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NOTES CHAPTER 22- The Quest for Empire
The expansionist and eventually imperialistic orientation of US foreign policy after 1865 stemmed from the country’s domestic
situation. Those who led the internal expansion of the USA after the Civil War were also the architects of the nation’s foreign policy. These
national leaders, known collectively as the foreign policy elite, believed that extending American influence abroad would foster US prosperity,
and they sought to use American foreign policy to open and safeguard foreign markets.
Many Americans harbored fears of the wider world, but the foreign policy elite realized that those fears could be alleviated if the world
could be remade in the American image. Therefore, after the Civil War, these leaders advocated nationalism based on the idea that Americans
were a special people favored by God. Race-based arguments, gender-based arguments, and Social Darwinism were used to support the idea of
American superiority and further the idea of expansion, and American missionaries went forth to convert the “heathen.” Furthermore, a
combination of political/economic/cultural factors in the 1890s prompted the foreign policy elite to move beyond support of mere economic
expansion toward advocacy of an imperialistic course for the US- an imperialism characterized by a belief in the rightness of American society
and solutions. The analysis of American expansionism serves as a backdrop for scrutiny of the American empire from the end of the Civil War to
1914. William H. Seward, as Secretary of State from 1861 to 1869 and as a member of the foreign policy elite, was one of the chief architects of
this empire. In examining Seward’s expansionist vision and the extent to which it was realized by the late 1880s, we again see the relationship
between domestic and foreign policy.
Acquisition of territories and markets abroad led the United States to heed the urgings of Captain Alfred T. Mahan and to embark on
the building of the New Navy. The fleet gave the nation the means to protect America’s international interests and to become more assertive, as
in the Hawaiian, Venezuelan, and Cuban crises of the 1890s. The varied motives that led the United States into the Spanish-American-CubanFilipino War offer another striking example of the complex links between domestic and foreign policy. In these crises of the 1890s, the American
frame of reference toward peoples of other nations became more noticeable in the shaping of foreign policy. In the Cuban crisis, as in the
Venezuelan crisis, Americans insisted that the United States would establish the rules for nations in the Western Hemisphere. The Treaty of Paris,
which ended the Spanish-American-Cuban-Filipino War, sparked a debate between imperialists and anti-imperialists over the course of American
foreign policy. We examine the arguments of the two groups and the reasons for the defeat of the anti-imperialists.
In the last two sections of the chapter, we turn to the American empire in Asia and Latin America. The American frame of reference
with regard to other ethnic groups, along with American political, economic, and social interests, shaped the Open Door Policy as well as relations
with Japan and led to US oppression of the Filipinos. The same factors determined American relations with Latin America. But in Latin America
the United States used its power to impose its will and, through the Roosevelt Corollary to the Monroe Doctrine, assumed the role of “an
international police power.”
I.
Imperial Promoters: The Foreign Policy Elite and Economic Expansion
Foreign policy revolves around a nation’s needs, wants, moods, ideology, and culture.
A. Foreign Policy Elite:



B.
Opinion leaders in politics, business, labor, agriculture, religion, journalism, education, and the military.
Most citizens of a nation do not know enough about international relations/events to be able to influence foreign policy so it is left to
the foreign policy elite.
Late 19th/early 20th- “the promotional state”: a federal government committed to assisting American entrepreneurs who wished to
trade and invest abroad and dedicated to making the USA a world power; expressed the need for both formal and informal imperialism
and expansion.
o Historian Henry Adams; Secretary of State John Hay; Teddy Roosevelt; Senator Henry Cabot Lodge; Secretaries of State/War Elihu
Root. Sell, buy, and invest in foreign marketplaces.

Promoted their program by telling the American public that it could relieve overproduction, unemployment, depression, &
social tension in business by exporting surpluses to other nations.

Economic ties could help promoted American ideals/culture abroad.
Foreign Trade Expansion:


II.
Foreign commerce stimulated the building of a larger navy, professionalizing the military, a call for more colonies, and a more
interventionist foreign policy.
1874- USA reversed its unfavorable balance of trade with most of its products going to Britain, Canada, and continental Europe and
an increase in goods going to parts of Latin America and Asia.
o 1900- 2/3 of American exports were agricultural which meant farmers livelihoods became tied to world-market conditions and
the outcomes of foreign wars. 1913- Manufactured goods led US exports for the first time (including steel, copper, petroleum).
1914- US the #1 investor country in the world in foreign markets
Ideology, Culture, and Empire
Nationalism; exceptionalism; capitalism; Social Darwinism; paternalism; and the categorization of foreigners in derogatory race, age,
and gender-based terms all influenced American leaders. Americans were influenced by their fear of social disorder caused by
revolution, economic depression, racial/ethnic mixing, women’s rights, a closed frontier, losing international stature. Americans sought
to preserve their heritage/culture by exporting it to other people.
A. Race Thinking:


Many Americans encouraged expansionism to “civilize” the world.
o Our Country: written by Reverend Josiah Strong: Anglo-Saxon race was destined to lead others.
Many Americans used Social Darwinism as a justification for imperialism.
o Race thinking was often reinforced in world’s fairs, magazine cartoons, postcards, school textbooks, political speeches, and
journalism (National Geographic).
“Civilized” White Anglo-Saxons
↓
European Peoples
“Aggressive” Germans; “Peasant” Slavs; “Sentimental” French/Italians; “Shylock” Jews
↓
Latin Americans and East Asian People
Often referred to as “dagoes and darkeys” ; often referred to as “Orientals and Mongolians”
↓
“Uncivilized” Peoples
Included African Americas and Native Americans
B.
Male Ethos:

C.
Other nations were often referred to as effeminate/weak & in need of “big, strong, manly USA” to rule/guide them.
o Placed women, people of color, and weaker nations in an inferior position dependent on the USA.
Missionaries:

Many missionaries were either single women or wives of ministers.
o Preached the gospel, taught school, and gave medical care.
o Helped transfer American culture/religion abroad.
o Often perpetuated Social Darwinism while gaining some empowerment of independence.
D. The “Civilizing” Impulse:
Americans tried to justify their actions by saying that they were extending liberty and prosperity to less fortunate people; imperialism could
be mutually beneficial (esp. Philippines, China)
III.
Ambitions Abroad, 1860s-1880s
US Empire grew gradually as American leaders tried to build institutions and principles to guide American imperialism.
A. William H. Seward’s Quest for Empire:

B.
International Communications:




C.
Envisioned a US empire that included Canada, Caribbean, Cuba, Central America, Hawaii, Iceland, Greenland, Pacific Islands; wanted a
canal across Central America, a transcontinental RR to link with Asian markets, and telegraph system for communications to complete
his goals.
o 1917- Virgin Islands became US territory (1867- Seward had purchased the Danish West Indies from Denmark)
o Senate rejected Seward’s plan of annexation of the Dominican Republic.
o 1866- Helped halt the French occupation of Mexico.
o 1867- Paid Russia $7.2 million for the Alaskan territory AND claimed the Midway Islands in the South Pacific.
1866- an underwater cable connected European and American telegraph networks (financed by Cyrus Fields)
1890- telegraph lines were connected to Latin America (financed by JP Morgan)
1903- Underwater cables connected American and Asia telegraph networks.
Nations realized that global events had a bigger impact on them than they previously understood.
Anglo-Canadian-American Relations:

American and Britain began to smooth out relations over Alabama Claims and sealing.
D. Contest over Samoa:

E.
Sino-American Troubles:




F.
A group of South Pacific islands 4,000 miles away from San Francisco on the trade route to Australia.
o 1878- US gained a coaling station at Samoa’s port Pago Pago; began issuing warnings to Europe to stay out.
o 1889- Britain, Germany, USA met in Berlin to outline a three-part protectorate that limited Samoa’s independence (did NOT
invite/inform Samoa of the meeting).
o 1898- Britain, Germany, USA portioned Samoa; USA annexed Pago Pago (now a US territory called American Samoa and managed
by the US Department of the Interior); Germany received parts of what is now Western Samoa; Britain gave up claims in Samoa
but received the Gilbert and Solomon Islands.
China: missions became targets of Chinese nationalism anger; American oil/textile companies in China did not do well.
Both businesses and religious organizations appealed to the USA for protection in China.
o Chinese relations in Western USA were degrading with several riots breaking out.
1882- Congress suspended Chinese immigration to the USA.
1905- China staged a short-lived boycott of American products.
Pan-American Conference:
o
1889- first Pan-American Conference in Washington, D.C.; increase in US influence in Western Hemisphere; pledge to improve
trade relations; founded the Pan-American Union. BUT… 1891- US used the navy in Chile.
G. Alfred T. Mahan, Navalism, and the New Navy:

Navalism- the campaign to build an imperial navy.
o Captain Alfred T. Mahan- argued the US needed an efficient navy to protect its shipping and in turn would need bases for that
new navy around the world. (The Influence of Sea Power upon History 1890)
1883- Congress authorized the construction of the 1st steel-hulled warships and shifted from sail power to steam power.
o American industry began to produce parts for the navy. (Maine, Oregon, Boston)

IV.
Crises in the 1890s: Hawaii, Venezuela, and Cuba
Crises in the 1890s provided imperialists with opportunities to act on their arguments and discover a “new frontier.”
A. Annexation of Hawaii:

Archipelago of 8 major islands 2,000 miles off the West Coast of the USA.
o Had drawn the attention of businesses, missionaries, and the military by the 1890s.

Secretary of State James Blaine: “The Hawaiian Islands were essentially a part of the American system.”
1890- Americans owned ¾ of its wealth; economy tied to US economy through sugar exports; entered the US marketplace duty-free.
o Americans, who were only 2.1% of the population, formed secret clubs and military units to contest the royal government.
1887- American businessmen forced the king to accept a constitution that granted foreigns the right to vote and gave decision-making
power to a legislature instead of a monarch and the US gained naval rights at Pearl Harbor.
McKinley Tariff 1890- eliminated the duty-free status of Hawaiian sugar exports to the USA so the America businessmen pushed for
American annexation of the islands.
January 1893- the Annexation Club and the Hawaiian diplomat John L. Stevens dispatched troops to occupy Honolulu and had Queen
Liliuokalani arrested.
o The Queen agreed to give control to the US government; President Harrison quickly sent the annexation papers to the Congress.
BUT… President Cleveland delayed annexation pending a full investigation and did not annex Hawaii until he realized that it could be
used as a strategic commercial way-station to Asia and the Philippines during the War.
o The Newlands Resolution was signed into law July 7, 1898.

Organic Act June 1900- Hawaiian people became US citizens with the right to vote in local elections and to send a
nonvoting delegate to Congress (Hawaii did not become a state until 1959)





B.
Venezuelan Boundary Dispute:
o
Venezuela & Britain had a long feud over the border between Venezuela/British Guiana, an area that contained gold
deposits/commercial gateway to northern South America. Venezuela asked President Cleveland for help.
July 1895: Secretary of State Richard Olney REMINDED Great Britain of the Monroe Doctrine and asserted US as THE power against all
others; GB retreated from the crisis b/c they were busy with a situation in Germany.
1896: Anglo-American arbitration board divided the territory in question between Britain and Venezuela BUT barely consulted
Venezuela on the terms; “Disregard for the rights and sensibilities of small nations.”
o
o
C.
US Interests and Revolution in Cuba:




Between 1868 and 1878, Cuba attempted to gain independence from Spain but failed.
Many Cubans who had left Cuba settled in the USA (Baltimore, New York, Boston, Philadelphia) and many others sent their children
to American schools; Cubans brought back American culture with them to Cuba.
American investors dominated the Cuban economy; 90% of Cuban sugar went to US and most Cuban imports came from the USA.
o 1894: Wilson-Gorman Tariff: reversed the McKinley Tariff; charged a duty on Cuban sugar entering US- Cuban econ suffered.
1895: Jose Marti launched guerilla warfare in a second attempt to gain Cuban independence; burned most of the sugar fields,
devastating Cuban-American trade and American investment.
o Spanish General Valeriano Weyler established concentration camps to identify insurgent supporters (300,000 Cubans
detained; tens of thousands died from hunger, disease)

Yellow journalism gained American support for Cuban independence.
D. Sinking of the Maine:



E.
McKinley’s Ultimatum and War Decision:

V.
President McKinley believed Spain should give up Cuba but did not actually want Cuba to be independent.
De Lôme Letter: published in early February 1898 in the New York Journal- the Spanish minister to the USA called President McKinley
a “cheap politician” and warned that Spanish fighting in Cuba would continue.
After a Spanish riot in Havana, McKinley ordered the battleship Maine to Havana to “protect American citizens.”
o February 15, 1898: an explosion on the Maine killed 266 of the 354 crew of the ship; Congressional investigation reported
that a mine had caused the explosion (was really an accidental internal explosion).
President McKinley gave Spain an ultimatum that included accepting an armistice, ending concentration, and designating McKinley as
an arbitrator; Spain only agreed to the first two conditions so McKinley asked Congress to go to war against Spain.
o April 19, 1898- Congress declared Cuba free and independent and gave President McKinley force to remove Spanish authority
on the island.
The Spanish-American-Cuban-Filipino War and the Debate over Empire
A. Motives for War: EXPANSIONISM AND IMPERIALISM






B.
The US Military at War:

C.
McKinley- cause of humanity; protection of American life/property; injury to commerce, trade, and business of American people; Maine
explosion.
Imperialists- wanted to expand into new territory.
Navy- wanted to “prove the worth” of the New Navy in a war.
Religious leaders- “save ourselves by saving others”
Sensationalism- fueled pro-war attitudes (sense of adventure; assert Anglo-Saxon superiority)
Conservatives- the war would help unite the nation.
Of the 263,000 men who served in the war, most never left the United States.
o Thousands of black troops stationed in the South had to deal with violent racism.
Dewey in the Philippines:

The first fighting took place in May, when Admiral Dewey’s squadron destroyed the Spanish fleet at Manila.
D. Treaty of Paris:

E.
Anti-Imperialist Arguments:



F.
In December 1898, US/Spain agreed on terms that granted Cuban independence. US gained Philippines, Puerto Rico, and Guam.
Many critics denounced imperialism as counter to American principles.
Others argued that the nation could expand its markets without subjugating other countries.
Labor leaders feared that imperialism was bad for American workers.
Imperialist Arguments:

VI.
Imperialists successfully answered their critics by appealing to patriotism, destiny, and commerce.
Asian Encounters: Open Door in China, Philippine Insurrection, and Japan
A. Open Door Policy:


B.
Philippine Insurrection and Pacification:

C.
Secretary of State John Hay issued the Open Door Note in 1899, asking all nations to guarantee free trade in China.
Following the Boxer Rebellion, Hay issued a second note promising to protect the integrity of China.
Emilio Aguinaldo declared an independent Philippines in 1899, starting the Philippine Insurrection that lasted until 1902.
Japanese Expansion:


VII.
As the Japanese became the dominant power in Asia, tensions between the US and Japan increased—especially regarding China.
West Coast Americans exhibited anti-Asian bias in a number of ways
Latin America, Europe, and International Rivalry
A. Economic Hegemony in Latin America:
o
B.
Cuba and the Platt Amendment:

C.
Latin America became a primary target of American economic expansion; Some American companies gained considerable political
power in Latin America.
The Platt Amendment required American approval of all Cuban treaties and assumed for the US the right to intervene in Cuba.
Panama Canal:

After settling prior agreements with Britain/supporting a revolution against Colombia, US signed a treaty w/Panama to build a canal.
D. Roosevelt Corollary:

E.
US-Mexico Relations Under Diaz:

F.
To prevent European intervention in Latin America, Teddy Roosevelt announced a corollary to the Monroe Doctrine that led to
American intervention in the region.
Porfirio Diaz invited U.S. investment in Mexico, but revolutionaries reversed the trend.
Anglo-American Rapprochement:


Rivalry with Germany caused Britain to seek friendship with the U.S.
British-American trade and U.S. investment in Britain also helped secure ties between the two countries.
NOTES: Spanish-American-Cuban-Filipino War 1898-1901
Key Terms, People, and Events:
Anti-Imperialist League- A group including such luminaries as William James and Mark Twain that argued against American imperialism. Disliked the American
annexation of Spanish territories.
Coaling Station- Necessary in the late 19th century so that steamships that burned coal could refuel en route. A Worldwide navy (that could protect worldwide
trade interests) required worldwide coaling stations. The need for stations was one of the reasons the US annexed several islands during/after the war, esp. Hawaii,
Guam, the Philippines.
Foraker Act- 1900 act providing a civil government for Puerto Rico; a main goal of the act was to prepare Puerto Rico for free trade with the US. It gave most power
in Puerto Rico to US-appointed officials.
Insular Cases- a series of Supreme Court cases in 1901, in which SCOTUS ruled that the Constitution and American laws did not all necessarily apply to colonies.
Instead, Congress would decide which laws applied where, allowing the US to keep citizenship out of the grasp of the inhabitants of its new territories.
Insurrectos- Cuban nationalists who fought against Spain’s colonial regime in Cuba.
Jingoism- Attitude of wildly enthusiastic, often excessive nationalism. Jingoists (Jingoes) pushed for war with other countries.
Platt Amendment- 1901 amendment to the Cuban Constitution; US was allowed certain concessions, including the right to indefinitely maintain Guantanamo naval
base in Cuba.
Rough Riders- A group of cavalry volunteers in the US Army who fought in the Spanish-American War. Although termed the “Rough Riders,” most of their horses
did not arrive in Cuba, and they actually walked. The group was led by Colonel Leonard Wood, with Lieutenant-Colonel Theodore Roosevelt also leading a
contingent. They made a heroic charge up San Juan Hill that cost them heavy causalities.
Teller Amendment- 1898 resolution by Congress promising to grant Cuba independence after the war. It provided the US with justification for its actions, while
allaying fears that the war was simply an imperialist land grab.
USS Maine- American warship sent to patrol Cuban waters at the beginning of 1898. When the ship mysteriously exploded on February 15, 1898, it gave the US a
final reason to go to war, even though the cause of the explosion is still debated.
Wilson-Gorman Tariff- passed by Congress in 1894, this tariff restricted US sugar imports; led to an economic downturn in Cuba, and in turn helped to increase the
anger of the Cuban natives against colonial Spain.
Yellow Journalism- the type of sensationalist (sometimes fictitious) journalism practiced by newspapermen (Hearst/Pulitzer) in order to boost circulation.
Emilio Aguinaldo- Filipino revolutionary leader, first against the Spanish and then against the Americans at the end of the Spanish-American War.
George Dewey- Navy Commodore who commanded the US surprise attack on the Spanish fleet at the Battle of Manila.
William R. Hearst- newspaper publisher and leading example of yellow journalism. His New York Journal started a public hysteria for war with Spain by publishing
incendiary articles and illustrations by Remington. Hearst once said to Remington, “You provide the pictures and I’ll provide the war.”
Dupuy de Lomé- Spanish minister to Washington, whose letter insulting President McKinley was intercepted and published in Hearst’s papers. He resigned after
the incident.
John D. Long- Secretary of the navy under McKinley’s administration, beginning in 1896.
Alfred T. Mahan- American naval officer who published The Influence of Sea Power Upon History in 1890. His views, advocating the importance of a strong Navy
and a worldwide network of coaling stations to protect trade routes, held great influence on military thought in both the US and Europe around the time of the
Spanish-American War (1898).
William McKinley- US President (1896-1901); US engaged in a period of imperialism, epitomized by the Spanish-American War.
Joseph Pulitzer- Competitor against Hearst in circulation war and practioner of yellow journalism.
Walter Reed- US Army bacteriologist/pathologist sent to Cuba; first to link yellow fever to mosquito bites, heling to eliminate the disease.
Frederic Remington- painter and illustrator working for Hearst who went to Cuba during the war. One of Remington’s famous works is a painting of the Rough
Riders charging up San Juan Hill.
Theodore Roosevelt- During the war, he first served as Assistant Secretary of the Navy and then quit to join the Rough Riders. Born a weakling, the near-sighted
Roosevelt built himself into robust shape by a lifelong program of exercise and vigorous activities. Always seeking to expand American power in international
affairs, Roosevelt was a prominent war-hawk and gave Dewey the order to attack at the Battle of Manila.
William R. Shafter- General who led the US Army ground invasion of Cuba.
General “Butcher” Weyler- Spanish General sent to Cuba in 1896 to put down the insurrectos’ rebellion. Called the “butcher”, Weyler put much of the Cuban
population into unsanitary concentration camps; he was recalled to Spain in 1897.
Leonard Wood- Colonel and commander of the volunteer Rough Riders. Wood remained in Cuba as the governor during the brief US occupation following the war.
As governor, Wood oversaw the improvement of sanitation, the building of schools and roads, and the deepening of the Havana Harbor.
Battle of Manila- On May 1, 1898 Dewey defeated the Spanish fleet at Manila in a surprise attack in which not a single American was killed. The Spanish ships were
old and rotting, and were defeated easily by the newer American steel ships.
San Juan Hill- On July 1, 1898, the Rough Riders, supported by two black regiments, charged this hill. Although the Rough Riders took heavy causalities, the public
saw the charge as a success.
Treaty of Paris 1898- officially ended the Spanish-Am War; Cuba free; Guam, Puerto Rico, and the Philippines were ceded to the US; US paid Spain $20 million.
TIMELINE:
1895: Cuban nationalists revolted against Spanish rule.
1896: Spanish General Weyler arrived in Cuba; recalled by Spain a year later.
Feb 9, 1898: Hearst published Dupuy De Lomé’s letter insulting McKinley.
Feb 15, 1898: USS Maine sunk.
Feb 25, 1898: Assistant Secretary of the Navy (Teddy Roosevelt) cabled Commodore Dewey with a plan: attack the Philippines if at war with Spain.
Apr 25, 1898: US declared war against Spain, one day after Spain had declared war on the US.
May 1, 1898: Battle of Manila (Philippines)
May 1898: Passage of the Teller Amendment
July 1, 1898: San Juan Hill taken by Rough Riders.
July 3, 1898: Battle of Santiago; Spain’s Caribbean fleet destroyed.
July 7, 1898: Hawaii was annexed.
Aug 12, 1898: Spain signed an armistice.
Aug 13, 1898: US troops captured Manila.
Dec 10, 1898: Treaty of Paris was signed (US annexed Puerto Rico, Guam, and the Philippines)
Jan 23, 1899: Philippines declared themselves an independent republic (led by Emilio Aguinaldo)
1900: Foraker Act passed (some self-government allowed in Puerto Rico)
1901: SCOTUS Insular Cases
Mar 1901: Emilio Aguinaldo was captured.
1901: Platt Amendment was passed.
1902: US withdrew from Cuba.
1917: Puerto Ricans were given US citizenship.
SUMMARY
CAUSES:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Wilson-Gorman Tariff of 1894

American tariff put restrictions on sugar imports to the United States.
o Severely hurt the economy of Cuba, which was based on producing and selling sugar.
o The US, which had many businessmen with investments in Cuba, became concerned.
Cuban rebellion against Spain

Cuba was still a Spanish colony

Angry nationalists known as the insurectos began a revolt against the ruling Spanish colonial regime.
General “Butcher” Weyler

Sent by Spain to stabilize the situation in Cuba
o Put much of the population in concentration camps
Yellow Journalism

American public was stirred into an anti-Spain frenzy
o Nonetheless, President Grover Cleveland promised he would not go to war
USS Maine

1898- The US dispatched the USS Maine on a “friendly” mission to Cuba.
o The ship was to wait, ready to rescue US citizens who might be endangered by the conflict in Cuba

February 15, 1898 the Maine mysteriously blew up
o US blamed a Spanish mine

McKinley gave the OK for war
WAR:
April 1898: both the US and Spain had declared war

Teller Amendment
o Passed to try to assure the world that the US was fighting only for the good of Cuba

Promised to make Cuba independent after the war was over.

Once declared, the US immediately attacked Manila Harbor in the Philippines.
o May 1st, Dewey destroyed the Spanish fleet at Manila and the US prepared for an invasion of the Philippines.

US also invaded Guam and Puerto Rico (other Spanish island-colonies) during the war.

US organized a ground fight in Cuba under the leadership of General William R. Shafter
o US defeated the Spanish with relatively little difficulty

Famous Rough Riders and other units

December 10, 1898: Treaty of Paris was signed, ending the war
o US liberated Cuba
o US also gained colonies for itself:

Puerto Rico

Guam

Philippines
AFTER THE WAR:


US made improvements in Cuban infrastructure and educational systems and prepared to leave.
o 1901- US forced the Cubans to insert the Platt Amendment into their constitution.

Gave the US a military base on the island (Guantanamo).

Guam, Puerto Rico, and the Philippines all became American protectorates

Insular Cases- SCOTUS found those residents did not have full rights as American citizens.
Many of the residents were upset since they expected to be liberate (like Cuba)
o Immediately after being annexed by the US (Jan 1899) the Filipinos declared themselves independent

Start of a guerilla war against the US (led by Emilio Aguinaldo)

Rebellion lasted over a year (March 1901- US captured Aguinaldo)
IMPORTANCE:



The war was brief, included a few battles, and the US generally had an easy time of it, with the war’s outcome never in much doubt.
Secretary of State John Hay called it a “splendid little war.”
Internationally, however, the war had major historical significance.
1.
2.
3.
Beginning of the modern era of US intervention in world affairs.
Signaled the emergence of the US as a great power onto the world state of international relations and diplomacy.
Demonstrated a US move towards imperialism (the taking of colonies).

As the frontier in the West disappeared, the US sought new room to grow and new world markets protected by a worldwide
Navy.
o US annexed Guam, Hawaii, Puerto Rico, and the Philippines

Ideas of “Social Darwinism” suggested to many Americans that international relations were a nasty contest in which the
“fittest” nations would do what they had to in order to survive.
First “media war” in US history.

“Yellow Journalism” of newspaper men like Hearst and Pulitzer.
o Sensationalized stories and whipped the public into a frenzy for the simple purpose of increasing circulation.

Revealed the growing power of the medial to control public opinion in the US.
4.
NOTES- Annexation of the Hawaiian Islands
When the Hawaiian islands were formally annexed by the US in 1898, the event marked the end of a lengthy internal struggle between native Hawaiians
and white American businessmen for control of the Hawaiian government. In 1893 the last monarch of Hawaii, Queen Liliuokalani, was overthrown by a party of
businessmen, who then imposed a provisional government. Soon after, President Benjamin Harrison submitted a treaty to annex the Hawaiian islands to the U.S.
Senate for ratification. In 1897, the treaty effort was blocked when the newly-formed Hawaiian Patriotic League, composed of native Hawaiians, successfully
petitioned the U.S. Congress in opposition of the treaty. The League's lobbying efforts left only 46 Senators in favor of the resolution, less than the 2/3 majority
needed for approval of a treaty. The League's victory was short-lived; however as unfolding world events soon forced the annexation issue to the foreground again.
With the explosion of the U.S.S. Maine in February of 1898 signaling the start of the Spanish American War, establishing a mid-Pacific fueling station and naval base
became a strategic imperative for the United States. The Hawaiian islands were the clear choice, and this time Congress moved to annex the Hawaiian islands by
Joint Resolution, a process requiring only a simple majority in both houses of Congress. On July 12, 1898, the Joint Resolution passed and the Hawaiian islands were
officially annexed by the United States.
The Hawaiian islands had a well-established culture and long history of self-governance when Captain James Cook, the first European explorer to set
foot on Hawaii, landed in 1778. The influence of European and American settlers quickly began to alter traditional ways of life. Originally governed by individual
chiefs or kings, the islands united under the rule of a single monarch, King Kamehameha, in 1795, less than two decades after Cook's arrival. Later the traditional
Hawaiian monarchy was overthrown in favor of a constitutional monarchy. Eventually, the monarchy itself was abandoned in favor of a government elected by a
small group of enfranchised voters, although the Hawaiian monarch was retained as the ceremonial head of the government. Even elements of daily life felt the
social and economic impact of the white planters, missionaries and businessmen. The landholding system changed, and many aspects of traditional culture were
prohibited including teaching the Hawaiian language and performing the native Hula dance.
In 1887, the struggle for control of Hawaii was at its height as David Kalakaua was elected to the Hawaiian throne. King Kalakaua signed a reciprocity
treaty with the United States making it possible for sugar to be sold to the U.S. market tax-free, but the haole - or "white" - businessmen were still distrustful of
him. They criticized his ties to men they believed to be corrupt, his revival of Hawaiian traditions such as the historic Hula, and construction of the royal Iolani
Palace. A scandal involving Kalakaua erupted in the very year he was crowned, and it united his opponents, a party of businessmen under the leadership of Lorrin
Thurston. The opposition used the threat of violence to force Kalakua to accept a new constitution that stripped the monarchy of executive powers and replaced
the cabinet with members of the businessmen's party. The new constitution, which effectively disenfranchised most native Hawaiian voters, came to be known as
the "Bayonet Constitution" because Kalakaua signed it under duress.
When King Kalakaua died in 1891, his sister Liliuokalani succeeded him, and members of the native population persuaded the new queen to draft a new
constitution in an attempt to restore native rights and powers. The move was countered by the Committee on Annexation, a small group of white businessmen
and politicians who felt that annexation by the United States, the major importer of Hawaiian agricultural products, would be beneficial for the economy of Hawaii.
Supported by John Stevens, the U.S. Minister to Hawaii, and a contingent of Marines from the warship, U.S.S. Boston, the Committee on Annexation overthrew
Queen Liliuokalani in a bloodless coup on January 17, 1893 and established a revolutionary regime.
Without permission from the U.S. State Department, Minister Stevens then recognized the new government and proclaimed Hawaii a U.S. protectorate.
The Committee immediately proclaimed itself to be the Provisional Government. President Benjamin Harrison signed a treaty of annexation with the new
government, but before the Senate could ratify it, Grover Cleveland replaced Harrison as president and subsequently withdrew the treaty.
Shortly into his presidency, Cleveland appointed James Blount as a special investigator to investigate the events in the Hawaiian Islands. Blount found that Minister
Stevens had acted improperly and ordered that the American flag be lowered from Hawaiian government buildings. He also ordered that Queen Liliuokalani be
restored to power, but Sanford Dole, the president of the Provisional Government of Hawaii, refused to turn over power. Dole successfully argued that the United
States had no right to interfere in the internal affairs of Hawaii. The Provisional Government then proclaimed Hawaii a republic in 1894, and soon the Republic of
Hawaii was officially recognized by the United States.
The overthrow of Liliuokalani and imposition of the Republic of Hawaii was contrary to the will of the native Hawaiians. Native Hawaiians staged mass
protest rallies and formed two gender-designated groups to protest the overthrow and prevent annexation. One was the Hui Hawaii Aloha Aina, loosely translated
as the Hawaiian Patriotic League, and the other was its female counterpart, the Hui Hawaii Aloha Aina o Na Wahine. On January 5, 1895, the protests took the form
of an armed attempt to derail the annexation but the armed revolt was suppressed by forces of the Republic. The leaders of the revolt were imprisoned along with
Queen Liliuokalani who was jailed for failing to put down the revolt.
In March of 1897, William McKinley was inaugurated as President of the United States. McKinley was in favor of annexation, and the change in leadership
was soon felt. On June 16, 1897, McKinley and three representatives of the government of the Republic of Hawaii --Lorrin Thurston, Francis Hatch, and William
Kinney-- signed a treaty of annexation. President McKinley then submitted the treaty to the U.S. Senate for ratification.
The Hui Aloha Aina for Women and the Hui Aloha Aina for Men now organized a mass petition drive. They hoped that if the U.S. government realized that the
majority of native Hawaiian citizens opposed annexation, the move to annex Hawaii would be stopped. Between September 11 and October 2, 1897, the two
groups collected petition signatures at public meetings held on each of the five principal islands of Hawaii. The petition, clearly marked "Petition Against
Annexation" and written in both the Hawaiian and English languages, was signed by 21,269 native Hawaiian people, or more than half the 39,000 native Hawaiians
and mixed-blood persons reported by the Hawaiian Commission census for the same year.
Four delegates, James Kaulia, David Kalauokalani, John Richardson, and William Auld, arrived in Washington, DC on December 6 with the 556-page
petition in hand. That day, as they met with Queen Liliuokalani, who was already in Washington lobbying against annexation, the second session of the 55th
Congress opened. The delegates and Liliuokalani planned a strategy to present the petition to the Senate.
The delegation and Liliuokalani met Senator George Hoar, chairman of the Senate Committee on Foreign Relations on the following day, and on December 9, with
the delegates present; Senator Hoar read the text of the petition to the Senate. It was formally accepted. The next day the delegates met with Secretary of State
John Sherman and submitted a formal statement protesting the annexation to him. In the following days, the delegates met with many senators, voicing opposition
to the annexation. By the time the delegates left Washington on February 27, 1898, there were only 46 senators willing to vote for annexation. The treaty was
defeated in the Senate.
Other events brought the subject of annexation up again immediately. On February 15, 1898, the U.S. Battleship Maine was blown up in Havana harbor
in Cuba. The ensuing Spanish-American War, part of which was fought in the Philippine Islands, established the strategic value of the Hawaiian islands as a midPacific fueling station and naval installation. The pro-annexation forces in Congress submitted a proposal to annex the Hawaiian Islands by joint resolution, which
required only a simple majority vote in both houses. This eliminated the 2/3 majority needed to ratify a treaty, and by result, the necessary support was in place.
House Joint Resolution 259, 55th Congress, 2nd session, known as the "Newlands Resolution," passed Congress and was signed into law by President McKinley on
July 7, 1898.
Once annexed by the United States, the Hawaiian islands remained a U.S. territory until 1959, when they were admitted to statehood as the 50th state.
The story of the annexation is a story of conflicting goals as the white businessmen struggled to obtain favorable trade conditions and native Hawaiians sought to
protect their cultural heritage and maintain a national identity. The 1897 Petition by the Hawaiian Patriotic League stands as evidence that the native Hawaiian
people objected to annexation, but because the interests of the businessmen won out, over the coming decades most historians who wrote the history of Hawaii
emphasized events as told by the Provisional Government and largely neglected the struggle of the Native Hawaiians. Today, there is a growing movement on the
Islands to revive interest in the native Hawaiian language and culture.