNA molecule ______________________________________
How the bases (A, T, C, and G) hook up __________________________________________
How DNA directs cell replication and protein synthesis.
Cell replication: Is a continual process in the body. It involves DNA directing the
unwinding of the DNA molecule, where enzymes cut the base pairs apart, and new bases
are picked up in the cell. The result (if all goes well) is an exact copy or daughter cell. In
this process adenine hooks up with _________________________ and cytosine hooks up
with_____________________.
Protein Synthesis: starts in a similar way as cell replication does, but the DNA molecule
is only partially unwound. Messenger RNA is assembled against one strand of the
unwound DNA. mRNA transcribes the gene by matching complementary bases to the
exposed coding strand of DNA, except that ________________ replaces thymine. mRNA
then leaves the nucleus of the cell and moves to the _______________________. It is in
the _____________________ that the message is decoded and translated into a
_______________________. Transfer RNA reads the three letter code (also called a
_____________). The _________________, or amino ________________ are then
strung together to make a protein.
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If we compare DNA to language we can see understand it in the following way:
DNA language has the following 4 letters; ____________________________________________
DNA words are always _________letters long and they form _______________ or ____________
In the DNA language there are ___________________ words (or amino acids).
DNA sentences create ____________________ with a string of amino acids. There are an
estimated _______________ proteins that make us what we are.
All life on earth is made up of these four DNA bases. The different life forms that exist form are in
part the result of the sequence, quantity and coding of the four DNA bases.
From a Gene to a Trait: Genes are portions of the DNA molecule that code for specific traits or
portions of a trait (specifically proteins, or portions of a protein). Humans have some 25,000
genes. Our genes code for some 90,000 proteins. Each gene resides at a specific location on the
chromosome (the locus) and each individual receives two “genes” or alleles at each location, one
from each parent.
Example: The trait of earlobes is coded for by one gene, but there are two possible
________for earlobes, attached and free hanging. Attached earlobes are when the bottom
of the earlobe is attached to the neck, free hanging earlobes are not attached.
Locus _________________________________________________________________________
Alleles________________________________, there are always _________alleles at each locus
Genotype: _____________________________________________________________________
Phenotype ____________________________________________________________________
Homozygous: __________________________________________________________________
Heterozygous: __________________________________________________________________
Alleles come in various forms and this impacts their expression in the individual
Dominant: _____________________________________________________________
Recessive: ______________________________________________________________
co-dominance: ________________________________________, an example is the __________
blood system
incomplete dominance: occurs when a recessive allele has some phenotypic effect, the
recessive allele is not completely “masked” by the dominant allele (tay sachs is an example)
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Example: The allele for free hanging earlobes is dominant and the allele for attached earlobes is
recessive. Dominant alleles are shown using capital letters and recessive alleles are shown using
lower case letters. For this trait there are three different genotypes and two possible phenotypes.
Genotype
Phenotype
EE - homozygous dominant
free hanging earlobes
Ee - heterozygous
free hanging earlobes
ee - homozygous recessive
attached earlobes
Genetic Expression: The physical traits that we posses are determined by our genes or a
combination of our genes and the environment.
monogenic traits: __________________________________________________
examplepolygenic traits: ____________________________________________________
examplepleiotropy: __________________________________________________________
exampleHow Inheritance Works: As we learned above, genes (or alleles) come in pairs. When cells
replicate, the result is an exact daughter cell. This process is ______________________. All of
the cells in our body (except the sex cells or gametes) contain all of our genetic information.
Generally our DNA resides in the nucleus of the cell in a long strand but during cell replication and
protein synthesis DNA forms into discrete forms called ________________________________.
We inherit the chromosomes that we posses from our biological parents. Typical humans have 23
_____________ of chromosomes, we get ___________ from each biological parent.
Humans start life as a single cell. With cell division and replication we eventually end up as an
adult human being comprised of some 1,000 billion cells. Cell division and replication of the
somatic cells is responsible for growth and repair of our bodies.
Somatic cells, which comprise the body tissue, muscle, bone, skin, nerves, etc. that make
up our body. Each of our somatic cells contains all _________________pairs of our
chromosomes, for a total of ___________chromosomes.
Mitosis: is cell division of the __________________cells, and the result is two
_______________ daughter cells. Mitosis is an ongoing process in the body.
___________ in the nucleus of the cell, directs this process. Mitosis works for repair and
growth of the nails, hair, bone marrow, etc. which are constantly replaced.
Sex cells or gametes are the cells of reproduction (eggs and sperm). The sex cells
contain only half of our chromosomes (23 total).
Meiosis: is cell division where sex cells are produced (gametes; ___________________&
__________________). During meiosis the cells undergo an extra round of division and
instead of two exact copies being produced as in mitosis, only one set of the twenty-three
chromosomes are left. So, at the end of meiosis the sex cells only contain half of the
individuals chromosomal complement.
17
Question: Why is it critical that the sex cells undergo another round of division? What role does
this extra round of division play in shuffling existing variation?
Meiosis is a powerful source for genetic diversity. In the production of each gamete or sex cell
there is a _____________chance as to which one of the pair of chromosomes an individual passes
onto to their offspring. Meiosis is a powerful source to reshuffle the existing variation. Each human
has some 8 million possible combinations for their offspring.
Punnett Squares: Show the possibilities for offspring (inheritance). The outside of the punnett
square reflects the ____________________the parents posses for a particular trait. The inside of
the square reflects the possibilities for their offspring’s _______________. During meiosis there is
a __________ possibility as to which allele each parent passes onto their offspring.
Example: A man with attached ear lobes marries a women with free hanging ear lobes
(heterozygous). What are the possibilities for their children? (free hanging alleles are
dominant and attached alleles are recessive). Which alleles represent the male and which
represent the female in this example?
E
e
Ee
ee
e
Ee
ee
e
Offspring: there is a 50% possibility the children will have attached ear lobes and a 50%
possibility they will have free hanging ear lobes
Rules of Inheritence
Segregation: during meiosis chromosomes segregate (and therefore allele pairs segregate)
There is a ___________chance for a parent to pass on either _________________
(this is what is represented in the punnett squares, you are displaying the
_______________chance for what the offspring will receive from their parents)
Independent Assortment: genes on separate chromosomes are inherited ________________. It
is chromosomes that segregate during meiosis not individual genes
Linkage: genes on same chromosome are inherited ___________________, because it is
_______________________________that segregate during meiosis
Crossing Over: exception to linkage, during meiosis portions of chromosome pairs break off and
cross over and are then recombined (recombination)
Variation is increased through: Segregation, independent assortment, crossing over &
recombination
18
Chromosomes are ____________________________________________________________
that reside in the nucleus of the cell. Generally DNA resides in a long strand inside the cell's
nucleus but as the cell undergoes division the DNA becomes ___________________ and
separates into chromosomes. Each species has a specific number of chromosomes. All typical
humans have 23 pairs of chromosomes, 46 total (23 from each parent).
Autosomes: chromosomes ________to ___________. They contain most all of the
genetic info for our physical characteristics except ___________________determination.
Sex Chromosomes: ______________ & _________________.
 Typical females have an _______& ______ sex chromosomes and thus have a
matching pair for all of their chromosomes. The X chromosome is large and codes for
__________________________ traits.
 Typical males have an__________& __________ sex chromosome. Therefore males
do not have a matching pair for their sex chromosomes. The Y chromosome is small
and for the most part codes for ___________________. Since males do not have a
matching pair of sex chromosomes this makes them more susceptible to traits that
reside on the X chromosome.
Sex linked traits: Sex linked traits reside on either the _______or the ________ chromosome.
Most sex linked traits reside on the ______chromosome (remember it carries many genes and
functions more like an autosome). When you are working to determine the possibilities for
offspring traits on a sex linked trait you need to put the sex chromosomes on the outside of the
punnett square.
Example: Trait under study is red green color blindness which is an X linked recessive
disorder. A male with red green color blindness marries a female who is heterozygous for
the trait. What are the possibilities for their children?
Xr
Y
XR
Xr
XR Xr
XR Y
Xr Xr
Xr Y
Children: There is a 50% probability that their children will be red green colorblind.
Question: Why does the man have only one allele for this trait?
Things to keep in mind
 During meiosis parents pass on 50% of their chromosomal complement
 Punnett squares are used to calculate the possibilities for inheritance. The alleles the parents
posses are on the outside and the possibilities for offspring’s alleles are on the inside.
 Offspring can express traits not expressed in parents (due to recessive alleles)
 Humans have pairs of all autosomes (22 from each parent, 44 total), females have a pair of
sex chromosomes (two X’s, one from each parent), males have one X and one Y chromosome
(males more likely to get conditions passed on X chromosome)
19
Human Genome: The completion of the Human Genome was an incredible accomplishment. The
race to complete it involved many countries around the world, and also a competition between
public and private interests. The completion of the genome means that we now know the
sequence of the four bases for our species, Homo sapiens. It has lead to many new
understandings and it has also left us with much more to learn. As you read this section make sure
you can answer the following questions;
1. What did the completion of the human genome reveal about junk DNA? Is some
___________% of our DNA actually junk?
2. What is the difference between coding and non-coding DNA?
3. How can humans have 25,000 genes and some 90,000 proteins? What did role does
junk DNA play in this situation?How many genes do we have?
Characteristics of the DNA Code
The Code is universal- The same DNA code is present in all life on earth. Humans share some
200 genes with bacteria, this reflects a common ancestor with bacteria. Some 75% of our genes
are shared with birds, we shared a common ancestor with birds some 310 million years ago. We
share ______________ our DNA code with chimpanzees and bonobo’s.
The Code is triplet- Each amino acid is specified by a sequence of 3 bases
The Code is continuous without pauses- There is no separation from one amino acid (codon) to
another, so if a base is deleted then entire frame is moved, drastically altering the “message”
downstream for other successive codons.
The Code is redundant- There are 20 amino acids, and 4 DNA bases which makes for 64
possible triplets (with 3 stop messages), so there are 61codons specifying 20 amino acids
o Many amino acids are coded for by more than one codon- (valine= UAA, UAG, UGA)
o Redundancy helps if there is a change or mutation in the code it makes it less likely
there will be drastic consequences. Although recent research is showing that a
change in a base may not change the amino acid it may change how the protein is
expressed, how fast a protein is made, etc.
20
Nature/Nurture Debate
An understanding of the nature/nurture debate requires knowledge of genetics and critical thinking
skills. The nature/nurture debate has been ongoing for millennia. This is a philosophical and
scientific debate with profound, practical, everyday consequences. If we attribute traits solely to
genetics, and we see some traits as problematic (i.e. aggression) than society may work to stop
individuals deemed too aggressive from breeding (the USA had a eugenics program where
individuals deemed unfit were forcibly sterilized from the 1920’s till the 1970’s). If we attribute traits
to our environment or culture than we may work to provide a better environment for individuals (i.e.
fund programs such as Head Start). So, this debate is not merely philosophical, the conclusions
have real world consequences.
What do Genes Do?
Genes code for _________________ or _________________ or portions of a ________________
or a _____________________. Genes give rise to our physical features, although our physical
features are influenced by our ___________________________________ (the food we eat, levels
of exercise, etc). Some genes code for hormones, and hormones affect feelings to a degree (and
the experience of feelings is very much influenced by culture and context). To what degree this
affects behaviors is a matter of debate.
The Nature argument states that our nature, our basic temperament is due to our _____________.
The Nurture argument states that our basic temperament is due to our _____________________.
Most anthropologists see a ___________________________loop between our biology and our
culture. This means, as Park states, we see that we have general potentials from our biology, but
we our not committed to any one path or outcome. One area of debate is over the concept of
instincts. Do humans have any instincts…?
What do you need to evaluate this debate? To critique the nature debate you need to look
at the following.
1. To state that genes lead to behaviors you first need to be able to find the _________________
and draw a direct link between gene and the behavior. This works great with monogenic traits, but
it isn’t as easy with pleotropic and polygenic traits.
2. You need to define the ________________________. Some of the behaviors that have been
labeled genetic include; violence, infidelity, alcoholism, etc. How would you come up with an
operational definition for these behaviors?
3. You would need to rule out the environment as playing a role. The influence of the environment
starts in the ___________________ and continues until the day that we die
To critique the nurture debate you need to look at the same factors. If you state that we are
only a product of our environment you need to draw links between specific cultures and
environments and specific behaviors. You would expect to find fairly divergent behaviors between
different human populations. What do we see in human cultures around the world? How similar or
different are humans in cultures around the world? Take a cultural anthropology class to learn
more….. 
21
Processes of Evolution
In general Evolution is defined as _________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
and it implies that all life on earth has descended with _____________________from earlier forms.
Question: In your own words can you explain what descent with modification means?
How does descent with modification explain the similarities between the limbs of horses,
lizards, bats and humans?
What are species? What criteria are used to differentiate between species?
1. ____________________________________________________________________________
2. ____________________________________________________________________________
3. ____________________________________________________________________________
Niche: the ____________________ and the _____________________ response of the organism
within the environment
Mutation: ______________________________________________________________________
Mutation is the ultimate source of all __________ genetic variation.
The effects of mutation can be; ________________________, negative, and positive
The two types of mutations are ___________________________ and chromosomal.
The causes of mutations include ___________________________ and internal processes
(especially as we age). Mutations are ______________________ but they occur at a regular rate.
A mutation is rare for any given ______________________.
Question: What are common misconceptions in regards to mutations?
FYI: If you’re interested in this topic you might want to read “Mutants” by Armand Leroi.
Gene Flow: ___________________________________________________________________
A population is where you are most likely to get your __________________from . Populations
form due to environmental and cultural reasons.
Gene flow works to __________________ variation or differences between populations and
increases or introduces variation _____________________ populations.
Question: If gene flow were stopped between populations within a species what effect do
you think it would have?
22
Gene Drift: ___________________________________________________________________
Gene Drift can only change allele frequencies to any great degree in _______________________
populations.
There are several different aspects of Gene Drift.
Gamete sampling and sampling error: Gamete sampling is what happens during
________________________ In small populations allele frequencies can fluctuate dramatically,
and sampling _________________________ results. In ______________________ populations
sampling error is eliminated.
Question: How is sampling error eliminated in small populations but not in large
populations? How can gene drift result in dramatic, random fluctuations in allele
frequencies?
Fission/founder effect: This occurs when there is a splitting of a population, or breaking away of a
portion of population (___________________________), and a new _______________________
population is formed. The founder population is usually genetically from original population.
Examples of this include (get examples from your text):
______________________________________________________________________________
Bottlenecks: This occurs when there is a _____________________________ reduction in the
population. Bottlenecks occur for various reasons. Environmental upheaval or
_________________________________________ are common causes.
Question: Do you think that bottleneck events were common or uncommon in early
hominin evolution? Would bottleneck events, and gene drift in general, work to change
populations directionally or randomly?
Debates in physical anthropology, and evolutionary studies include looking at which processes of
evolution are the biggest movers of evolution. Review the information on natural selection,
mutation, gene drift and gene flow and work to determine which processes you think could change
allele frequencies in large numbers (our working definition of evolution).
Natural selection- can it change allele frequencies dramatically or to a small degree?
Mutation- can it change allele frequencies dramatically or to a small degree?
Gene flow- can it change allele frequencies dramatically or to a small degree?
Gene drift- can it change allele frequencies dramatically or to a small degree?
23
Chapter 5- Origin of Species
Evolution ______________________________________________________________
What are the 4 processes that can account for a change in allele frequencies over time?
1.______________________________________ 2. ___________________________________
3. ______________________________________ 4. ___________________________________
Microevolution: small-scale evolutionary change, detectable in __________________ populations
Macroevolution: large-scale evolutionary change, speciation, generally detectable in the
_____________________________ record (depends on the reproductive cycle of the organism)
Basic Unit of Evolution: Species-species are by definition reproductively isolated from other
species. What prevents inter-breeding between species?_____________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
Speciation can be evidenced by the development of a __________________________________
Speciation occurs when a reproductive isolating mechanism exists. Reproductive isolating
mechanisms prevent the breeding and/or production of fertile offspring.
List at least three different types of reproductive isolating mechanisms.
1. _________________________________________________________________________
2. _________________________________________________________________________
3. __________________________________________________________________________
How does speciation occur?
Generally speciation occurs when populations are in different environments. For speciation to
occur generally a population within a species must be reproductively isolated with no
_________ ___________ occurring. The elimination of _________ ___________ provides the
opportunity for speciation. Speciation requires that the other processes of evolution, __________,
_____________________________, and _________________________________________ act
on the population. Over enough time this can lead to _____________________________.
24
Speciation has been found to also occur when species are in the same environment. What
example does Park list in your text of species evolving in the same environment?
____________________________________ What reproductive isolating mechanism allowed for
the species to evolve in the same environment? _______________________________________
What else can spur speciation? _____________________________________________________
The Evolution of Life’s Diversity- Our Family Tree
There are ____________________ named species in the world today. It is estimated that there
are some ______________________________ species on earth. Life on earth is incredibly
diverse and plentiful. The fossil record reveals that speciation, adaptive radiation, extinction and
mass extinctions are common. Despite all of the diversity of life forms on earth, all life forms share
the same 4 DNA bases, this leads scientists to assume that life on earth had a ________________
origin.
Adaptive radiation is one process by which life forms on earth have evolved and spread out in
great numbers. Adaptive radiation is the ____________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________.
Give at least two examples of adaptive radiation: ______________________________________
Adaptive radiation is fostered in three general situations:
1. When an environment has no similar, ________________________ species.
2. When an ___________________________ event empties the environment of competition.
3. When a new group of species are adaptively ________________________ (as opposed to
specialized) and are able to successfully live in new niches and displace other species.
Species are either specialized in their adaptation or___________________________________.
An example of a species that is specialized is ________________________________. An
example of a species that is generalized is _____________________________________.
25
Did Darwin’s finches adaptively radiate? ________________________________________
List at least three different adaptations that Darwin’s finches have (related to their survival)
1_________________________, 2_______________________, 3___________________
What event allowed for the adaptive radiation of mammals and therefore primates?
_____________________________________________________________________.
Are Primates specialized or generalized? Are prosimian’s generalized or specialized?
Which group of animals is more generalized; monkeys or promimians?
The Shape of the Family Tree- The Modes of Evolution
Darwinian Gradualism- Darwin thought that populations of organisms change and evolve at a
slow, steady pace, pushed by natural selection. Speciation comes about at a slow, steady pace
with populations gradually changing over time. Evolution is viewed as a ___________________
with long, graceful branches. However not all species show this slow, gradual change.
Punctuated Equilibrium: developed by Stephen Gould and Niles Eldridge states that species will
remain __________________________ for long periods of time and then a small, isolated, fringe
___________________________will undergo rapid _____________________ brought on by gene
__________________ and natural selection. Punctuated equilibrium shows evolution as a
_________________ with a lot of short, twiggy branches.
What data could be used to determine which model is accurate for life on earth?
What are the key differences in the tree and bush models________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
26
Evolution, Creationism and Pseudoscience
Evolution is the central concept in the field of ____________________. Evolution is considered to
be a fact, a hypothesis and a __________________in the natural sciences. It has been tested
over and over again and while there are many debates in regards to the details of how evolution
works there is no debate in science as to the fact or theory of evolution to explain biological
change.
Why is a knowledge of science and specifically evolution important to you as an individual and
important to us as a society? Think of at least one example from your reading or lecture.
___________________________________________________________________________
What is the key difference between science and belief as ways of knowing about the world?
______________________________________________________________________________
What is pseudoscience___________________________________________________________.
In what ways is creationism a pseudoscience__________________________________________?
According to Park are there two sides to the evolution debate in science?____________________
Park discusses Intelligent Design and points out two big problems with this pseudoscientific idea
1.
2.
The most recent supreme court case involving Intelligent Design was in Dover, Pennsylvania. The
school board voted to mandate that biology teachers make a statement in class that critiqued
Evolutionary Theory and presented Intelligent Design as a viable alternative. Nine parents sued
the school district because they were not teaching their children science. The case went all the
way to the state Supreme Court and the judge ruled that Intelligent Design was pseudoscience, not
science. Judge Jones stated the following; ID is not science, it is religion and it does not belong in
science classrooms. His 139 page ruling included the following observations:
1. ID relies on supernatural explanations for natural phenomena, this is not science
2. ID does not rely on testing, testing is essential to scientific knowledge
3. ID relies on the same “contrived dualism” as creation-science, namely suggesting that if they
can refute all or part of Evolutionary Theory this means that ID is accurate.
4. ID’s “irreducible complexity” argument is an attempted negative against evolution, not a proof of
design.
Question: What is the relationship between the argument from design and intelligent design?
27
History of Life on Earth- Overview
Geological history is backdrop for life on earth, geological time scale divided into eras of biological and geological
activity that stretch over long periods of time, use boundaries to mark periods of devastation or mass extinctions, eras
subdivided into periods, w/in periods epochs
MYA- BP
4,600-2,500(4.6 - 2.5 bya)
3000- (3 bya)
Geological Era
Archean
Periods
Precambrian
Proterozoic
Precambrian
Paleozoic
Precambrian
550 mya
Cambrian
505
Ordovician
435
Silurian
410
Devonian
360
Carboniferous
290
Permian
240
205
138
Mesozoic
Triassic
Jurassic
Cretaceous
65
Cenozoic
Paleocene
Mass Extinctions
545mya mass
extinction- meteor?
440mya- mass
extinction
370mya most fish,
invertebrates die off
250mya-95% of
marine species
extinct
Tertiary epoch
65mya- mass
extinction event
54
38
25
5
1.65
Eocene
Oligocene
Miocene
Pliocene
Pleistocene
.01
Recent
Quaternary
epoch
Life Forms
3 BYA geological tumult died down, unicellular
organisms everywhere, some photosynthesis,
starts changing atmosphere, adding oxygen
1.4-1.9bya find eukaryotic cells, 1.2 bya
multicellular life (red algae-Canada), Siberia 1 bya
Prior to 600-700mya record sparse, intense
heat/pressure destroyed most remains
Ancestors of all modern animal groups appear +
formation of many now extinct species
Seas- algae, invertebrates, 1st vertebrates (jawless
fishes)
First land organisms, plants (had stems, no leaves,
roots) & animals resembling scorpions
Age of fishes; invertebrates, fish w/bone, cartilage,
land mostly barren-scorpions, millipedes,
invertebrates
Age of Amphibians: sea animals spending more
time on land
1st 4 limbed animals- mixed adaptations for water &
land-Acanthostega (fin on tail like fish, hips/legs/
toes, ribcage not strong enough to support internal
organs out of water, but footprints showed brief
land ventures, flat feet to move thru water w/8 toes)
earth- insects, plants flourished on land, huge
ferns, Coal Age (produced coal of today)
Mass extinctions- 95% of terrestrial, sea organisms
reptiles gone- egg laying animals appearCotylosaurs gave rise to dinosaurs, mammals,
reptiles, birds
First mammals
Dinosaurs everywhere
Flowering plants spread in diversity, triceratops
flourished (cockroaches of cretaceous)
Extinction of dinosaurs other marine life &
mammals proliferate - diverse hoofed mamals,
many marsupials, egg-laying monotremes
(ancestor to platypus), placental mammals appear,
primate like animals appear
First primates- primitive prosimians
Anthropoid evolution
Radiation of early apes
First hominids, first members of genus Homo
Evolution of genus Homo
Humans develop agriculture, industry, explore
space
Stephen Gould perspective: With the appearance of each new type of animal we call it “The Age of Fish, The Age of
Dinosaurs” and don’t discuss that many of the previous forms of life in existence continue to exist and often proliferate.
For instance “the most salient feature of life has been the stability of its bacterial mode from the beginning of the fossil
record until today and, with little doubt into all future time so long as the earth endures. This is truly the “age of
bacteria” as it was in the beginning, is now and ever shall be.” Bacteria occupy a wider domain of environments and
span a broader range of biochemistries than any other group. They are adaptable, indestructible, and astoundingly
diverse.
28
Brief History of Life on Earth- For this section you need to know the following:
1. What do we know about the origin of life?
2. Does evolutionary theory explain the origin of life on earth? Why or why not?
3. What is the approximate age of the earth?
4. What is the approximate age of the oldest life on earth?
5. What type of life is the oldest life on earth?
6. When do we first find multi-cellular organisms in the fossil record?
7. What is the significance of sexual reproduction in the evolution of life on earth?
8. What is the Cambrian Explosion?
9. What do we find in the fossil record with fossils from the Cambrian Explosion?
10. When did mammals first evolve?
11. When did primates first evolve?
12. What occurred just before the adaptive radiation of mammals and primates?
13. What are the three themes that Park states are important to remember (chapt. 6 summary)
1. ______________________ are the dominant species on earth, although we are the
_________ kids on the block, and we have not proven ourselves as successful if we use
__________________ as the criterion.
2. The only real ______________ is the _____________ of the universe, everything else
has been rearrangements of what has already existed
3. What is the most humbling thing?
29
Mammals
Evolved some 220 million years ago from a reptilian ancestor. For most of their history (220 mya
ago until 65 mya ago) mammals were small rodent type creatures. Mammals underwent
____________________ ____________________ some 65 million years ago. The adaptive
radiation of mammals coincided with the demise of the dinosaurs. Today mammals are an
incredibly diverse group of animals from the hog nosed bat (the size of a bumblebee) to the largest
mammal, the blue whale (up to 100 feet long).
Thought Question: Why do you think that mammals remained static for so
long (from 220 mya to 65 mya)? What is the relationship between the adaptive
radiation of mammals and the demise of the dinosaurs?
Animals are placed in the mammal class when they share many of the same traits. Mammalian
traits include; milk secreting mammary glands, hairy bodies, large braincases relative to body size,
internal fertilization, and a constant body temperature. There are three basic types of mammals;
monotremes, marsupials and _______________________________. Primates are a
_________________________mammal.
o Monotremes: egg-laying mammals (duck billed platypus, spiny anteater)
o Marsupials: pouched animals, embryo finishes development in mothers pouch.
o Placentals: nourish the embryo with a placenta
 There are 18 orders of placental mammals: dogs, cats, whales, hippos,
primates
 Placental mammals are differentiated by dental patterns, specialized limbs,
toes, claws, hooves, complexity of nervous system
Primate Order: Primates are a part of the mammal class. Primates originated some 65 mya and
underwent adaptive radiation some 55 mya. There are four broad groupings of primates:
o Prosimians: these are the most primitive primates, they originated some 65 mya,
o Monkeys: old world monkeys & new world monkeys
o Apes: lesser or smaller and great apes
o Hominins: humans & human-like ancestors
Thought Question: What do you think was going on with the environment as primates
underwent adaptive radiation?
30
Physical Anthropology
Name_____________________
PBS Series- Great Transformations Video and Lecture Questions
1. What attributes of whales qualify them as a mammal? Can you make a case to classify whales
in another taxonomic class?
2. What is unusual about whales in comparison to other mammals?
3. What specific changes have whales undergone transitioning from a terrestrial animal to an
aquatic animal? What vestigial structures have whales retained?
4. Where have a large number of whale bones been found? Why is this site unexpected? What
knowledge would you need to work to find whale bones from 50mya, 45mya, 40mya?
5. What is a transitional form? How many transitional forms have been identified to date in the
evolution of whales?
6. What is a tetrapod?
7. Which scenario is accurate? A) fish became terrestrial and then there was a selection for
limbs/legs, B) fish developed limbs/legs and then became terrestrial
8. What is the goal of evolution?
9. What is paleontology?
10. What is the Cambrian explosion? What is found in the fossils of the Cambrian explosion? Do
we know if the Cambrian explosion was really an explosion?
11. What does evolution tinker with?
31
Testing Evolution, Sexual Selection and Hardy Weinberg
Evolution is defined as ___________________________________________________________.
When we see change in a population over time we know that it can be attributed to any or all of the
following process ___________________________________, ____________________________,
___________________________________, and/or ____________________________________
Natural selection explains directional or random change in relationship to the environment Natural
selection is very powerful and can change allele frequencies dramatically over time. Gene Drift is
also a big mover of allele frequencies, albeit randomly. Mutation works to introduce variation and
gene flow keeps populations similar, unless it is eliminated.
One thing that puzzled Darwin for quite a bit of time was how to explain the differences between
females and males? If we look at the animal kingdom we can see mild to dramatic differences in
physical size, traits and features between females and males. After time Darwin developed the
concept of sexual selection. Sexual selection is an aspect of natural selection.
Sexual Selection is the selection of mates based on phenotypic (physical) traits. Sexual
reproduction acts differently on females and males because the processes of reproduction operate
differently in each sex. The strategies and investment in reproductive success is different for
males and females (and different depending on the species).
Females have a limited number of large eggs. Females make a huge investment in offspring, both
during pregnancy and in raising their offspring to adulthood.
Female Choice: Sexual selection states that Females make Choices in regards to mates. The
best strategy for a female is to be choosy mater. They need to select the male with the best
genetic material so that they can be reproductively successful. This choice does not have to be
conscious or deliberate. Females just need to select the males with the best genes for
reproductive success.
Give an example of female choice__________________________________________________
Males have a lot of small, sperm. Males generally make a very brief, limited investment in the
production of offspring. In many species males deposit their sperm and move on.
Male Competition: The best strategy for males is to have as many mates as possible. Males
often compete with other males for access to females and for the control of females.
Give an example of male competition ________________________________________________
Keep in mind that natural selection explains why one individual survives and passes on their genes
to the next generation while another individual dies. Sexual selection explains differences between
females and males within a species, and it is an aspect of natural selection.
Questions:
1. Do females have to know that a trait is positive genetically for them to benefit reproductively from the
trait?
2. In Darwin’s time male competition was immediately accepted as valid while female choice was ignored
and minimized. Why do you think that was the case? Isn’t science supposed to be objective?
32
Hardy Weinberg Overview
1. Evolution (definition):
2. Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium Formula
This formula is a tool researchers use to document evolution. Researchers go into a population, select a
trait for study and determine the genotype frequencies for the trait within the population. These “observed
genotype frequencies” are then plugged into the Hardy-Weinberg formula (p2 + 2pq + q2=1) and the
formula gives the “expected genotype frequencies” for this population under a hypothetical condition of no
change. These “expected genotype frequencies” are hypothetical because populations are always being
impacted to some degree by at least some of the processes of evolution. A comparison between the
“observed” and “expected” genotype frequencies shows if the population is undergoing change (which they
almost always are) and allows researchers to speculate as to which processes of evolution are affecting the
population.
3. The Hardy Weinburg Equilibrium formula (using the observed genotype frequencies) gives the expected
genotype frequencies in a population in a hypothetical condition of no change. Why are these “expected”
genotype frequencies of no change said to be hypothetical (analyze this question in relationship to each
process of evolution)?
4. Steps to use the Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium formula
 Determine the OBSERVED GENOTYPES for all individuals (3 options: homozygous dominant,
heterozygous, homozygous recessive)
 Calculate the OBSERVED GENOTYPE FREQUENCIES for all individuals (divide the total for each
genotype into the total number of individuals in the population for the three genotype frequencies)
 Calculate the total number of dominant alleles and the total number of recessive alleles for the
population and then calculate the ALLELE FREQUENCIES for both the dominant and recessive alleles
(dividing the total number of each type of allele into the total number of alleles for the population)
 Plug the allele frequencies into the Hardy-Weinberg formula. Use “p” to represent the dominant allele
frequency and “q” to represent the recessive allele frequency.
Hardy Weinberg Equilibrium formula: p² + 2(p)(q) + q² = 1
 Your figures must add up to 1, to represent all possibilities.
 The resulting numbers will give you the EXPECTED GENOYPE FREQUENCIES
p² = AA (homozygous dominant) 2 (p)(q) = Aa (heterozygous) q² = aa (homozygous recessive)
 Plug the EXPECTED GENOTYPE FREQUENCIES into your table and compare the expected
genotype frequencies with the observed genotype frequencies. Remember the expected genotype
frequencies are what you would expect to find if the population was not undergoing any change
5. What can the Hardy Weinberg Equilibrium model tells us? Whether or not change is occurring.
6. We can also speculate for EACH process of evolution. Think what information we need to be able to
speculate as to how allele frequencies can change over time (in relationship to each process)?
 Mutation

Gene Flow

Gene Drift

Natural Selection

Sexual Selection
33
Hardy Weinburg Overview
Allele Frequencies remain static unless there are processes that work to cause them to fluctuate.
The theory of evolution has shown that the processes that work to change allele frequencies are:
mutation, gene flow, gene drift, natural selection and sexual selection (an aspect of natural
selection). If there are fluctuations in allele frequencies we must look to these processes to
ascertain what is causing the fluctuations in allele frequencies. The Hardy Weinburg gives us a
formula to see if change is going on in a population and then we can speculate which processes of
evolution are interacting to change allele frequencies. Below are the definitions for each process,
key information and key questions to keep in mind as you speculate as to which processes of
evolution are interaction to change the population. Keep in mind we are only looking at one trait at
a time.
Mutation: “random change in the genetic code” it’s spontaneous and occurs at a regular rate. It
introduces variation to be selected for or against, mutations are rare for any given locus. Mutation
is always going on but it cannot change allele frequencies more than 1%.
gene flow “random exchange of alleles between populations. It introduces variation into
populations but doesn’t change allele frequencies more than 1%. Gene flow can be stopped with
geographic isolation or reproductive isolating mechanisms (or partially by cultural barriers in
humans). When you are speculating for gene flow ask “is the population reproductively isolated?”
gene drift “random fluctuation of alleles from one generation to the next” (think punnett squares).
Genetic drift is always occurring, and it can lead to big changes in allele frequencies in populations
under 100 (sampling error, gamate sampling). In large populations, sampling error is eliminated
and there cannot be large changes in allele frequencies. When you are speculating for gene drift
the first question to ask is “what size is the population”?
natural selection “selection based on differential reproductive success” can lead to big change
allele frequencies. Selection only occurs for traits that impact reproductive fitness, the environment
(niche) is a determining factor. Ask questions such as; how does the trait interact with fitness and
with the niche of the organism? Can we speculate that the trait under study is impacting the ability
of the individual to survive, or to out-compete others in their population? Would this trait be
selected for or against? Speculate in regards to the trait, fitness, and the environment.
sexual selection “selection of mates based on phenotypic traits” selection is always taking place
based on phenotypic differences. There are two aspects to sexual selection. Female choice
occurs because females investing much more time and labor into offspring than males do.
Females make a choice of mates based on the traits a male possess. If females make a choice in
regards to a trait that is an honest indicator of genetic health than they will be more fit. Male
competition results because males often make very little investment in offspring and males most
important reproductive strategy is to work to get access to females and food. Males often compete
with each other over females and resources. As you evaluate sexual selection look at how the trait
under study impacts the organism phenotypically? To what degree would female mate choice be
impacted by this trait? To what degree would male competition be impacted by the trait?
Speculate in regards to mate selection.
34
Hardy Weinberg Sample problem:
The Nacirema have a population of 98 individuals. They live in a secluded valley that is accessible
only to travelers on foot. Visitors must hike for three days through rugged terrain to reach the
Nacirema (they are rarely visited by anyone.) The Nacirema subsist by foraging for foods that
grow naturally in the environment, hunting for small animals and diving for clams an shrimp (these
are high status foods). Roving physical anthropologist Rosa Rodriguez and her research
assistants are the first visitors the Nacirema have had in 3 years. Rosa examines the entire
population to determine their genotypes for ear wax. As you recall ear wax comes in two forms,
wet, brown, sticky and dry, gray and brittle, the dry ear wax is inherited as a recessive. Ear wax
was chosen as a trait for study because the Nacirema really do not like the wet, sticky variety and
they want to know what is going on with their population. The Nacirema find the wet, sticky earwax
gross and it is hard to keep their kids ears clean. Rosa finds 27 individuals with dry ear wax and
36 individuals who are heterozygous for the trait and 35 individuals who are homozygous
dominant.
genotype
number of
individuals
observed
genotype
frequencies
expected
genotype
frequencies
total number
of dominant
alleles
total number
of recessive
alleles
EE
Ee
ee
Total number of alleles=
p = frequency of dominant alleles
p=
q = frequency of recessive alleles
q=
Expected genotype frequencies: p² + 2(p)(q) + q² = 1
Is change occurring in this population?
What can we speculate as to what is happening in this population. For this assignment you
must list and address all of the five processes that can affect a change in allele frequencies
over time (speculate for each process individually).
Mutation
Gene Flow
Gene Drift
Natural Selection
Sexual Selection
35
Tables for Hardy Weinberg Sample Problems
genotype
# of individuals
observed genotype
frequencies
expected genotype
frequencies
1.00
1.00
total # number of
Dominant alleles
total # of
Recessive alleles
Total number of alleles=
p = frequency of dominant alleles
p=
q = frequency of recessive alleles
q=
Expected genotype frequencies: p² + 2(p)(q) + q² = 1
Is change occurring in this population?
For each process speculate “can this process be responsible for some or all of the change
in allele frequencies?” (List each process and speculate for each individually)
genotype
# of individuals
observed genotype
frequencies
expected genotype
frequencies
1.00
1.00
total # number of
Dominant alleles
total # of
Recessive alleles
Total number of alleles=
p = frequency of dominant alleles
p=
q = frequency of recessive alleles
q=
Expected genotype frequencies: p² + 2(p)(q) + q² = 1
Is change occurring in this population?
For each process speculate “can this process be responsible for some or all of the change
in allele frequencies?” (List each process and speculate for each individually)
36
Tables for Hardy Weinberg Sample Problems
genotype
# of individuals
observed genotype
frequencies
expected genotype
frequencies
1.00
1.00
total # number of
Dominant alleles
total # of
Recessive alleles
Total number of alleles=
p = frequency of dominant alleles
p=
q = frequency of recessive alleles
q=
Expected genotype frequencies: p² + 2(p)(q) + q² = 1
Is change occurring in this population?
For each process speculate “can this process be responsible for some or all of the change
in allele frequencies?” (List each process and speculate for each individually)
genotype
# of individuals
observed genotype
frequencies
expected genotype
frequencies
1.00
1.00
total # number of
Dominant alleles
total # of
Recessive alleles
Total number of alleles=
p = frequency of dominant alleles
p=
q = frequency of recessive alleles
q=
Expected genotype frequencies: p² + 2(p)(q) + q² = 1
Is change occurring in this population?
For each process speculate “can this process be responsible for some or all of the change
in allele frequencies?” (List each process and speculate for each individually)
37
Taxonomic Categorization
Anthropology is the holistic study of humans. A holistic study of humans includes using the
comparative approach. To compare and contrast the human primate with ________
____________primates.
Humans- Unique in kind or Different by degree?
One overriding question for this section is to what degree and in what aspects are humans unique
in kind or just different by degree in comparison to other primates. This question can be looked at
in a variety of ways. We can compare and contrast primates physically, genetically, socially, and
behaviorally.
Physically: Non-human primates are physically similar to the human primate in many ways. This
is why monkeys and apes are used in medical research. In your text Park looks at different
aspects of primates; the___________________, movement, reproduction, intelligence and
behavior patterns. Read this section and note the similarities and differences between primates.
Keep in mind the 5 broad categories of primates as you read through this section: prosimians,
________________________________, old world monkeys, smaller apes, and the ____________
________________. Why do we classify primates into 5 broad groups? What criteria is used?
Genetically: Comparisons between chimps and humans reveals that upwards of _____________
of our genetic code is identical. In fact we are more similar genetically to chimps than chimps are
to gorillas. A mutation that occurred some 2 mya has been found in humans. This mutation
regulates jaw size which affected the space available in the cranium and is also seen as being
related language. Some see this one mutation as being responsible for the subsequent differences
between humans and chimpanzees and bonobo’s.
Socially: Primates are ______________________animals. This means that we live and operate
in social groups. As we cover primates you will find many similarities between us and other
primates. We recognize individuals, and have ________________________ hierarchies that we
constantly negotiate. Read your text and Annual Edition articles to gain further insights into
primate social behaviors.
Behaviorally: As we engage in the study of non-human primates we will see how certain physical
features as well as different environments affect the behaviors of primates. Primates have different
features that affect reproductive patterns and mate selection and mating behaviors. How intelligent
are other primates? All of the great apes have been taught to use computers and sign language to
communicate. Researchers believe that the great apes have a sense of self that other primates
don’t have.
38
Taxonomic Classifications
“People impose order on their social universe by classifying it…but how we classify is not based on
nature, but is a construction of our social minds”
Jonathan Marks
The human brain is clearly a classification device par excellence. We constantly work to classify
the world around us, both consciously and/or unconsciously? The culture that we are raised in tells
us what to focus on in regards to categorization.
Jonathan Marks, a physical anthropologist, puts forth three important things to consider as we go
over taxonomic classifications. One, he notes that we make sense of our place in the universe by
the ways in which we classify it. Two, our classifications are not necessarily derived from nature.
And lastly, he notes that even when we use nature as a basis, our classifications encode cultural
information. Classifications are ideally said to be objective or subjective? Are human
classifications scientifically and objectively based or subjective and cultural based (including social,
economic, and political influences)?
There are two major scientific classification system used today. Traditional _____________
taxonomic classification and _________________________.
Traditional Linnaean Taxonomic system: This system categorizes life forms based on present
day _____________________ and differences, the adaptation of the organism to its environment
(niche), and it gives us “relative” evolutionary relationships.
Cladistics: This classification system looks at how long ago a species shared a common ancestor
with another species, it gives us evolutionary relationships utilizing ____________ derived traits
and genetic comparison. Shared derived traits are those traits that two or more groups of
organisms. A phenotypic feature that is not found in other groups is used to look at evolutionary
relationships. The trait selected must be shared between the two groups and it is assumed the
feature is inherited from a shared ancestry. _____________________ comparison, using DNA is
used as well to determine evolutionary relationships.
Taxonomic Classifications are Problematic: The two different systems lead to different
classifications (cladistics is preferred in anthropology). Genetic analysis still a new field and
cultural, and political issues often confuse classifications. Lastly there are those who emphasize
similarities, the ____________________, and those who emphasize differences, the
_________________.
39
Primates: In this section we will be comparing and contrasting nonhuman primates physically and
socially with each other and with the human primate. For the primate section you will need to know
the five major groupings of nonhuman primates (listed below) and the key differences between
them. You will also need to know key features of all of the great apes.
1. Prosimians are the most primitive and most specialized or generalized of the primates? The
are very marginalized today, living mostly in Madagascar. Physically prosimians are the most
different from the other primates. They have a wet ___________________, are often nocturnal,
have a ________________ on one digit, and have __________________glands. Prosimians
include lemurs and lorises.
Question: Why is there a taxonomic debate over the classification of tarsiers?
What are the key points in the debate over the classification of tarsiers?
2. New World Monkeys (NWM): NWM’s reside in (geographic area) ______________________
The environment that they live in is mostly ____________________________________________.
NWM have _________________________ tails, they have little to no sexual _________________
and females do not show _________________________________. Their dental formula is
2-1-3-3 (incisors, canine, pre-molars, molars),
Question: What traits of new world monkeys likely impact their behaviors? What
are the similarities and differences between NWM and OWMs?
3. Old World Monkeys (OWM): OWM’s reside in (geographic area) ___________________
OWM are both arboreal and ________________________________. The environment that they
live in includes ______________________________________________________________
They have more behavioral ____________________________, than the NWM’s. They are
sexually ________________, and females show ____________________.
Dental Formula: 2-1-2-3 (same dental formula as both apes and humans).
Question: What traits are similar and what traits are different between NWM and
OWM’s? What do you think explains the wider behavioral diversity of OWM
versus NWM?
4. Lesser or Smaller Apes include gibbons, and siamongs, Smaller apes have a smaller body
and brain size than the Great Apes. Smaller apes reside in Southeastern Asia. They are primarily
fruit eaters. Their mode of locomotion includes brachiating. Their typical social groups structure is
one female, one male and their sub-adult offspring, and they work together to defend their territory.
Question: Why are the smaller apes classified as apes and not as monkeys? What are
he differences between monkeys and apes (behaviorally and physically)?
40
5. Great Apes- the four groups below comprise the great apes
Orangutans: geographic location __________________________________________________
They primarily move about and live in the ____________ and they are sexually ______________,
Males are on average twice the size of females (males some 200lbs, females 100lbs), their social
group structure is very unusual for a primate they are primarily _____________________. Their
diet is primarily ______________________.
Question: Why do you think Orangutan’s are solitary? Why do you think they
reside in the trees (instead of on the ground)?
Gorillas: geographic location___________________and environment ___________________.
They are sexually _________________, males are on average twice the size of females (males
some 400lbs, females 200lbs). They primarily eat
____________________________________________________________________,
Their mode of locomotion is ______________________________________. They generally live
in groups of 10-15 individuals with one-male (silverback), multiple females, and their sub-adult
offspring. Behaviorally they are __________________________________ (contrary to popular
stereotypes).
Question: Why do you think the behaviors of gorilla’s have been so
misrepresented in the movies? Have you ever heard of Koko the Gorilla? Google
her and learn about Koko and the kitten.
Chimpanzee’s: geographic location is equatorial Africa, they have mild _____________________
dimorphism, their form of locomotion is _______________________________________________
Their diet is varied and includes _____________________________________________________
Chimpanzees will hunt for ___________________________, especially during the dry season.
Their social groups are large fission/fussion communities of 50+ individuals, made up of adult
males and adult females and offspring. Bonded __________________ form the core of the
community. Females show ____________________. Chimpanzees have been observed using a
variety of tools including __________________________________________________________.
Question: Do you think it is right to use chimpanzee’s in movies, circus acts and
in commercials? Would a chimpanzee make a good pet?
Bonobo’s: geographic area is south Zaire, they are physically leaner than chimps. Bonobo’s live
and operate more in the ____________ than chimps. They also walk ______________ more often
than chimps. Their diet is similar to chimps except that they don’t ________________ or eat
______________ to any great degree. Like chimps they live in large fission/fussion communities
of 50+ individuals, made up of adult males and adult females and offspring. Bonded
_________________ form the core of their group. Females show almost continuous
_____________________ and bonobos use G-G rubbing and _______________as a means of
negotiating relationships and to reduce group tensions.
Question: What are the key differences between chimps and bonobo’s? Why do
you think bonobo’s have such different behaviors? Are humans behaviors more
akin to chimps or bonobo’s?
41
Primate Studies: there are two major “theoretical” orientations used to explain and analyze
primate behavior.
Socioecology looks at the relationship between the environment and__________________. It is
understood that animals interact with their environment and it impacts their behavior. The
“environment” includes quantity and ________________of food, predators, seasonal variation, etc.
___________________species differences (differences within species) can be explained in
relationship to the environment.
Question: Why do you think that orangutans are solitary? Why do you think that
orangutans, which can get quite large, are largely arboreal?
Sociobiology states that _______________________selects not only for physical traits but also
for behavioral traits. Sociobiologists state that different behavioral traits have been selected for in
males and females because they have different strategies for reproductive fitness.
Reproductive Strategies for Females
Reproductive Strategies for Males
Critiques of Sociobiology include;
The difficulty of showing increased reproductive fitness for specific ________________________
The difficulty of formulating an operational definition for a ____________________ to test for
differential reproductive success. The difficulty of associating specific genes with a specific
behavior. And, lastly, a key feature of primates is the role of learning. The idea that primate
behaviors are biologically as opposed to environmentally (or learning) based is very difficult to test
for and show.
Park discusses inclusive ________________and altruism in his section on primate behaviors. It is
proposed that sociobiology can explain altruistic acts among primates. This focuses on behaviors
as being biologically based and being driven (albeit at the unconscious level) by reproductive
success. Can you think of alternative explanations for altruistic acts?
______________________________________________________________________________
Can you think of any way to account for altruism between individuals who are not genetically
related?________________________________________________________________________
Sociobiology applied to humans is called Evolutionary Psychology and it is highly controversial.
Evolutionary Psychology posits that females and males have different basic __________________
traits that are biologically based. Evolutionary psychologists come down on the ____________
side of the nature/nurture debate. They state that a basic template for human behaviors, with
different behaviors for females and males, was set once we evolved as a species.
Question: What is testable in regards to genes and behaviors? What type of data can be
used to look at the relationship between genes and behaviors? Can we use other species
to look at this question in humans? Can we use observation in both the wild and in zoos?
42
Kuhn found the following in his studies of science over time
Traditional view of science: Kuhn noted that most scientists think that the “_____________” is
out there just waiting to be discerned. Scientists conduct observations, gather data, formulate
hypotheses, and when new understandings are found they are adopted and older understandings
are replaced. Science is thought to be conducted in an objective, linear manner.
Kuhn’s observations: Kuhn found that within science there are always ________________ that
influence scientists (as they influence all of us everyday). Paradigms are the way in which we view
the _______________ and they influence our observations and our interpretations. Paradigms are
akin to culture in this way. He stated that paradigms always influence scientists and that most
scientists conduct what he called “__________________” science. Normal science involves
conducting research and experiments within the context of the dominant ____________________.
Kuhn said that when new understandings are put forth they usually come from
________________________. He stated that these new understandings are not easily adopted
and it is often more like a revolution than an easy transition.
The Myth of _____________________ has come to light as a result of the work of philosophers of
science like Kuhn. The myth of objectivity refers to the fact that even though scientists are trained
to be objective in their work, no human being is capable of being completely objective. We are all
impacted by the culture that we are a raised in. All of the following factors influence our
interpretations; our gender, our socioeconomic class, our nationality, the timeframe that we live,
our previous training and education, etc.
Primatology allows anthropologists to compare and contrast non-human primates with the human
primate. We can utilize an understanding of homologies and analogies in our studies. Homologies
and analogies can be based on physical traits and behavioral traits.
Homology __________________________________________________________________
Give an example of a homology:_________________________________________________
Analogy ____________________________________________________________________
Give an example of an analogy:__________________________________________________
When comparing non-human primates with human primates primatologists will look at physical
traits, social behaviors, and adaptations to the environment (both physical and behavioral
adaptations). What species or group of primates would it make the most sense to contrast with
humans________________________________________________?
43
The New Chimpanzees- Video Questions
1. What is the role of primate studies in regards to understanding our early hominin past?
Address the following in regards to chimps, bononbos, and humans (think about who does the
following, how do they do it, do all members of the group do it, what are the variables):
Hunting
Meat eating
Food sharing
Tool making and tool use
2. Culture is learned behavior. Do Chimpanzee behaviors arise as the result of culture (their
environment) or nature (their genes)? What data could you use to analyze this question?
3. What is the function of dominance displays in the Chimpanzee groups? Do dominance displays
always involve violence? Are dominant hierarchies static or do they fluctuate?
4. What are the intra-species differences between the Gombe and Tai chimps in regards to;
hunting strategies and success, food sharing, and tool making and use. What theoretical
orientation would account for these differences?
Gombi chimps
Tai Chimps
5. State at least two significant differences between chimps and bonobos?
6. Did the film anthromorphize the primates? What are the critiques of anthromorphizing in
primatology studies? Do you agree or disagree with the critiques?
7. Did the video imply that humans are different in kind from Chimpanzees or different by degree?
What data was used? What is your opinion?
44
Studying the past- Before we can get into the hominin fossil record we need to have some
understanding as to what we can learn about the past and how we can learn it.
Osteology:
Paleopathology:
How do we sex a skeleton? What data can be used? How reliable is the data?
How do we age a skeleton? What data can be used? How reliable is the data?
What can we learn about the health and life of an individual from skeletal remains? What can we
know about trephination?
Read pgs 384-390 on forensic anthropology. What can we learn about the life and death of
Otzi through scientific methods?
1. How was Otzi’s body preserved for us to examine in the present day?
2. How old was Otzi when he died? What methods of dating were used to determine this?
3. What timeframe did Otzi live in? What methods of dating were used to determine this?
4. What does Otzi’s mummified remains tell us about his life and lifestyle (his teeth, body, etc.)?
45
Dating Techniques
1. What is the difference between a relative dating technique and an absolute dating technique?
2. How are relative dating techniques used to determine the relative age of a fossil?
3. What type of absolute dating technique would be used to date a Neandertal find from 30,000
years ago?
4. What type of dating technique would be used to date volcanic rock 2mya? Would this technique
be useful on a Homo erectus fossil?
Fossilization
5. Under what conditions do organisms fossilize? What conditions allowed Otzi to be fossilized?
List at least two other ways in which an organism is likely to be fossilized:
6. Are fossils common or rare? Why?
7. What is taphonomy?
8. How did taphonomic analysis change early understandings in South Africa in regards to early
hominins, hunting, and caves?
9. What is the molecular time clock and how is it used?
10, At one time it was thought that humans and apes shared a common ancestor some 12-15mya.
This was based on the ________________ differences between humans and apes as well as a 12
million year old fossil. Analysis of the molecular time clock today reveals that humans and apes
shared a common ancestor some _________________ mya.
11. Park states that the most important thing to ask is; 1) ________________ genes differ
between humans and chimps, 2) _________________ much these genes differ, and ___________
those genes do.
46
Chapter 10 -Origin and Evolution of Primates
The primate fossil record spans a long time frame and it is quite convoluted. I want you to have a
broad understanding of primate evolution. It is important to know what type of data is used to
analyze our primate past, to have a general understanding of the major transitions in primate
history and timing.
Questions: What does the genetic data reveal in regards to the timeframe for the origin of
primates? What does the fossil data reveal in regards to the timeframe for the origin of
primates? Where are these fossils found? What traits are used to identify a primate in the
fossil record some 55 mya?
The origin of anthropoids (monkeys, apes and humans- prosimians had already separated out)
included the following changes;
1) a _________________ lifestyle as opposed to a nocturnal lifestyle,
2) less leaping and more ______________________ through the trees on all fours,
3) a more _____________________ diet with less emphasis on insects.
There are two hypothesis as to the origin of New World Monkeys. The first idea is that prosimians
migrated into _______________________________________ from _______________________.
New world monkeys evolved from prosmians over time (with similar evolutionary pressures leading
to similar adaptations in new world and old world monkeys). The second hypotheses is that old
world monkeys __________________________ or island hopped from Africa to South America
when the two hemispheres were closer together.
Which hypothesis is favored at this time and what is the data and reasoning used?
Question: Which primates are specialized and which primates are
generalized? How has this affected their survivability?
Why are the first apes in the fossil record called the dental apes?
What is the biggest and most famous primate in the fossil record? What myth may possibly be
associated with this primate? What timeframe did this famous ape live in?
47
Hominin Fossil Record: Where do we come from? What are we? Where are we going?
These were the questions asked by Paul Gauguin in his famous painting of the same name.
Anthropologists use the four fields in anthropology (cultural, linguistic, archeology, physical) to
answer these questions. All four of these fields are critical to gaining a holistic understanding of
our past, present and potential future.
“Human beings seem quite incapable of speaking about themselves & their history without
becoming emotional in one way or another”
Ernest Mayr
“There are no final words. Human origins will always be enigmatic.” Donald Johanson
Hominin Fossil Record: What is a Hominin?
Hominin: ______________________________________________________________________
Bipedalism is the key, initial criteria used to determine if a fossil is a hominin versus an ape
ancestor. What are the means by which we can determine if a fossil species was a biped or a
quadroped? Differences in the skull ______________________________________, the pelvis
_________________________, the knee _______________________________________
the big toe________________________________, and the limbs______________________.
What are the key differences between ape and hominin dental features?_________________
______________________________________________________________________________
Key questions and issues for this section:
What is the oldest hominin? Where and in what type of environment did the oldest hominin(s)
evolve? What criteria is used to determine the oldest hominin?
What were the lives of hominins like? What was their likely social group, mating patterns, cognitive
abilities, subsistence strategies? What type of data and reasoning is used to answer these
questions?
What led to the selection for bipedalism? Think in terms of the environment, and the processes of
evolution.
What factors led to the multiple hominin speciations and extinctions?
What factors selected for bigger brains and what were the consequences of bigger brains?
When and where did Homo sapiens originate?
What are the key differences, physically and behaviorally of the different Homo species?
What was going on with the environment during the evolution of hominins? What is the
significance of the Great Rift Valley? Of the Pleistocene?
48
Key factors to keep in mind include; how do the processes of evolution work to change
populations over time, what is the role of the environment, and what role did competitive exclusion
play in the multiple speciations and extinctions of hominins?
Keep in mind that paradigms filter interpretations
Know about the early debate as to what first defined a homininbig _____________________, tools, _____________________ or small teeth
What biases affected the interpretation of Piltdown Man?
What biases affected the interpretation of the Taung Baby?
All of the following biases have affected interpretations of the hominin fossil record over time;
personal biases (vested interest of individual scientists), theoretical biases, nationalism, gender
biases, and the over-riding bias of humans being seen as unique compared to other animals and
primates.
Why was bipedalism selected for?
It is assumed that bipedalism was ___________________________for because it has affected
many parts of the body and these changes occurred over millions of years. A selection for
bipedalism would mean that being a dedicated biped increased the ______________________
success of individuals. To answer this question what type of information would you need to
evaluate? (hint- review your notes on natural selection)
Your text has seven models to explain the selection for Bipedalism:
Carrying model- what would they have carried?
Vigilance model- does this model work to explain bipedalism or upright posture?
Heat dissipation model- how would bipedalism have helped in this model?
Energy efficiency model- what is the criticism of this model in regards to initial selection?
Foraging/harvesting model- how would this model have led to the selection of
bipedalism?
Display model- how would this model have led to the selection of bipedalism?
Walking in trees- how would this model have led to the selection of bipedalism?
Can only one of these models be used to explain bipedalism?
49
Hominin Fossil Record- The species/genus underlined are those that you need to know.
Australopithecus: genus with multiple species, 4.2-2.3 mya, East & South Africa, “bipedal apes”
Genus description: ______________________________________________________________
1. How refined was the bipedalism of Australopithecus? Was Australopithecus likely
solely terrestrial or were they likely still partially arboreal?
2. They had reduced canines, increased manual dexterity, and were sexually dimorphic
what type of mating patterns did they likely engage in and what was their social group
formation like? Was their lifestyle likely similar to chimps and/or bonobos?
3. Were they the predator or the prey in their environment?
4. What is the oldest agreed upon hominin ancestor?
A. anamensis: 4.2-3.9 mya, Kenya, (East Africa) forest/woodland environment, 21 individuals
A. afarensis: 4-3 mya, Ethiopia, “Lucy,” 3’5”-5ft. 65-100lbs., 440cc average brain size, some
adaptations for arboreal lifestyle, long arms, short legs, prognathus face, sexually dimorphic, 300+
specimens.
A. africanus: 3-2.3mya, South Africa, few differences from afarensis, 1st find 1925.
A. garhi: found 1999, Ethipia (East Africa), 5 individuals. Key points: garhi found with animal
remains subject to stone scrape marks and bones crushed to get marrow, it was very surprising to
find stone tool use in a small brained Australopithecus. These finds are still under investigation.
A. bahrelghazalia: found 1995, Chad (North Africa), find initially subject to much debate because
of age and location, unusual to find Australopithecus in northern Africa. This find now has more
validity with the recent find of Sahelanthropus tchadensis in Northern Africa.
A. sediba: unveiled April 2010. Found South Africa, dated at 1.95 million to 1.78 million years.
Two partial skeletons were found, a young male child and an adult female along with some 130+
fragments of fossils. This find is still being subjected to much speculation and analysis.
Paranthropus: genus with multiple species (about half the textbooks put the Paranthropus species
under the Australopithecus genus designation) 2.8-1mya, East & South Africa,
Genus description ______________________________________________________________
“Robusticity” is in molars, chewing muscles, otherwise similar to “gracile” hominids in overall
physical size. Species: aethiopithecus, boisei, robustus.
1. Paranthropus overlaps with Australopithecus and early Homo, what allowed it to “out
compete” the Australopithecus?
2. Why did Paranthropus likely become extinct with the arrival of early Homo?
3. Are the differences in teeth and chewing muscles enough to put these species in a
different genus from Australopithecus? Should all of the Paranthropus species be included
in the Australopithecus genus? What is the basis of this debate?
4.
From the neck down what is the difference between Australopithecus and
Paranthropus? Between the Australopithecines, Paranthropus and Homo habilis?
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Homo:
Genus description ______________________________________________________________
Homo trends toward larger brains, meat in diet, reduction of face & molars, making and using of
stone tools.
“Early Homo” 2.3 –1.5 mya, East & South Africa (with some question about recent finds in the
Republic of Georgia- debate as to whether or not these finds are early or middle Homo)
Homo habilis & Homo rudolfensis: features include less prognathus facial features, bit less sloping
forehead, no sagittal crest, brain size 680 avg. (500-800). Body similar to Australopithecus, still
longer arms & shorter legs (4-5 feet, 70-115 lbs.). Oldewan Tool Tradition/Pebble Tools.
1. Why is Homo habilis included in the genus Homo? Is there a debate over this?
2. How did Homo use their stone tools? What stone tools are associated with them?
3. Did H. habilis process meat at home bases or did they utilize stone caches?
4. What is the difference between Australopithecus, Paranthropus and early Homo?
Middle Homo: 1.8-100,000 (27,000?), Africa, Southeast Asia, China, Europe
Homo eragaster (generally seen as the “African” erectus) & Homo erectus. Features of middle
Homo include bigger brains, more complex behaviors, more complex stone tools, and living in a
variety of environments. Skull: heavy brow ridges, some prognathism, thick cranium, little
forehead development, wide cranium base. Brain size: 980 avg (800-1250). Body: modern
looking neck-down, modern gait, hairless?, 5-6 ft., 100lbs+. Auchulian Tools: flaked entire stone,
controlled shape of core.
1. Why did erectus leave Africa and what behavioral and/or physical features allowed
them to be able to leave?
2. What is the debate over the Dmanisi finds? The finds in Indonesia (Java)?
3. When were hominids able to make and use fire? What data is used to analyze this
question? What are the benefits of fire?
4. When did infants become so helpless and how did this likely affect the social group
structure of these hominins?
5. What are some of the pros and cons involved in the selection for larger brains?
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Archaic Homo sapiens : This section involves ongoing contested taxonomic classifications. As
we get more recent in time there are increasing numbers of fossil finds and the fossils are found
more widely distributed over the world (on three different continents). One debate is whether or not
some or all of these species should be labeled as different species or as subspecies to our species
(Homo sapiens).
Homo antecessor: Spain, 780,000-300,000 found with primitive tools 1mya,hunters? Cannibals?
Homo heidlbergensis: China, England, Africa, India; 500,000-100,000, more vertical foreheads,
1300cc avg. brain size, Levallois Tool Tradition: “prepared core” careful preparation of core to
produce desired flake shape, more specialized purpose tools.
Homo neanderthalensis (Neandertals): 225,000-36,000 Europe, Croatia, Iraq, Israel (275+
individuals), Skull: sloped forehead, back of skull broad, large discontinuous brow ridges, large
face, slightly prognathus, receding chin, large sinus cavities, Brain size: 1480 avg. (1200-1740),
Body: robust, stocky, muscular, 5’3”-5’6”, Mousterian Tool: elaboration of Levallois, careful
retouching of flakes, up to 63 tool types (Butchering, wood-working, some bone/ antler carving, cut
animal hides, Haft stone points for spears).
Key questions/ points:
1. Neandertals are a “cold-adapted” species, did they interbreed with early modern Homo
sapiens (what is the data and reasoning used in this debate)?
2. Did neandertals likely have modern language? What is the data and reasoning used in
this debate?
3. What is the data and reasoning used in the debate over how similar or different
neandertals were in their; behavior, cognitive abilities, etc. from early modern Homo
sapiens? Specifically address; big game hunting, care for the elderly/ill, burial of the dead,
and language.
“Homo” floresiensis
Key questions include:
1. What can we make of these finds? Are they Australopithecines that made their way out
of Africa and developed sophisticated stone tools and hunting abilities (their body and
brain size goes along with this)? Are they Homo erectus which “got small” with island
pressures? Are they modern Homo sapiens which suffer from dwarfism? What does the
data revel?
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Anatomically modern Homo sapiens/ Upper Paleolithic peoples:
Africa 200,000 (oldest sites- possibly up to 300,000 yrs ago), Europe, Asia, Australia (40k-80k),
Americas (17k-30k), Skull: flat/small face, small teeth, no heavy brow ridges, globular skull, vertical
forehead. Body: slender, taller, not as robust. Not visibly different from modern humans today.
Upper Paleolithic Revolution: At about 30k the fossil record seems to reveal an explosion of;
sophisticated, highly differentiated tools, tools that are works of art, the use of bone, antler and
ivory, sophisticated hunting strategies (bow and arrow, net hunting, running game off cliffs), artwork
(cave art and figurines), burials with artifacts, musical instruments, personal adornment art, etc.
Key points and questions:
1. Was this truly a sudden, cultural transformation? We do find cave art and sophisticated
tools in earlier times. As new finds come forth will we start seeing a gradual transition
instead of an “explosion?”
2. Why did humans start engaging in these symbolic behaviors at this time? Was there a
change in the brains of these hominids (a mutation that changed their cognitive abilities)?
3. What is the meaning of the cave art and the figurines that they made?
4. Why is most of the discussion centered in Europe in regards to cave art and art in
general.
Homo Sapiens idaltu: found June 2003, dated at 160,000 (previously oldest fossils were
200,000), three skulls (two adults, 1 child), living close to freshwater lake in Ethiopia, butchered
remains of hippopotamuses, fish remains, and 640 stone tools found, skulls subject to de-fleshing,
mortuary purposes? Cannibalism?
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The following species/genus are undergoing ongoing analysis and debate as to their place in the
fossil record. You do not have to know the species or genus names listed here, but you DO need
to know that there are earlier fossil finds and know in general the debates surrounding them.
Ardipithecus ramidus: 4.4 mya, Ethiopia (East Africa), bipedal, “ape-like facial features,” foramen
magnum and arm bone shows bipedalism. Found in a forest/ woodland environment. Remains of
some 50+ individuals found. Park states there is a lot of dispute in regards to this genus in the
hominin fossil record, I disagree with him. My review of other texts and other physical
anthropologists show that Ardipithecus is seen as the oldest definitive hominin. I have not required
that you know this genus because it would conflict with your text. The finds and classification of
Ardipithecus ramidus kadabba, found 2001 Ethiopia, dated 5.2-5.8mya is more controversial. In
part because the finds are very limited and in part because of the subspecies designation.
Sahelanthropus tchadensis “Toumai”: found 2002 in Chad (North, Central Africa), dated 6-7
mya, nearly complete cranium, which has both “chimp-like” and “human-like” features. Some see
Toumai as an early ape, others as an early hominid.
1. Do Toumai’s fossil remains reveal a skeletal anatomy for quadropedalism or
bipedalism?
2. The location and age of Toumai has been quite shocking to some because it implies
that hominids may have evolved in two locations and hominin’s may have evolved later
than previously thought.
3. What does the debate over Sahelanthropus tchadensis reveal about the nature of
science?
Orrorin tugenesis: (“original man”) found 2001 in Ethiopia (East Africa) dated 6-7 mya, some 12
bones including teeth, jaw, arm and femur bones were found.
Key questions/points:
1. Do fossil remains for Orrorin tugenesis reveal a skeletal anatomy for bipedalism or
quadropedalism ?
Kenyathropus platyops: announced find 2001, in Kenya (Eastern Africa), dated 3.5 mya.
Features include; fairly modern face, a “flat face”, small molars, near vertical cheekbones (all
features associated with later hominids).
1. Is K. platyops a more direct ancestor to the genus Homo than Australopithecus?
2. Do the morphological features of K. platyops warrant a new genus designation?
54
55
Video Questions- In Search of Human Origins – Part Two
1. Donald Johanson discusses early views about the lives and nature of early hominins. What are
these three views and what data and context surround them? Which hominin’s do these debates
involve?
Man the _______________ Ape:
Data, reasoning and context:
Man the __________________ Hunter:
Data, reasoning and context:
Man the Efficient ____________________:
Data, reasoning and context:
2. What is taphonomy and how did taphonomic analysis change our views of early hominins lives
and behaviors?
3. What is the Great Rift Valley?
4. What is the goal of the study of early hominin fossils? What other data, besides fossils, is used
to pursue this goal?
5. What is Olduvai Gorge? What tool technology is named after this site?
6. What has been found at Olduvai Gorge and how are these finds analyzed?
7. Based on the description what genus do you think they are describing when the video talks
about Zijanthropus? (the name Zinjanthropus is not used as any longer)
56
Chapter 12 The Debate over Modern Human Origins
1. What data is used in regards to the debate over modern human origins?
2. The African Replacement Model (AR) states that humans are a relatively _______________
species, some ___________________________ years old. It states that modern humans arose
from a population in ______________________ and ______________________ other hominin
populations. What does Park state is required for this hypothesis to be validated?
3. The Multiregional Evolution Model (MRE) states that humans are an __________________
species, some _____________________________ years old. It states that humans evolved in
Africa, and left as _____________ __________________ some ___________ years ago and that
there was enough gene flow for all populations to remain one species, albeit with variable
phenotypic traits. What does Park state is required for this hypothesis to be validated?
4. What does the fossil and archeological record tell us about these two hypotheses?
5. What are the three types of genetic data used to test the above hypotheses?
____________________________, _________________________, _______________________
6. What does mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) trace?
7. What does the Y chromosome trace?
8. What does DNA trace?
9. What have the studies of neandertal DNA revealed in regards to the likelihood of their interbreeding with early modern Homo sapiens?
10. In regards to evolutionary theory what are Christopher Stringer’s criticisms of the MRE model
of the origin of modern Homo sapiens?
11. What is Park’s conclusion in regards to this debate? What data is used?
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Chapter 13 - Evolution and Adaptation in Human Populations
The four processes of evolution have impacted Homo sapiens in selective ways, through ________
_____________________ and randomly through _____________________, ________ ________,
and ___________ _______________.
Examples of selection and human variation include;
Skin color. _____________________ is responsible for the variation present in humans but
______________ ___________________ is seen as responsible for the variation in H. sapiens
over time. In equatorial regions, in which there is a great of UV radiation, humans historically had
very _____________ skin. Dark skin is adaptive in environments with a great deal of ______
________________________ because it confers protection against UV radiation. It is likely that
the first Homo sapien populations were dark skinned. It is speculated that dark skin protected
against sun poisoning and possibly folate deficiency (which would affect reproductive success).
Lighter skin color is speculated to have been selected for as humans moved into ______________
regions with less _______ _______________________. Vitamin D can be synthesized in humans
when it is activated by UV radiation. When humans moved into more ________________ regions,
with dark skin they may have had lowered reproductive ______________ due rickets (a condition
that is brought about by Vitamin D deficiency). Individuals who were lighter skinned would have
been ______________________ for if they were more ___________________________ fit.
Questions: What role would gene drift and gene flow play in the above mentioned
process? Skin cancer is increasing at astronomical rates in modern Homo sapiens, would
natural selection have likely selected in relationship to skin cancer? Why
Of the following traits which are seen as being impacted by natural selection and which by
random processes?
Overall body shape and size (long and lean compared to short and thick)
Head shape (lean versus wide)
Nose shape (short and wide versus long and narrow)
Earwax (yellow, brown and sticky versus dry, grey and flaky)
ABO blood system (A, B, O or AB blood)
Lactase deficiency (ability or lack of ability to process milk/milk products in adulthood)
58
Epidemiological Transitions; Disease and Human Evolution
For most of human history we lived in ______________, nomadic populations which were
___________ from other populations. Disease would have impacted these small groups but they
would not have suffered from epidemics.
The first epidemiological transition came with ________________________ and the domestication
of _____________________, about ________________ years ago. For the first time people were
sedentary, population densities increased and ____________________ diseases became a
significant threat. Issues involved with diseases impacting human populations include;
________________ domestication bringing humans in close contact with animals, irrigation and
standing water (mosquitos), standing garbage lead to _____________________ problems.
Relying on agriculture for food limited the food sources of early humans and lead to ____________
deficiencies.
Questions: What factors likely aided the Spanish in conquering the Aztecs in 1521?
What caused the Black Death in Europe? What was the outcome of this event?
The second epidemiological transition came about in ________________________. In this era
infectious diseases were ________________ under control or __________________________.
The head of the Center for Disease Control in the USA, referring to infectious diseases stated in
the 1960’s “the war has been won.” People began dying of chronic, degenerative diseases such as
_________________, and ___________________disease. Diabetes became a threat. These
conditions are often called “diseases of progress” because they come with agriculture and
industrialization. People become __________________, and they eat more salt, _____________,
and _________________. Obesity, alcohol, and tobacco all impact overall health and death rates.
Questions: What are the benefits and downfalls of adopting agriculture as a way of life?
Are the benefits and downfalls of agriculture equally distributed among a population?
We are currently living in the third epidemiological transition. We now know we have not “won the
war” on infectious diseases as old diseases are re-emerging and others are appearing. We are still
dying off due to the diseases of progress but we are also faced with antibiotic resistant strains of
tuberculosis, and staph infection. The HIV virus has killed some ______________ million people
since 1981.
Questions: What can you do as an individual to work to minimize the spread of antibiotic
Resistance?
The population crisis and the consumption crisis.
Park discusses the population crisis and he goes over some of the key issues in the crisis (as well
as the belief by some that there is no crisis). When I was in school there was a lot of talk about the
population crisis and how we were almost rolling off the cliff of survivability. Currently there are
many that are talking about the levels of consumption of water, oil, etc. in developed countries.
Many see the consumption crisis as just as devastating to our world as the population crisis. Can
you make a difference in regards to either of these two problems that we face as a species?
59
Human Biological Diversity
Park uses a discussion of sex and gender categories as a lead in to discuss the topic of race. Sex
is a _________________________ category. As a ____________________ category sex is
based on three types of criteria; ____________________, reproductive organs, and secondary sex
traits. Gender is a __________________ category. As a __________________ category gender
is variable by culture. Gender is a _____________taxonomy that rests on a biological category.
Question: Is the categorization of humans into two biological sexes absolute or could we
categorize humans into five or six sexes. What data and reasoning could be used here?
Why have some groups allowed for additional gender roles and other groups have not?
Race as a Biological Concept
In biology race is the same as _______________________. Subspecies are _________________
distinguishable populations within a _______________. The race or subspecies concept is
problematic in biology because of the criteria used to categorize a population as a subspecies.
Problems with the subspecies concept include; what phenotypic traits should be used, how much
__________________ is enough to grant subspecies designation. Biologists see subspecies as
the first step toward ________________________ if they use it at all.
Humans don’t meet the criteria for subspecies designation. Human populations, even spread out
around the world, are mobile and tend to continually engage in __________________ flow.
Human populations vary in the average biological traits that they posses but they often don’t match
up to the _______________ categories that are based on culture, geographic area, nationality,
language, etc.
Most anthropologists see race as culturally constructed and without biological validity in human
populations. The race concept implies that you can divide human populations into discrete
categories. After some 200+ years of trying western scientists have been trying to come up with an
agreed upon ____________ of races to no avail. To determine the number of races there has to
be unambiguous, criteria that is to use to differentiate populations. A variety of methods have been
used to try and separate humans into different races.
Continually variable traits such as _________________ color, hair color and type, and
facial features have been used without success (there are always exceptions and
demarcations are ambiguous).
Discrete traits such as _______________________________________ have been used
as well without success.
The American Anthropology Association (AAA) came out with a statement several years ago
addressing the race concept. This is one quote from that statement
“the race concept has been inappropriately used to explain, rationalize, and justify
inequalities among human groups” “race is a socially constructed category”
You can go to the American Anthropology Association website www.aaanet.org and read the entire
statement.
What is the significance of the race concept today? What are the political, economic and social
ramifications of the race concept today? What have been some of the issues in the past?
60
Biological Determinism
The race concept laid the foundation for biological ____________________________. This
concept was prevalent certainly through the 1800’s and on into the mid 1900’s. It basically states
that the ________________________ differences between populations of people reveal average
___________________________ and _________________________ differences between
populations. Within this concept is the belief that some groups are __________________ and
some groups are ____________________.
The concept of biological __________________________ was accepted by many scientists in the
past, although there are few that subscribe to it today. It is still not an uncommon belief among
members of the general population today. The ________________ in biological determinism led to
public policies with devastating effects. In the United States from the early 1920’s until the 1970’s
there were _____________________ laws on the books. These laws allowed the government to
decide what individuals were ____________________ and then forcibly sterilize them (often
without their knowledge). The rationale was that these individuals were biologically unfit and
should not be allowed to reproduce. A variety of criteria was used to determine individuals as unfit.
IQ tests were one of the criteria used to determine someone’s fitness.
What can we say about race and intelligence?
Park discusses various problems with the idea that there are average differences in intelligence
among populations. First of all the idea that IQ tests measure some ______________, mental
ability. IQ tests have been notorious for being culturally biased. Those that write the tests cannot
help but insert questions that reflect their cultural knowledge (gender, class, ethnicity). Jonathan
Marks states that IQ test measure __________________ but not _________________________.
Secondly the idea that we can put assign a ________________ to IQ is inappropriate reification.
There are many different types of intelligence and tests often measure the ability to take tests, not
an innate, _____________ ability. Lastly, as we just finished discussing, race is a cultural
construction. So, how do we compare groups in regards to average intellectual ability?
Question: How would you respond to the statement “Race is both real and an illusion” In
what way is race real and in what way is it an illusion?
61
Race the Power of an Illusion- The Story We Tell
This video is part two of a three part video series which looks at the issue of race in the United
States. The Story We Tell looks at how 19th century science legitimized the race concept in large
part to rationalize and justify slavery. The context in which this occurred was America’s promotion
of ideals of freedom and equality while engaging in; the enslavement of West Africans, the
genocide of indigenous peoples (American Indians), the war against Mexico, and the annexation of
the Philippines. The film shows how definitions of race excluded from humanity not only Black
people, but anyone who stood in the way of American empire building. The video reveals how
typical human suspicions about differences turned into a “common sense” wisdom that White
Americans used to explain everything from individual behavior to the fate of whole societies
1. What is the difference between a biological and a social view of race?
2. Who has benefited from the belief that we can sort people according to race and that there are
natural or biologically based differences between racial groups?
3. Would you trade your skin color? How do you think your life would be different if you looked
like someone of a different race?
4. Do you think Africans were enslaved in the Americas because they were deemed inferior, or
were they deemed inferior because they were enslaved?
5. What are some of the ways that race has been used to rationalize inequality? How has race
been used to shift attention (and responsibility) away from oppressors and toward the targets of
oppression?
6. Is there a connection between American slavery and present day prejudices against Africandescended peoples? Is there ongoing prejudice against Black people in the United States?
62
7. We now have a president who is half White and half Black. Why is he labeled and perceived as
Black (instead of White)? Is an understanding of history necessary to understand this situation?
8. How did the notion that “all men are created equal” create a moral contradiction in colonial
America? How did the race concept help resolve that contradiction?
9. Contrast Thomas Jefferson’s policy to assimilate American Indians in the 1780’s with Andrew
Jackson’s policy of removing Cherokees to west of the Mississippi in the 1830’s. What is common
to both policies? What differentiates them?
10. What did the publications of scientists Louis Agassiz, Samual Morton, and Josiah Nott argue,
and what was their impact on U.S. legal and social policy?
11. To what degree do you think the social context within which they lived, and their social position
affected their science? What mechanisms in science work to self-correct scientific
understandings?
12. What role did beliefs about race play in the American; colonization of Mexican territory, Cuba,
the Phillipines, Guam and Puerto Rico? Do you think the United States is an empire?
13. The organizers of the 1904 St. Louis World’s Fair put people on display whom they defined as
the “other.” Does anything like this still occur today?
63
14. Reginald Horsman discusses how the concept of race was used to resolve a number of
dilemmas in the United States which espouses freedom and equality for all. He stated “This
successful republic (the USA) is not destroying Indians just for the love of it, they’re not enslaving
Blacks because they are selfish, they’re not overrunning Mexican lands because they are
avaricious. This is part of some inevitability…of the way races are constituted.” What is your
reaction to this quote? Can you think of other stories of difference that are used to mask or cover
up oppression today?
15. How was the notion of Manifest Destiny shaped by beliefs about race? Is there a relationship
between Manifest Destiny and current foreign policies? Is there a relationship between the
concept of the White Man’s Burden and current foreign policies?
16. What does it mean to be civilized? Come up with at least 4-5 criteria to define civilized. To
what degree have American policies (both domestic and foreign) been civilized?
64
Chapter 15- Biological Anthropology: Applications and Lessons
At the beginning of the semester I stated that I believe that the knowledge you gain from a physical
anthropology class is relevant to your everyday life. As you read through this chapter, review some
of the material from earlier chapters work to answer the following questions.
1. Forensic anthropology is a field of study that has been heavily popularized in the mainstream
media and on TV crime shows. What can we learn from fossil remains? What is the role of
forensic anthropologists in Truth and Reconciliation Commissions (hint- read about Clyde Snow’s
role in Argentina. You can also google El Salvador and Guatemala and read about efforts to gain
information on the civil wars and conflicts there)? How important are Truth and Reconciliation
Commissions to countries that have had civil warfare?
2. What lesson was discovered by comparing the daily routines of people living in industrialized
societies versus those living traditional lives? To what degree can you apply this knowledge to
your everyday life?
3. What does James McKenna recommend in regards to the sleeping arrangements of infants?
What are some of the debates and issues in regards to this topic? What does the comparative
approach tells us about this topic? After taking this class are there things you will do differently if
you have children (or if you have them already)? In regards to; sleeping arrangements, food eaten,
daily care, etc?
4, What is Jared Diamonds contention in regards to Ashkenazi Jews and Tay Sachs? Which
process of evolution does he see as being likely responsible for the high rate of the Tay Sachs
allele in Ashkenazi Jewish populations? If you were an Ashkenazi Jew would you get genetically
tested before you had offspring? Would it make a difference in your decision if you were marrying
another Ashkenazi Jew? If you are not an Ashkenazi Jew would you be tested?
65
5. What are the key differences between the environment of humans living in the Stone Age and
how most Americans live today (reference diet, exercise, and diseases)? What are the things that
are killing us off today versus what killed us off in the past? In what way can you apply this
knowledge to your everyday life? If you were the Surgeon General of the United States how would
you apply this knowledge?
6. In light of what you have learned about natural selection and how it shapes populations of
organisms over time will you change your use of antibiotics? In what ways?
7. What are the global issues that Park discusses in his section on Global Issues? In what way
has your understandings of science and scientific debate changed over the course of this
semester? Will it affect the way that you vote in the coming years?
8. Do you think Park is accurate in stating that you can do most anything with a degree in
Biological Anthropology? What skills and knowledge would you gain with a degree in this field? To
what degree does a degree, and/or a specific degree affect your opportunities in life?
66
Anthropology: The Study of Humans
Nothing is more fascinating than studying that ever variable creature, humans.
Anthropologists have four fields which they use to study humans in their
entirety. Anthropologists study humans in the past and present, in the United
States and around the world. Join this exciting field of discovery and gain a
practical degree that will help you work in most any field.
Cultural Anthropology
Cultural anthropologists study
contemporary cultures around the world.
What is culture? What are the different
beliefs and practices of humans? Is
monogamy or polygamy the norm for
humans? How does romantic love
impact marriage? What practices and
institutions do all humans have? What
are human universals (things that all
humans do)? How do anthropologists
conduct their fieldwork? How can our
knowledge of humans be used to deal
with current day problems and issues?
Physical Anthropology
Physical anthropologists utilize a variety
of means to study humans biologically.
What is the Human Genome Project and
how will it change our world (designer
babies, cloning)? How do scientists gain
their understandings of the world? Is
evolution fact or theory? What is natural
selection? What is meant by the term
survival of the fittest? Are humans still
evolving? Are human behaviors
genetically determined? Is race a valid
biological concept? What do we know of
the hominid fossil record? What is the
difference between apes and monkeys?
Archeology
Linguistic Anthropology
Linguistic anthropologists study the
Archeologists examine past cultures and relationship between language and
civilizations through the artifacts they left culture, and the nature of language.
behind. Learn how peoples in the past
When did humans first acquire
worked to survive in different environlanguage? How does language affect
ments. What type of shelters did they
the way we see the world? How does
live in, what were their lives like,
our culture affect the way we see the
archeologists use the artifacts people left world? Why do males and females have
behind to reconstruct the lives of people communication problems? How does
in the past. What are the scientific
language work to reflect and reinforce
methods and theories that are used to
cultural conflicts and stratification? Can
trace the ways in which humans worked apes learn language (sign language)?
to survive throughout history?
67
Anthropology: As a field of study & as a career
 Anthropology as a field of study is always fascinating. Students find it
exciting, and continually interesting, learning about humans in their entirety.
Anthropologists study humans in the United States and around the world. We
study humans in the past, present and gain insights for the future.
o Skills acquired include knowledge about the diverse ways in which
humans around the world live, their values and norms. These skills
are critical for success and survival in today’s diverse world.
o There are four major fields in anthropology and a virtually unlimited
number of areas of specialization for anthropology students to explore
including: business, medicine, law, religion, art, language, economics.
Medical anthropology is one of the fasted growing fields today.
 Anthropology gives students the flexibility to go into almost any career
they may be interested in.
o Anthropology as an undergraduate degree gives students a foundation
for almost any career. Students gain the skills & knowledge that both
domestic and international companies are looking for. The acquisition
of verbal and written communication skills are integral to anthropology
programs.
o Critical thinking skills, knowledge of domestic & international cultures,
the ability to analyze large amounts of data, flexibility in diverse
situations are all aspects of an anthropology degree.
Go to the American Anthropology Website to get more information about
Anthropology and Careers in Anthropology
www.aaanet.org
68
Assignments
Physical Anthropology 101
69
Annual Edition Articles
The class schedule lists the articles that you are assigned to read each week. For most of the
articles you will be required to complete a Main Idea Review (MIR). The MIR, main idea review, is
three to five sentences that captures the main idea(s) or point of the article. Along with the main
idea you need to include at least one bit of supporting data and or reasoning used by the author to
support their main idea.
MIR’s must be; TYPED, and along with the main idea and one supporting bit of information should
contain; your full name, your class day and time and the article title. MIR’s will generally only be a
few sentences long.
 If you have two MIR’s due on the same day put them on the same sheet of paper.
 Hints for MIR assignments: The main idea is the key point or points that the author is
trying to get across, along with the data and or reasoning that the author uses to support the
main idea. The main idea will often be stated in the introduction and/or at the end of the
article. You may have to read the article a couple of times before you are able to discern the
main idea(s). The MIR is not a description of the article.
 MIR’s are a part of your Class Credit points and are basically credit/no credit. For the most
part I will not grade your MIR’s I will just check that you have completed the assignment. We
will go over most all of the articles assigned in class.
 For each AE article there are questions (see below). You do not have to type out the
answers to these questions but you need to be prepared to answer them when you come
to class. These questions are fair game for quizzes and exams.
 You will not receive ANY credit for assignments that are not typed.
Other Assignments
You will be expected to complete other, various assignments during the semester (these
all form a part of your class credit points). Some of these assignments will be completed in class
and others outside of class. Assignments are in this section of the Notes and Assignments Packet.
A general rule of thumb to get the maximum amount of points for each assignment is to;
follow the directions carefully, if the assignment allows you to handwrite the information be neat
and legible, put your name, class day and time, and the title of the assignment at the top. Make
sure you turn your assignments in on the day they are due in class. Do not turn in assignments to
the mailroom or to my office.
NO LATE PAPERS WILL BE ACCEPTED. All assignments must be handed in IN CLASS on the
due date. I will NOT accept any papers outside of class (do turn in papers to my office, by
email, etc.). There are extra credit options to make up lost points from missing assignments.
Keep in mind that all MIR’s must be typed.
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Annual Edition Articles: Below are the articles you need to read in the Annual Editions text.
Next to each title is the page number of the article and what chapter the article goes with in Park’s
text. The Class Schedule gives the dates that you should read each article. Make sure you read
them by the date listed in the Class Schedule. .
The Facts of Evolution- pg. 2 (Chapt. 1)
What is the main idea(s) of the article and what data is used to validate the main idea(s)?
1. What is needed to make data helpful? To make facts meaningful? What does science need to
make it worthwhile?
2. What type of science is evolutionary science?
3. What is the agenda of William Paley’s 1802 book Natural Theology? What is his view in
regards to a designer?
4. Mayer outlined five general tenets of evolutionary theory. What are the 1 st, 2nd and 5the
tenents?
Included in these tenets are;
5. In regards to Natural Selection the following key points apply;
a. Populations tend to increase _______________________
b. The population cannot increase to _________________________,
c. The earth is just not __________________ enough
d. Therefore there must be a ___________________ for _______________________
e. There is ____________________ in every species
f. Differential _____________________ success is fitness
6. What confirms evolution according to Michael Shermer? What role do converging lines of
evidence play in the scientific acceptance of evolutionary theory ? What are the different
independent sets of data that confirm evolutionary theory?
7. What is needed for creationists to disprove evolution? Have creationist put forth a scientific
alternative to evolutionary theory?
8. Dogs have been subject to domestic selection for thousands of years. What is the most likely
ancestor of dogs? What data is used to come to this determination?
9. The theory of intelligent design states that life on earth shows evidence of a designer. The
human eye is often held up as evidence of design. What is Shermer’s opinion of the human eye
and design?
10. Vestigial structures are structures that are retained in organisms but they no longer have any
usefulness. How many vestigial structures did Shermer identify in humans?
Evolution in Action pg.9 (Chapt. 1)
What is the main idea(s) of the article and what data is used to validate the main idea(s)?
You Can Blame It on Mom Pg. 15 (Chapt. 3)
What is the main idea(s) of the article and what data is used to validate the main idea(s)?
1. What are the sex chromosomes of typical women? Of typical men?
2. What is an X linked genetic condition?
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Curse and Blessing of the Ghetto Pg. 183 (Chapt. 4)
What is the main idea(s) of the article and what data is used to validate the main idea(s)?
1. What are the four possible explanations for the higher rate of tay sachs among Eastern
European Jews? (hint- these correlate with the four processes of evolution)
2. What is Jared Diamonds hypothesis as to why tay sachs is at such a high rate among Eastern
European Jews?
Why Should Students Learn Evolution Pg. 24 (Chapt. 5)
What is the main idea(s) of the article and what data is used to validate the main idea(s)?
1. What is the simple answer as to why students should learn about evolution?
2. How does an understanding of evolution help us understand the processes that affect our
health and day-to-day life?
2. What is the conclusion as to why students should learn about evolution?
Designer Thinking Pg. 28 (Chapt. 5)
What is the main idea(s) of the article and what data is used to validate the main idea(s)?
1. What is the argument from design? How is the human eye used in this debate?
2. What is the relationship between the “argument from design” and the current form of
creationism in the USA “intelligent design”?
Salamanders Tale Pg. 95 (Chapt. 10)
1. Why does Richard Dawkins see names as a menace in evolutionary history?
2. What do many paleontologists fight over?
3. What does he mean by the “tyranny of the discontinuous mind”?
4. Are Homo sapiens a ring species? What is the data for and against this?
5. Why do we need discontinuous categories per Dawkins? Do you agree/disagree?
6. What is the difference per Dawkins between names, as imposed on nature, and what is actually
in existence in the natural world?
What are friends for? Pg. 74 (Chapt. 7)
What is the main idea(s) of the article and what data is used to validate the main idea(s)?
1. What is the question the author explores in this paper? Does she come to a conclusion?
2. What criteria did the author use to define friendships among baboons?
3. A prominent theory claims that males will only invest in infants that are closely related. Did the
author’s research validate or invalidate this theory (explain your answer briefly)?
4. Bonus Question:
The typical scenario that is assumed for early female and male relationships is that females and
males started a reciprocal relationship when men started providing women with meat from the
hunt and women provided men with foods they had gathered. At this point it is assumed that
the nuclear family was formed. State at least one of the challenges to this assumed scenario
(with the challenges coming from nonhuman primate observations)
72
Why Are Some Animals So Smart Pg. 55 (Chapt. 7)
What is the main idea(s) of the article and what data is used to validate the main idea(s)?
1. How is primate intelligence explained? What type of intelligence is the Machiavellian
hypothesis working to explain?
2. What is the authors explanation? Is it compatible or incompatible with the Machiavellian
hypothesis to explain primate intelligence? Ultimately what does the author state promotes
intelligence?
3. What is the key difference between the Suaq Orangutans and other groups of Orangutan’s in
regards to role models and learning new behaviors?
The Mind of the Chimpanzee Pg. 38 (Chapt. 8)
1. When Goodall began her studies at Gombe in 1960 what couldn’t she talk about in regards to
animals (that was assumed to be something only humans had)?
2. Based on the description of Figan and his actions to hide his gift of bananas would you
characterize it as deception? Deception is seen as a Machiavilian trait. Could deception be a form
of social intelligence?
3. Why did Goodall not know it was inappropriate to use she/he when describing chimpanzee’s?
4. Goodall’s PhD supervisor admonished her for stating that “Fifi was ________________” They
comprised and she stated “If Fifi were a human child we would say she was _______________.”
What is the difference between these two statements?
5. Do you think that Goodall was anthromorphizing inappropriately when she attributes emotions
to the chimps behaviors?
6. When Jane Goodall observed chimpanzees both making and using tools Louis Leakey
observed “Now we must redefine tool, redefine Man, or accept chimpanzee’s as humans.” Give
me your definition to define humans as separate from all other animals? Do you see humans as
unique in kind or different by degree from other animals?
Thinking Like a Monkey Pg. 51 (Chapt. 8)
1. What do sociobiologists work to study when they observe monkey’s? Do sociobiologists work
to be observed by the monkeys or do they work to be unobtrusive?
2. What do experimental psychologists work to study when they observe monkey’s? What is
different about their methodologies from sociobiologists?
3. What is theory of mind? Who has been thought to have theory of mind?
5. Santos found that monkey’s will rob food __________ out of _________ times from a person
whose back is turned. This implies that monkey’s do/do not have some form of theory of mind?
6. Monkey’s do/do not seem capable of possessing the concept of false belief? This involves the
monkey understanding that the knowledge they have is not the same as knowledge another
individual has. Human children learn this around the age of ______________.
Dim Forest, Bright Chimps pg. 47 (Chapt. 8)
1. State at least one difference between the Tai chimps and the Gombe chimps in regards to
EACH of the following categories; hunting, tool use and food sharing.
73
Mothers’ and Others Pg. 86 (Chapt. 8)
1. Briefly define “cooperative breeding” and state if humans can be “cooperative breeders”
2. What is the critical variable needed for infants to develop into “healthy” empathetic adults?
3. Bonus Question: In our society Can you think of public policy implications for Hrdy’s research
(think in terms of child care)?
What’s Love Got to Do With It? Pg. 79 (Chapt. 8)
1. What role does sex play in bonobo society (be specific)?
2. Some anthropologists are reluctant to include “the details of bonobo life, such as wide- ranging
sexuality and a strong sisterhood into scenarios of human evolution.” Do you think that early
hominid history involved a different role for sex, strong female relations and/or more egalitarian
relations among females and males? Why or Why not? What data could you use to analyze
this question?
Hunting the First Hominid Pg. 100 (Chapt. 10)
1. What is paleontology the study of? What is paleoanthropology the study of?
2. What field uses fossil remains as their source of data? What field uses lab work DNA, and
genetics as their source of data?
3. The lines of evidence converge to tell us that the first Hominid likely evolved some ________ to
___________ million years ago.
3. Why is it misleading to compare modern day humans and modern day chimps to get an idea of
our differences to use to look in the fossil record for our earliest ancestor?
4. How does the article describe hominids in regards to their traits?
5. Why does the author state that Ardipithecus is not accepted as the first hominid?
6. Why is Orrorin tugenesis not accepted as the first hominid?
The Scavenging of Peking Man Pg. 109 (Chapt. 11)
1. What species is the focus of this article (give the genus and species name)?
2. What is the field of taphonomy? List at least two ways in which taphonomic analysis has
challenged our view of “peking man” (reference cannibalism and hyenas)?
74
Man The Hunted Pg. 112 (Chapt. 11)
1. What is the conclusion of this article in regards to the nature of humans? What environmental
and evolutionary factors are considered in this analysis? Are there real world, practical
consequences in regards to our beliefs about our “basic nature” as humans.
2. As someone living in an urban/suburban environment, in the USA, do you think you have a
biased view in regards to seeing humans as prey? As predators?
3. Were early humans bold _______________________? Or were early humans the fearful ____?
4. The two sources of information that can be used to analyze the above question are __________
remains and the living _____________________.
5. The Taung find by Raymond Dart played a huge role in the changing understandings of early
hominin’s. What species and genus is the Taung child? What are the key features of this genus?
6. What did Dart think happened to the Taung child? What did he base his data on? Dart
ultimately put forth the idea that early hominins were killers who killed their own
_________________. He postulated that man evolved as bloodthirsty ______________________
7. What is the Piltdown Man? What are the key features of the Piltdown Man in comparison to the
Taung find?
8. What was the problem with the data on primates as prey?
9. What is the data for Man the Scavenger? What is the data for Man the Hunter? What is the
data for Man the Dancer? To what degree do you think that biases have affected the interpretation
of the hominin fossil record?
10. Ultimately, were early humans cat food? Is that an ancestry that makes us feel proud or
strong? What does it say about a possible human nature?
Hard Times Among the Neanderthals Pg. 120 (Chapt. 11)
1. State one anatomical and one behavioral differences between Neanderthals and Homo sapiens
2. Why is “Shanidar 1” and the other Shanidar finds studied so extensively? What have been the
traditional conclusions about these fossils and what are the more recent views?
3. What is Trinkaus’s (the author) final analysis as to what the evidence suggests about
Neandertal lives (were they easy, difficult, were they brutes or thinking, caring individuals)?
The Gift of Gab Pg. 130 (Chapt. 11)
1. When does Cartmill state we can be reasonably sure language existed? Which species does
he believe had language?
2. What areas of the body (or fossil remains) can give insight into whether or not a species was
able to have a spoken language? (list at least two areas)
A Telling Difference pg. 68 (Chapt. 11)
1. What is the difference between communication and language?
2. What is said to be critical to assess language ability?
3. Why is syntax so important? What if language did not have syntax?
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The Littlest Human Pg. 138(Chapt. 11/12)
1. What has been the conventional wisdom in regards to how long humans have been the only
hominin species on earth?
2. On islands what are the two tendencies of the evolution of animals?
3. This semester we have discussed the nature of science. Referencing the specific components
of science briefly discuss how science works to evaluate hypothesis and then to either accept,
The Tall and the Short of It Pg. 165 (Chapt. 12)
1. What is plasticity?
2. Height is an example of human plasticity. Our height is influenced by genes and ___________?
3. How is our understanding of plasticity different from Lamarck’s hypothesis (be specific)?
4. What public policy decisions led to the Dutch being taller on average than Americans?
Dr. Darwin Pg. 179 (Chapt. 15)
1. How is Darwinian Medicine defined?
2. What are some of our bodies defenses?
3. What does Darwinian Medicine say about our defense mechanisms that flies in the face of
traditional medicine?
4. What are the consequences or implications of having a body designed in the Stone Age?
Who Will Survive Pg. 204 (Chapt. 15)
1. Is extinction typical and/or common in regards to species on earth?
2. Are major extinction events typical and/or common?
3. What are the causes of the sixth major extinction event on earth? Does the author leave out
any key causes of extinction today?
4. What is E.O. Wilson’s prediction as to the extinction of species on earth by 2100?
5. Should we be concerned with the current rate of extinction, or biocide? Why or why not?
6. Does the earth have a finite budget? What is meant by this statement? To what degree do
most people, and/or nations accept that the earth has a finite budget? What philosophical and/or
religious ideologies impact our views of the earth and life on earth?
7. What is the author’s biggest criticism in regards to the proposed fence to separate Mexico and
the USA?
8. Ultimately, what is it that the author proposes we need to do to ameliorate the sixth major
extinction event we are currently experiencing? What group of animals does she see as critical to
minimizing the ongoing extinction of species?
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Born Gay Pg. 150 (Chapt. 15)
I debated about assigning this article to read because I think the author’s thesis is poorly laid out
poorly supported. I ultimately decided that this article was a good means to discuss science, data,
reasoning, the impact of the cultural and social context on science, and the role of the popular
press and media in presenting scientific findings.
1. In this article the author explores the role of genetics in being gay. Review the discussion in
your Notes Pkt. in regards to the Nature/Nurture debate. One of the key things in working to
designate a behavior as genetically determined is to define the behavior. How has the author
defined being gay? Is homosexuality defined- By actions? Actions over a lifetime? Actions in
specific times and places? By desires or fantasies? By desires that are exclusive in regards to the
opposite sex? Is “gay” operationally defined?
As an anthropologist who has studies of sexuality in numerous cultures around the world,
over time and place it is my view that we have a false dichotomy in the USA in regards to
sexuality. The range of behaviors displayed by humans across time and space do not fit
neatly into two discrete categories, there is a range of variation in human sexual behaviors,
(i.e. bisexuals). Peoples sexual behaviors vary over their lifetime in regards to the
social, political and economic context in which they live. To identify a particular gene or
genes that influences an individuals desires and actions over a lifetime seems unrealistic.
2. What do the first couple of sentences reveal in regards to the social context within which this
question is being asked and answered? Is this a purely academic debate?
3. The subtitle states “Is homosexuality nature or nuture? Science is honing in on the answer.” To
what degree do you think the article lived up to this? Did it explore the nature and nurture
argument in regards to homosexuality? Is science honing in on the answer?
4. To what degree has science been limited in the study of sexuality in our society?
5. What is your reaction to the statement in the article “It is not clear if Hamer and his team found
the locus of the genetic code that causes men to memorize lines from A Star is Born.” What is the
author implying here?
6. The author states “one thing is clear: The environment a child grows up in has nothing to do
with what makes most men gay. Two of the most convincing studies have proved conclusively that
sexual orientation in men has a genetic cause.” What data is given to support his contention?
How convincing is that data?
If you read articles, and books on the issue of homosexuality it will become quickly clear
that there is not agreement in the scientific community on this topic. Disagreements
include; the usefulness of looking at sexuality as discrete categories versus as operating
on a continuum, whether or not and to what degree sexuality is impacted by genes or
environment, and to what degree we can even set up tests to explore this question.
7. Does the author address the issue of plasticity in humans? One of the biggest areas of study in
neuroscience today is our changing understandings of the brain and how our environment affects
us throughout our lives. So, for instance, if there is a statistically significant difference between gay
and straight brains, does this come about as a result of what the individual is born with or does it
come about over time as their environment (and lifestyle) shapes their brain? How could we
answer this question? What tests could we set up? (this question is also being explored in the
context of aggression, serial killers, addictions, etc.)
8. In science it is generally stated that the most parsimonious explanation is the best in the
absence of unambiguous testing or answers. In this article the author addresses male
homosexuality but not female homosexuality. Does it make sense to have two different
explanations for female and male homosexuality? Why or why not?
77
Physical Anthropology
Fall 2009
K. Markley
First Day General Survey
Are the following statements true or false? Write an F or T next to each question (you
will NOT be graded on this exercise, this is an introduction to the class).
1. Science can always be used to answer all of the questions that humans have about the world.
2. Scientific knowledge operates according to the American cultural value for fairness. All
opinions are equally valued and given equal voice in the scientific community.
3. Survival of the fittest (in the theory of natural selection) is all about being the biggest, the
strongest, and the smartest.
4. Charles Darwin’s theory of natural selection has been dramatically revised since it was first
formulated and is hotly debated in biology today
5. Four DNA bases, adenine, guanine, thymine and cytosine are the basis for all life on
earth. Everything from bacteria, to flowers, to dogs, and humans is coded for by these four
DNA bases.
6. There are a variety of genetic diseases that males are more likely to get than females,
including hemophilia and red-green color blindness.
7. The completion of the human genome has given us all of the following knowledge; the number
of genes humans have, what each gene does, and how aggression is encoded in our genes.
8. Humans are in the Primate Order, along with monkeys, and apes.
9. Humans are unique in both their physical and behavioral features as compared to other
primates.
10. All scientists agree that there are only two sexes in the species Homo sapiens.
11. Early hominins, like Lucy (an Australopithecus afarensis), co-existed with dinosaurs.
12. Neanderthals co-existed and interbred with early modern Homo sapiens
13. The oldest “human-like ancestors” in the fossil record are some 4.5 million years and they are
considered “human-like” (instead of ape-like) because of their big brains
14. Forensic anthropologists can gain insights into the lifestyle, sex, and approximate age an
individual was when they died by examining skeletal remains.
15. Humans, whales and dogs are all mammals and they all share the same basic body plan in
their limbs.
16. All Christian churches state that you must chose between accepting evolutionary theory and
science or believing in God and being a good Christian.
17. The creation/evolution debate is largely an American phenomena. This debate is, for the most
part, settled in Europe.
18. Since the persecution of Galileo, science, politics and religion have pretty much stayed in their
own separate spheres and there has not been a lot of conflict.
19. Evolutionary theory can explain the origin of life on earth.
20. Evolution is only a theory (and therefore not a fact).
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What Happened to the Dinosaurs? In the article “Sex, Drugs, Disasters, and the Extinction of the
Dinosaurs,” Stephen Jay Gould puts forth three explanations from different scientists to explain the demise
of the dinosaurs: sex, drugs, and disaster. Your Assignment is to read the following explanations as to
the demise of the dinosaurs. For each explanation; 1) state whether or not you think it constitutes a valid
scientific hypotheses to explain the demise of the dinosaurs, 2) specifically review at least 4 aspects of each
hypothesis that are or are not testable, give your data and reasoning for each aspect (as to why you think it
is or isn’t testable). Lastly, determine which explanation you think is the most likely explanation for the
demise of the dinosaurs. Make sure to have a rationale for all your answers.
We know that dinosaurs died off during a mass extinction event some 65 million years ago. The dinosaurs,
along with thousands of marine animals, and ocean plankton died off relatively quickly. The cause of this
mass extinction event is the still the subject of some debate. The following have all been put forth at
various times to explain the demise of the dinosaurs.
Sex: In the 1940’s a study was conducted on alligators to determine their temperature tolerance. It was
found that small alligators heated up and cooled down quickly and larger alligators heated up and cooled
down more slowly (a function of size to surface area). The researchers speculated that dinosaurs lived in a
time period where they lived close to their optimal temperature range. It is known that a slight warming
trend occurred around the time the dinosaurs died off. The hypothesis is that the dinosaurs warmed up, not
enough to kill them outright, but enough to sterilize them. The testicles of male mammals often function
within a narrow temperature range. It is speculated that the slight increase in temperature sterilized the
male dinosaurs and caused the extinction of the dinosaurs.
Drugs: It is known that flowering plants first evolved toward the end of the dinosaur’s reign. Many of these
plants contain psychoactive agents that can be very harmful to animals. Mammals today generally don’t eat
these flowers because of their bitter taste and they also have livers that work to eliminate the toxic nature of
the plants. The hypothesis is that the dinosaurs could not taste the bitterness that is present in these
psychoactive plants, nor were their livers built to allow them to detoxify the plant and render it less
devastating to them. The conclusion is that dinosaurs ingested the plants and then died of massive drug
overdoses.
Disaster: There is a site in the Yucatan where a large comet hit the earth approximately 65 million year ago.
The hypothesis is that as a result of this comet hitting the earth there was the formation of a huge,
worldwide dust cloud, which blocked sunlight, suppressed photosynthesis and drastically lowered worldwide
temperatures. We do know that impacts or volcanic eruptions will affect worldwide weather patterns for
years after the event. This hypothesis states that the resulting changes in temperature and available
sunlight caused the dinosaurs and a host of other creatures to go extinct.
What are the key things that you learned from this assignment? Note the following areas; 1) what can we
learn with science? 2) how does science work? 3) what can we learn about the past and how can we study
the past? 4) what do the terms; fact, hypothesis, and theory mean in science?
79
Darwin and Lamarck Assignment
Name______________________________
Which scenario reflects Lamarck’s Hypothesis of Inheritance of Acquired Characteristics and which reflects
Darwin’s Theory of Natural Selection? Your assignment is to label each scenario, as either Lamarck’s
hypothesis or Darwin’s theory and then to match each numbered key component (listed below) to the
appropriate sentence in the scenario. You can use this sheet of paper and underline each relevant
sentence and then put the appropriate number next to it.
General information for both scenario’s: Two species of birds exist on Daphne Major island in the
Galapagos Islands. The cactus finch’s which eat cactus and the medium ground finch’s which eat seeds.
The beaks of the finches are instrumental in their ability to get food. The size and shape of the finch’s beak
determines what food they are able to eat. The cactus finch’s beak allows them to get the nectar out of
cactus flowers and the medium ground finch’s beak allows them to crack and eat seeds.
Scenario #1 ________________________________________
All of the medium ground finches are very similar in their beak size and shape. A drought hits the island and
there is no rain for 550 days. Most all of the smaller seeds that the medium ground finches eat are
consumed and the medium ground finches start dying off. The only seeds left are quite large and hard.
Some of the medium ground finches are able to change their beak size and adapt to the changing
environment. These finches adapt and change their beaks to be able to crack the only seeds that are left in
the environment, large, hard seeds. The finches that are able to change their beaks are able to survive the
change in their food source and live to produce offspring. The offspring of the surviving finches are born
with the larger beaks that their parents developed in their lifetime. The population of medium ground finches
is now different, it has evolved. The finches now have larger beaks and are able to eat larger and harder
seeds.
Scenario #2 _____________________________________
The population of medium ground finches is highly variable in their individual beak size and shape. Some of
the finches have smaller, shorter, weaker beaks and others have larger, deeper, stronger beaks. A drought
hits the island and there is no rain for 550 days. There is now a limited supply of seeds on the island. Fairly
quickly all of the smaller, easier to crack seeds are eaten. The finches that have smaller, shorter beaks go
hungry and start to die off. The medium ground finches with larger beaks are able to crack the larger,
harder seeds, they live longer and reproduce offspring. The offspring inherit their parents larger beaks. The
population of medium ground finches is now different. Overall a majority of the medium ground finches now
have larger, deeper beaks and there are very few finches with smaller, shorter beaks.
Components of Lamarcks hypothesis (put the number next to the appropriate sentence)
1. Environments change
2. Individuals within a species are similar in the traits that they possess
3. Individuals bodies change in response to environmental change, variation is created during an
individuals lifetime
4. Variation created within an individuals lifetime is inherited by their offspring
Components of Darwin’s theory (put the number next to the appropriate sentence)
1. Variation exists (in traits, among individuals within a species)
2. Competition exists
3. Environment selects desirable traits, as evidenced by fitness (differential reproductive success)
4. Traits are inherited by offspring
5. Environments change
6. Populations evolve over time
1. What is the key trait of selection among the finches?
2. What are the finches competing over?
3. Is the competition within or between species?
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Protein Synthesis and Sickle-Cell Anemia- Assignment Name:______________________
Protein synthesis is the process by which the genetic code puts together proteins in the cell. DNA, residing
in the ___________________of the cell contains the blueprint for each specific protein. The four letters or
“bases” in the DNA “alphabet” (__________________, _________________, _______________,
___________________) combine in various sequences and quantities to form “words” or _____________.
Codons are made up of three “letters” or ______________________ (A, T, C, G) and they form amino
acids. Each amino acid is made up of three letters. There are ____________different amino acids which
combine in various sequences and quantities to formulate the hundreds of thousands of _______________
that make up human beings. The genetic code is redundant in that each amino acid can be coded for in
more than one way (e.g. lysine can be coded for by TTT or TTC).
Hemoglobin is a protein made up of two chains of amino acids. A mutation occasionally occurs in one of the
bases of the second amino acid chain of hemoglobin. This mutation leads of one of the bases (A, T, C, or
G) results in the formation of an abnormal protein. Individuals that have this abnormal protein have a
condition called sickle-cell anemia. Sickle-cell anemia results in the red blood cells becoming distorted and
rigid (sickle shaped) and small clots are formed which deprive the cells of oxygen. Individuals with sicklecell anemia are often ill and before modern medicine often didn’t live to reproduce.
Below are the first twelve amino acids that make up the second chain in the hemoglobin molecule. The
mutation that causes sickle cell resides in this part of the protein. Below is the sequence of amino acids for
normal hemoglobin (each amino acid is indicated by the first three letters of its name):
VAL-HIS-LEU-THR-PRO-GLU-GLU-LYS-SER-ALA-VAL-THR
Assume you are a researcher studying sickle-cell anemia. You have been given two unlabeled samples
of DNA sequences. One is from a healthy individual, and one is from an individual with sickle-cell anemia.
Using the table of amino acids (below) and the sequence of amino acids for normal hemoglobin (above),
determine which strand is normal and which codes for the abnormal hemoglobin. (HINT: Remember that a
codon is a series of three nucleotide bases that code for a particular amino acid).
Leucine: AAT, AAC, GAG, GAC
Serine: AGA, AGG, AGT, AGC
Alanine: CGG, CGA, CGG, CGT
Proline: GGA, GGG, GGT, GGC
Valine: CAT, CAG, CAA, CAC
Glutamic Acid: CTT, CTC
Lyseine: TTT, TTC
Histidine: GTA, GTG
Threnine: TGA, TGG, TGT, TGC
DNA Sequences
1. Individual A: C A T G T A A A T T G A G G A C T T C T T T T T A G A C G G C A T T G A
Amino acids: _____________________________________________________________________
2. Individual B: C A T G T A A A T T G A G G A C A T C T T T T T A G A C G G C A T T G A
Amino acids: _____________________________________________________________________
3. Who has sickle-cell anemia? ________________
4. How did you make this determination? ____________________________________________________
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Genetics Assignment (Punnett squares)
(Print) Name:___________________________
Genetics Problems: Use punnett squares to answer the problems below. Answer each question
completely using percentages to show the probabilities.
1. Cystic Fibrosis is inherited as a recessive disorder. Individuals recessive for the disorder experience
excess mucus production, and respiratory problems/failure. If a female (heterozygous) mates with a male
(homozygous dominant) what is the probability:
a) their 1st child will have the condition _____________? b) their 1st child will be a carrier _____________?
2. Albinism (little or no pigment in skin, hair, eyes) is inherited as a recessive condition. If an albino male
mates with a female who is not an albino, but is a carrier what is the probability:
a) their 1st child will be albino _____________? b) their 2nd child will be an albino _________?
3. Predicting Offspring/ ABO Blood System: The blood types in the ABO system are determined by
three alleles. A and B are codominant alleles, and O is recessive. In the problems below you have the
phenotype of the parents. Do a punnett square for each problem and show the possible genotypes for their
offspring.
a. B (heterozygous) & A (homozygous)
b. O & AB
c. In a recent court case, a man of blood type A was accused of fathering a child of blood type B. The
mother was blood type AB. Could this man have been the father _____________ ? What would his
genotype have to be for him to be the father ____________________?
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Page Two of Genetics Homework (STAPLE!)
The following problems are in regards to traits that are sex-linked.
4. Hemophilia is inherited as an X-linked recessive. If a male who is a hemophiliac marries a female who
is not afflicted (and not a carrier) what is the probability they will have a son who is a hemophiliac ______?
What is the probability they will have a daughter who is a hemophiliac ________?
5. Tooth enamel: A form of defective tooth enamel which leads to brown teeth appears to be inherited as
an X-linked dominant trait. Determine the probability of a son having the defect and then determine the
probability a daughter will have the defect in the following cases:
a) non-afflicted female & affected male,
b) affected female (heterozygous) & non-afflicted male.
Answer the following questions in your OWN words
6. What is represented on the outside of the punnett square? __________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
7. What is represented on the inside of the punnet square? ______________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________
8. Do problems 1-3 reflect traits that reside on an autosome or on a sex chromosome? ______________
How do you know?
______________________________________________________________________________________
9. How many letters are in the DNA alphabet? ________________________________________________
10. How many “words” (or amino acids) are in the DNA language? ________________________________
11. What happens during meiosis to the parent’s genetic material? ________________________________
12. Why are most sex-linked traits on the X chromosome? ______________________________________
13. What is a codon?____________________________________________________________________
14. What is an allele? ___________________________________________________________________
15. Does the environment play a role in the expression of polygenic traits? _________. Give an example
of a polygenic trait ______________________________________________________________________
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This assignment will be completed in class.
Processes of Evolution Problems
1. Physical anthropologist Eva Hernandez visits the Yamomamo in Venezuela and finds that only
3 individuals in a small village of 85 people have blood type A. Her grandson, Alberto Hernandez,
returns 45 years later and finds that no one in the village has type A blood. Which process of
evolution is likely affecting this population?
2. The allele that causes an altered form of hemoglobin occurs in all human populations as a result
of mutation. Individuals who have one allele for this condition have an increased resistance to
malaria. Individuals with two alleles for this condition have significant medical problems and die
young. This allele has been found in high numbers in certain populations in West Africa, Southeast
Asia and Greece. Why would this allele be in such high numbers in certain populations?
3. In 1959 Daniel Yuh set up a long term study of cataloging the blood types of a group of huntergatherers in the Brazilian rainforest. In 1959 he found there were no individuals with blood type B.
Three generations later, after this group had begun exchanging mating partners with another
group, there were several members with blood type B. Which process of evolution is likely
affecting this population?
4. Britain’s Queen Victoria was a carrier for the allele that causes hemophilia and she passed this
allele on to some of her descendants. However, there is absolutely no evidence of anyone in
Queen Victoria’s ancestry having hemophilia. What is the most likely explanation for her
possessing the hemophilia allele? Which process of evolution likely led to some of her
descendents having this allele?
5. The inhabitants of the island Tristan de Cunha are all descended from one indigenous family
and a few sailors. The incidence of a rare eye disorder is much higher in these islanders than in
other human populations. Presumably, at least one of the original island settlers carried the allele
of the trait. The disorder has an abnormally high frequency in this small population because many
can trace descent from this one member of a small group of colonists. Which process of evolution
likely affected this population in regards to this trait?
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Sickle Cell Anemia: This is an excellent example of how evolutionary processes work and how
biology and culture interact to affect human populations .
Name____________________
1. What are the symptoms of sickle cell anemia? Do individuals who have two alleles for sickle
cell have sickle cell? Do individuals who have one allele for sickle cell have sickle cell?
2. How many people die each year from sickle cell anemia and what is the average age at which
they die? Does sickle cell anemia affect an individual’s reproductive success?
3. What process of evolution is likely responsible for the origins of sickle cell?
4. What process of evolution is likely responsible for the spread of the sickle cell allele through
inheritance?
5. What process of evolution is likely responsible for the spread of sickle cell through populations?
6. What role does natural selection and the environment play in regards to sickle cell anemia and
humans? What type of data is used to evaluate the relationship between sickle cell, environment
and natural selection?
7. How many people die each year from malaria? Is there a cure or medicines that can prevent
malaria?
8. Is it ever positive to be heterozygous for sickle cell?
9. Is it ever positive to be homozygous for sickle cell?
10. In what type of environment would it would be positive to have no alleles for sickle cell?
11. In what populations is sickle cell prevalent?
12. How has culture affected the spread of malaria and the sickle cell allele? Culture includes the
way in which people get food for survival (the adaptive role of culture) as well as cultural practices
in regards to economics.
13. Which of the four fields of anthropology can be used to help us understand the case of sickle
cell anemia in human populations?
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Sample problems- to be done in class
Population under study: The Dorje are a community of198 individuals living in a secluded commune in
Nepal. They live in a harsh environment where cold, wind, rain, and snow are frequent and severe
especially in the winter months. The Dorje survive by foraging for food and hunting for small game animals
and so they spend a great deal of time outdoors. The trait under study is hairy nostrils (very hairy!). Hairy
nostrils are a dominant condition. Genotype distribution: HH= 99, Hh= 66, hh= 33
Population under study: 80 humans. Trait under study: sneezing fits in bright sunlight. The population is
located on a small oasis on the edge of a large desert. The population faces frequent threats from roving
bands of armed gangs who will kidnap and/or kill the inhabitants if they find them. The people move
frequently to keep themselves safe. They frequently trade goods with other populations of nomads like
themselves. Sneezing fits in bright sunlight is a recessive trait.
Genotype Distribution: SS= 20, Ss= 52, ss= 8
Hardy Weinberg Assignment Problems: On the due date we will review these problems in class and then
you will turn them in for a grade. You may handwrite the table for each problem (neatly, legibly) but you
must TYPE your answers. This assignment is usually worth a fair number of points. Make sure to take the
time to complete each aspect of this assignment to earn the full points.
For each problem you need to complete the following;
1. Complete a Hardy Weinberg table. Follow the sample problem to know how to complete each table and
answer all of the key questions.
2. Type out your answers to the following. Is change occurring?
3. For each process of evolution speculate as to whether or not the process could be responsible for any or
all of the change in the allele frequencies. Make sure to refer to the definition of each process and the
information that I provided to you for each process. Simply stating “yes or no” for an answer will not earn
you any points.
Homework Problems
1. Population under study: 98 individuals who have agreed to take part in a multi-generational study to
give insights into social group relations. These individuals are isolated in a self-contained environment for
the duration of the study, which is expected to take 100 years. The population is responsible for growing
their own food and periodically they have had significant problems with some crops. Brussel sprouts are
one of the few vegetables that they have been able to grow consistently. Trait under study: ability to taste
PTC. The individuals who have this trait find brussel sprouts to be very bitter tasting. The ability to taste is
a dominant trait.
Genotype distribution: TT= 35, Tt= 36, tt= 27
2. Population under study: 923 coyotes. Trait under Study: color variation within this population called
“mottled coloring.” This population of coyotes have learned to adapt to suburban conditions, often taking
food left out for domestic pets. The coyotes traditionally have had a grayish brown coat color but lately quite
a number of these coyotes have been observed with a mottled coat of various colors. This mottled coloring
often makes it difficult to tell that the animal is a coyote. Mottled coloring has been determined to be a
dominant trait. Genotype Distribution: MM= 200, Mm= 93, mm=630
3. Population under study: 1158 humans. Trait under study: the large toe. This population resides in an
isolated area of the Andes Mountains and survive by foraging for food, hunting small animals and
maintaining small gardens. For several generations there have been a number of individuals born with an
especially large, strong big toe. The individuals born with the extra large big toe are very adept at climbing
steep walls to retrieve condor eggs for food (these eggs are highly valued for both food & status), however
they have not been very good hunters or foragers. Having an extra large big toe is a dominant trait.
Genotype distribution: TT= 255, Tt= 276, tt= 627
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Baboon Studies
Name__________________________________
In your text Park discusses the earlier view of baboons and the current views of baboon behaviors
and social group structures. Even though baboons are __________________________________
and much more distantly related to us than the apes they have been held up as an example of how
early hominins might have lived and survived. Baboons live in woodland, savanna environments,
surviving in large multi-female and multi-male social groups. This was thought to be similar to how
early hominins lived (there is some doubt about this now).
List some of the key features put forth as typical for baboons in the earlier studies:
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
List some of the current, nuanced views of baboon behaviors and social group interactions:
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
Why did the views of baboons change? _____________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
The first anthropology book that I read was Shirley Strums “Almost Human.” When Strum did her
research she had conducted the longest ongoing study of baboons at that time. In her book Strum
describes her studies of baboons and how the data that she collected was as odds with the
perceived wisdoms of the day in regards to baboon behaviors and baboon social group
interactions. When Strum went to present her research at various primatology conferences she
was virtually shunned. Strum was one of the first to complicate our understanding of baboons and
to bring forth our current, more nuanced understandings. One of the topics we are covering this
semester is the nature of science, and how science works. Thomas Kuhn wrote “The Structure of
Scientific Revolutions” a seminal book in which he describes how science actually operates based
on his observations.
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Zoo Report- Extra Credit Option
Assignment: Observe two primates (one ape & one monkey) at the zoo for a total of three hours.
Take notes during your observation and then write your zoo report, following the directions below.
Your report must include your notes (I don’t expect them to be completely legible, but I do require
the attachment of the notes to the report).
Zoo Arrival: Select one ape (preferably a great ape but a lesser ape will do) and either one new
world or one old world monkey to observe. Observe each of your selections for at least 1 ½ hours.
Total observation time, 3 hours.
Field Observations: You must take notes during your observations (turn them in with your report).
Your field notes should contain the following information:
 Physical environment: where primates are housed (a cage, outside enclosure, etc.)
 Primates: Describe each primate within the enclosure: sex (if known), relative age (i.e. infant,
juvenile, adult), and general physical appearance. It is helpful to assign a number or name to
each primate to help you organize your study
 Focal Primate: Select one or two primates in each enclosure to focus on for your study (it can
be difficult to record the behaviors of more than a couple primates). Take notes of what you
are observing, recording the actions of the primates. Note taking will be much easier if you use
abbreviations to record your observations.
The following are some examples of abbreviations to use:
G- grooming E- eating R- resting P- playing V- vocalizations A- antagonistic behavior
Report: Review your field notes and write your report (it must be typed). Your report should
contain the following:
 One: name of the zoo where you conducted your observations, the date and time that you
conducted your observation and a general description of the weather (hot, cold, etc.)
 Two: for EACH of the primate groups you observed include the following:
 Scientific and common names of the primates observed. State whether they are an ape
(great or lesser), an old world or new world monkey.
 Brief description of the physical environment where the primates were observed, the
 total number of primates observed & approximate ages and sex if known (this info is
sometimes posted outside of the enclosure)
 A synopsis of the activity that you observed. What were some of the frequent behaviors
that you observed? What type of interactions did the primates engage in? Did they do
anything that surprised you? Did what you observed conflict with what you expected to
see?
Your completed zoo report must include:
a. Name, class day & time
b. Receipt for entrance to the zoo
c. Your field notes
d. Your typed report
You can visit any of the following places to complete your zoo report: Santa Ana Zoo, Los Angeles Zoo, San
Diego Zoo, or the Wild Animal Park
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Human Variation Fieldwork (Race Fieldwork): The purpose of this exercise is for you to explore how individuals
within the United States categorize human variation. Interview ten people and ask them the following questions. You
may interview friends, family members, and fellow students (except students in this class).
Define the term “race” (i.e. what does the
What features or criteria do you use to How
What are three races that you
many
term race mean, what type of
categorize people in regards to what
know of?
categorization is it in regards to humans?)
ethnic or racial group they come
from?
races
are
there?
Be able to discuss what the following statement means- “There are no races only clines”
89