Download Chapter 10: Russia 1801-1871 January 2011 Chapter 10: Russia

Chapter 10: Russia 1801-1871
January 2011
Chapter 10: Russia, 1801-1871
Overview
 Russia was much different then other European countries: The political
development of Russia was different, it was larger then any other country
and contained a wide variety of different races
 Tsar, Alexandra I, ruled Russia from 1801 and was part of the Romanov
dynasty which had ruled Russia since 1613
 In 1801. Western influences had only just touched the surface of Russian
society and politics
 The continuous worry of chaos and breakdown of law to the rulers of 19th
century Russia prevented Russia from advancing forward from its backward
political, social and economic state
 This period saw the development of political opposition to autocracy, but
made little progress
Key Terms
 Romanov Dynasty: The imperial crown of Russia had been passed from
generation to generation of the Romanov family ever since Michael Romanov
had been proclaimed Tsar in 1613
Russian Terms
 Barschina: The work a serf was obliged to perform on his master’s land
 Duma: Elected Town Councils set up in 1870
 Mir: The village community or peasant commune run by a council of leaders
 Nobility: Those of high birth whose families held land. From 1762, they were
exempt from service to the state
 Obrak: A rent paid annually by serfs instead of performing work for their
own master
 Rouble: Russian unit of currency
 Synod: The governing body of the Russian Orthodox Church. It was
controlled by the Tsar through his representative, the Procurator
 Zemstvo: Elected district and provincial council for local self-government set
up in 1864
10.1 What was Russia like in the 19th Century?
What was Russia like geographically?
 In the 13th century the Russian Empire had just started to grow around
Moscow and while the country of Russia commanded vast lands all the way
to the east.
 Between 1683 and 1694 Russia expanded, on average, a rate of 55 square
miles a day and by 1815 Russia covered almost a 6th of the world’s total land
surface
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The tundra, desert and mountainous were all very different landscapes that
occupied Russia. However the taiga offered potential for hunting and timber.
What was Russia like economically?
 Agriculture was the mainstay of the economy. Not only did it provide food,
the grain was Russia’s most valuable export
 The Russia economy however failed to grow as fast as that in much of
western Europe
 Most of the traditional industries were hampered by controls and were too
established in their practices to institute significant change
 Factors that held back the Russian Industry:
o Russian industry was ‘protected’ by duties on foreign imports and felt
little pressure from oversea competitors
o Government ‘monopolies’ controlled trade and industry. No one could
challenge the monopoly due to set restrictions
o Joint stock companies were restricted by state legislation. It was
impossible to finance large companies
o State and Private banks were unstable
o Reliance on plentiful serf labour
o Absence of a strong middle class
o Costs of transporting goods
 Although the Russian economy did grow in the 19th century, in relation to
other European countries its record was poor
What was Russia like socially?
 Men were born in a class, and there they remained. There was comparatively
little movement between ranks
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Serfdom
 Had developed in Russia in the 15th and 16th centuries
 Serfs were essential to the Russia idea of the ‘service state’
 The nobility held land in return for ‘service’ to the Tsar, government, and the
army, while peasants worked their land
 To ensure the nobles’ income, these peasants were legally ‘fixed’ to it, and so
became serfs, subject to some state protection
 The serfs’ position worsened as they were increasingly regarded as their
master’s possessions
 Serfs fulfilled their obligations by working a number of days, often three a
week
 A landlord was responsible for his serfs’ poll tax
 Serfs were the property of the landowners, who might do whatever they
wished with them… Only capital punishment was forbidden
 It wasn’t until 1861 that the serfs were legally freed\
What was the effect of the Russian social structure on the country’s
development?
 The hierarchical and hereditary structure of society was one of the causes of
Russia’s political and economic backwardness in the 19th century
 The nobility grew used to depending on serfs for everything and the general
picture of nobility, portrayed in various Russian novels, was that of a bored
class with nothing to do
 The structure restricted the development of industry: the ‘unproductive
classes’ were not prepared to involve themselves in business and trade
 Since a vast number of serfs and peasants were tied to the land (outside of
towns), it was hard to attract a labour force to support any industrial
development in towns
 On the whole, the class structure was regarded as ‘normal’ by every class. If
one did complain, it was usually about some local injustice rather than about
the system as a whole. Serfs and/or peasants were too busy providing for
their family or their masters and had little time to even consider their
position
What was Russia like politically?
 All decision making in Russia was in the hands of the autocratic Tsar
 He was regarded to the people as ‘little father’ and was responsible only to
God, a belief reinforced by the powerful Orthodox Church
 The Tsar not only needed help in reaching his decisions, but also in ensuring
that they were carried out. Consequently, a small band of chosen ministers
and a huge army of civil servant, known as the ‘bureaucracy’ assisted him
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Autocracy, Orthodoxy and Nationality
 Autocracy:
o Was the Russian system of government by which Tsar had no limits on
his power and was accountable to no one but God
o The authority of the Romanov Tsars the ‘most absolute’ in Europe
o One of the strongest supports came from the Orthodox Church
 Orthodoxy:
o In the 11th century, the Christian Church had split into the western
‘Roman Catholic’ and eastern “Orthodox” branches
o In 1453, the centre of the Orthodox church moved from the
Constantinople (which fell to the Turks) to Moscow
o In Moscow the Orthodox Church developed its own rituals and beliefs
and became quite separated from western influences
o The Church supported the Russian monarchy as the representative of
God on earth and, in return, received state protection
o Authority within the Church rested with the Patriarch of Moscow who
worked closely with the Tsar
o Orthodoxy taught its followers to accept that conditions on earth were
God’s will. Such teachings, coupled with ancient traditions and a
reluctance to embrace change, helped make the Orthodox Church a
symbol of the isolation and backwardness of Russia.
 Nationality:
o Many of the people who lived in Russia were non-Russian nationality
mostly because of Russia’s rate of expansion
o Altogether there were around 170 different ethnic groups, with the
Russians of East Slavs comprising just under half the total population
Key Terms:
 The Taiga: Vast areas of coniferous forest covering the northerly parts of
Russia and Siberia
 Joint stock companies: 17th century forerunner of the present ‘limited
company’. These grew out of ventures entered into by several people, usually
on the agreement that the profits would be shared out in relation to each
person’s original investment
 Census: Official survey of the population of a country. It is carried out by the
government in order to get details of the number of people living in the
country, their ages and occupations, where they live, etc.
 Poll Tax: A sum of money which had to be paid to the state for every serf
 Capital Punishment: Execution.
10.2 How successful was Alexander I in the first 14 years of his reign (18011815)?
Tsars of Russia, 1801-1881
 Alexander I (1777-1825), reigned 1801-1825. Eldest son of Tsar Paul I.
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 Nicholas I (1796-1855), reigned 1825-1855. Third son of Paul.
 Alexander II (1818-1881), reigned 1855-1881. Eldest son of Nicholas I.
What sort of Tsar was Alexander I?
 Tsar Alexander I was the grandson of Catherine the Great and the eldest son
of Tsar Paul I
 His father tried, with some success, to instill the virtues of military life,
discipline, obedience, and order into him
 These contrasts in his upbringing are sometimes blamed for making him
excessively secretive, and possibly even schizophrenic in his later years
 Alexander I did not know whether to follow the path of Enlightenment and
reform, or whether to adopt the more traditional approach of preventing
trouble through control and repression
How did Alexander I rule Russia?
 After the troubles of his father’s reign, Alexander I’s accession to power as a
result of the palace de coup led to high hopes, from its supporters, that
Russia might actually enjoy
 The reign began promising. He freed political prisoners, permitted exiles to
return and abolished the use of torture
 Most of his father’s repressive legislation was repealed
 Three new universities were founded and well over 40 primary and
secondary schools as well
 Censorship was also relaxed and foreign books were allowed to enter the
Empire
 Detaching himself from his father’s assassins, in 1801 he set up an informal
council of young, liberal noblemen to act as his advisors in both domestic and
foreign policies
 The committee known as ‘The Secret Committee’ or ‘The Committee of Public
Salvation’, included four close friends of the Tsar from his years as heir to the
throne
 They were; Adam Czartoryski, Nikolai Novosiltsov, Paul Stragonov and Victor
Pavlovich (pg. 278)
 Together the committee created eight new government ministries to
improve administration
Why did Alexander I fail to abolish serfdom?
 Alexander I was well aware of the problems posed by serfdom
 However, although some of his liberal advisors urged the freeing of serfs,
Alexander I was more cautious
 He was afraid of upsetting the nobility and feared disorder in the country
 Rather then tackling the problem head on, he preferred to pass laws for
gradual improvements
 Alexander’s committee of friends were rather disappointed. Tsar Alexander I
was clearly not the liberal man they expected and the committee gradually
broke up in the years up to 1806. Alexander I turned to Michael Speransky
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Michael Speransky: Son of a village priest, he was given the Orthodox
education at the Alexander Nevsky seminary in St. Petersburg. At only
23 he became chief secretary to one of Tsar Paul I’s advisors and in
1801, after Alexander I’s accession, he moved to the ministry of the
interior. He carried through some major reforms but acquired enemies
at court and was dismissed in 1812. Speransky returned to favour
under Nicholas I and completed the codification of Russian law in 1932.
What was the effect of Speransky’s work for the reform of government?
 It was not until 1807 that he became Alexander I’s chief advisor on the
reform of government
 In 1809, he produced some far-ranging proposals. These included a written
constitution, an elected national assemble chosen by the property owners
and universal civil rights. If Alexander I would have brought these reforms,
Russia would have been very different
 Speransky himself commented that Alexander was ‘too weak to rule’
 Some reform was undertaken in response to Speransky’s suggestions and in
1810, a council of state was set up to advise the Tsar
 Speransky faced continual opposition to his proposals from those who felt
threatened by these changes
How successful was Tsar Alexander I’s foreign policy?
 In 1805, war with France broke out again and Russia joined the Third
Coalition against Napoleon. The Russians put up a fight but were defeated,
forcing Alexander I to make peace
 In the Treaty of Tilsit, Alexander was forced to recognize the French
dominance of central and western Europe, but was able to preserve some
vital Russian interests
 Overall Tsar Alexandra I was successful with foreign policy. He had and made
good connections with other countries and eventually defeated Napoleon
 According to historian Hugh Seton-Watson, in The Russian Empire 1801-1917
(1988), ‘the great victory of 1814 led to a glorification of the regime, the
whitewashing of its cruelties and the preservation of its abuses’
 This suggests that Alexander I’s ‘success’ actually held back the
modernization of Russia
Key Words
 Enlightenment: In the second half of the 18th century, writers began to
develop a more critical approach to what they saw around them. Traditional
styles of rule were questioned and the idea that government should be
devoted to the wellbeing of the people and interfere as little as possible with
personal liberty, developed
 Schizophrenic: A mental state in which the mind is split between two
contrasting desires
 Civil Rights: These included guarantees of personal freedom. In 1815, Poland
was also granted it’s own administrative and legal system and its own army
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Treaty of Tilsit, 8 July 1807: Napoleon I and Tsar Alexander I met on a raft in
the middle of a river Niemen to agree peace terms to bring the war between
France and Russia to a close
10.3 To what extent, and with what results, did the rule of Alexander I change after
1815?
Why is 1815 sometimes seen as a turning point in Alexander Iís reign?
 Religious influence increased his motivation, and he no longer focused on
ìpettyî affairs within Russia
 Alexander took on the role as the upholder of peace in all of Europe in 1815
 He travelled around Europe a lot attending all the congresses that attempted
to solve the problems Europe was facing.
 Alexander dedicated himself to crushing liberalism in Europe by joining
Austria and Prussia in the Troppau Protocol (1820)
 Alexanderís desire for reform waned over the years, especially after 1815
 Alexander didnít accept the constitution for Russia based on the Polish
model, drawn up by Nikolai Novosiltsev.
 He continued to contemplate reform until his death in 1825, but never really
changed his mind. He seemed content to leave things in their current state.
 How were the Russian people affected by changes after 1815?
 Alexanderís growing fear of liberalism led to the increase in censorship in his
empire, especially after 1815
 All forms of literature and theater were subject to censorship, and even nonfiction works were subject to the same intense scrutiny
 Jesuits were kicked out of Russia, and universities were purged of everyone
suspected of holding subversive views. Controversial subjects like
philosophy were withdrawn from the curriculum.
 Military colonies were set up to support Russiaís large army. In the colonies,
life was typically good, although there were certain rules that had to be
followed, like the citizens were required to marry and produce. Women who
didnít have children were punished. The reproduction law was in place to
ensure the armyís survival. Not surprisingly, there were revolts, and thus the
colonies acquired their grim reputation.
How extensive was the opposition to Tsar Alexander I?
 Many troops, in fighting with Napoleonís armies had their first contact with
Western Society, and because of that, various groups were formed that
supported reform in Russia. These groupís methods for reform varied from
setting up a government to radicalism.
 The repressive atmosphere of 1821 caused the Union of Welfare to be
disbanded, because they feared the Tsarís secret spies and their activities.
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it reformed, but this time had stricter control over its membership
The Southern Society under Colonel Paul Pestel was more extreme and
favoured a republic. This society was joined by the Society of United Slavs.
Both societies had plans to assassinate Alexander I in the summer of 1826
 These groups didnít really attract a lot of widespread support. The North
society was dominated by liberal-minded intellectuals and nobles, while the
South society consisted of disgruntled army officers.
Why did revolt break out in 1825?
 original plans for assassination by the 2 societies were thwarted by
Alexander Iís death in 1825.
 He went to Tagnarog for the winter of 1824/25, and died after a sudden
illness on Nov. 19th, 1825. Rumors went around that he didnít actually die,
but rather gave up his throne to become a hermit. To disprove this, his coffin
was dug up in 1865, but it was found to be empty.
 Politics in Russia were muddled after the Tsarís disappearance, as he had no
children to succeed him.
10.4 What were the main features of the reign of Nicholas I? (1825-1855)
Nicholas is generally painted as a reactionary who shared none of his brotherís
idealistic aims for Russia and whose only solution to its problems was repression.
What was the effect of the Decemberist revolt?
 Plans for revolt were made shortly after Alexanderís death. Nicholas claimed
the throne in late December.
 The Decemberists were named so because they planned a revolt the same
day Nicholas assumed his role as Tsar. Itís not exactly clear what the rebels
did, but asked for ëConstantine and a Constitutioní.
 A revolt still took place, and a cavalry charge was mounted, but in the
freezing temperatures, the horses slipped on the icy cobblestones. Nicholas
scared the rebels off by using canons, leaving about 300 dead.
 This didnít discourage other revolt plans, but the government punished those
involved in the revolt severely. The ring leaders, including Paul Pestel, were
hanged, thought this was technically illegal.
 All in all, the revolt actually strengthened Nicholasí hold on Russia, not the
opposite, which was the intention.
Was Nicholas Iís attitude entirely reactionary?
 Nicholas was somewhat inexperienced when the revolt broke out, and
though it is often said that this set the tone for his reign, he actually
responded out of lack of political experience and believed force was the best
way to solve that particular issue. Two peculiarities have affected his
reputation:
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1. He was determined to maintain control over all aspects of
government.
2. His preferred method of addressing problems was to set up secret
meetings and councils.
What was Nicholas Iís style of government?
How successful were the domestic policies of Tsar Nicholas I?
 His policies seem to be effective, but his trust in Russian nobles was greatly
diminished after the Decemberist revolt. Instead he hired German associates,
and together they tackled many problems and made out some successful
reforms.
 A new summary of the law was introduced in 1832
 A new police body, the Corps of Gendarmes, was created under direct control
of the third section.
 Conditions in which the serfs lived in were questioned.
 Alexander also questioned the use of serfs, but same as his brother, Nicholas
didnít know how to tackle these problems. He feared widespread disorder if
the serfs were dismissed.
 Education was encouraged, though still strictly monitored by the
government.
 The economy did slightly better under Count Egor Kankrin.
In what respects did his policies fail?
 Some reforms were made, but things stayed largely the same. The serfs
stayed, and peasants were still revolting occasionally.
 Censorship was still harsh, and punishment for subversion was severe.
150,000 people were exiled to Siberia for this. A lot of education was still
under the influence of the Orthodox Church.
 The economy moved slowly, since Nicholas woul delegate nothing, all state
papers had to pass through the Chancery.
 Things were just slow in general.
What was the impact of the 1848 revolutions in Russia?
 Nicholas became less and less inclined to reform, and Russia continued to be
kept immune from ìfree thinkingî. A disease broke out, and the crops failed
miserably
 Censorship got even worse. By 1850, there were 12 bodies dealing with
censorship.
 Universities almost closed. Due to censorship, 25% of students left. Theology
was a great influence in the curriculum.
Key Terms:
 Reaction: To go back, contrary to modern practices.
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Synod: Special council of members of a church, which meets regularly to
discuss issues of the church.
Jesuits: Members of the catholic society of Jesus who were big in conversion.
Republic: A country whose system of government is based on the idea that
every citizen has equal status
Chancery: An office directly under the control of the Tsar
10.5 – For what reasons, and in what ways, did the Intelligentsia challenge the
autocracy from the 1840s?
-
The failure of the Decembrist revolt did not mark the end of the Liberal
opposition. Instead a group of educated people called the Intelligentsia began
to appreciate Russia’s backwardness and discuss possible remedies.
Although the Third Section worked hard to censor most of the ideas that
were being spread, the Intelligentsia became a major political opposition
force by the 1840s.
The Intelligentsia influenced many government officials during Nicholas I’s
reign. They made younger officials known as the “ Enlightened Bureaucrats”
aware of the flaws of absolute autocracy.
The Intelligentsia
-
The Intelligentsia can be divided into two groups: The Westernisers and the
Slavophiles.
The Westernisers: The Westernisers included a number of influential thinkers and
writers, such as V. Belinsky, Alexander Herzen and Mikhail Bakunin. They hated the
traditional ways of the Orthodox Catholic Church because they preached acceptance
of the existing state in Russia. The Westernises argued that the way for Russia to
move forward was to learn from the west.
The Slavophiles: This group opposed any imitation of western ideas. In the 1840s
they spread their views through the Russian journal “The Muscovite”. The
Slavophiles believed that Russian culture and orthodoxy was superior to that of the
west and that any progress should be based on Russian traditions. They did not
support Tsar Nicholas. The Slavophiles dreamt of a society in which people were left
free by the absolute monarchy.
-
The greatest weakness of the Intelligentsia was that they had no coherent
alternative to Tsar autocracy. Although they wanted change they were
powerless without the Tsar’s support.
10.6 - Where did the Empire expand?
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During Tsar Nicholas I’s reign another million square miles of territory was
added to the Russian Empire. Land was easily taken from China along the
Amur river.
-In 1849 small Russian settlements were established at the mouth of the
Amur and the coast of Sakhalia island.
-Russian armies also advanced into Armenia, capturing Erivan from the
Persians in 1827.
-War with Turkey, in 1823 began badly but continuing hostilities in the
1830’s and 1840’s led to the establishment of Russian influence in Dagestan
and the Caucasus.
Turskestan, however was never completely taken until the 1860’s and early
1870’s
Why did Nicholas I revoke the constitution in Poland?
-Despite Alexander I’s seemingly generous treatment at Poland in 1815, the Polish
were far from happy with their situation.
-By 1820, Alexander I had already began reintroducing censorship, and failing to call
the Diet regularely.
-The Polish were amongst those tried and condemned for their part in the
Decembrist Conspiracy.
-The Polish resented Russian control of the Celtic borderlands, including Lithuania.
Nicholas I only made the situation worse by replacing Polish officials with Russian
ones.
-1830 Nicholas I proposed using the Polish army to crush revolts in France and
Belgium. A rebellion followed, led by younger Polish officer classes.
-Nicholas I was dethroned by the Polish Diet, in January 1831, and Constantine, the
Governor, was forced to flee. However the revels were never united.
-Nicholas I reacted by sending a force of 80,000 troops and defeated the Polish
army.
-The old constitution was withdrew by Nicholas I. He instead set about imposing
light controls.
-All elections and Polish diet were abolished.
-Public meetings and political organizations were banned.
-The university of Warsaw was closed.
-Leading administrative posts were given to Russians.
-The Russian language became compulsory for all government business.
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-The Polish army was merged with the Russian.
What part did Russia play I the affairs of the rest of Europe?
-Russian territorial expansion, the size of its armies, and the power and splendour of
the Russian courts, all confirmed to others that it was a “Great Power”
-However Nicholas I was desperate to prevent any further European revolts. The
convention of Munchengratx was signed with Austria in 1833.
-Nicholas I intervened when trouble broke out again in 1848. His intervention
allowed Austria to concentrate its forces in Italy and Germany.
Why and with what success did Nicholas I become involved in the affairs of
Turkey?
-A Greek rebellion against the Turks broke out in 1821.
-Russia therefore declared war on turkey on 24 April 1828 because the Greeks were
fellow orthodox Christians.
-In June 1829, the war had turned in favour of the Russians.
-In August one Russian army had reached Adrianople, while another was advancing
to Caucasus.
-In September 1829, Nicholas Received the report of the “Kochube” committee.
Their report concluded that it was in Russia’s best interests to keep Turkey weak.
-
Nicholas I negotiated the Treaty of Adrianople in 1829 with the Turks.
In 1833 Mehemet Ali wanted to destroy Turkey. Nicholas I therefore gave the
Sultan military and, in return was granted the treaty of Unkiar- Skelessi in
July 1833.
A new crisis was provoked by Louis-Napoleon of France in the 1850s.
The resulting Crimean War (1854-56) fought by an alliance of Britain,
France, Turkey and Piedmont- Sardinia against Russia, ended poorly for
Russia.
The Russian army could not be properly supplied and transport
arrangements were insufficient.
The Russians were defeated at Balaclava(October 1854) and Inkerman
(November 1854)
Nicholas I died in 1855 before the end of the war. So it was left to his son
Tsar Alexander II to make a Peace Treaty. The Peace Treaty of Paris in 1856
confirmed the failure of Nicholas I’s ambitions.
Russia lost the territory it was granted at the mouth of the Danube.
Russia was forced to abandon its claims to protect Christians in Turkey.
The Black sea was declared a neutral zone
Russia lost influence over Romanian principalities.
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What were the results of the Crimean War for Russia?
By the end of Nicholas I’s reign Russia was in difficulty
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The export route for grin through the Black sea had been closed because of
the war causing grave difficulties for the Russian economy.
There had been an increase in peasant risings and rebellions of peasants
living by the Black sea.
Definitions
Cossack: From Southern Russia; noted as horsemen from early times
Nihilism: Belief that rejects all political or religious authority and current ideas, in
favor of the individual
Excommunicated: Expelled from the Church; destined for eternal damnation
Barbarism: Uncivilised, inhuman and uncultured ways of living and behaving
Usurper: A person who takes a role, title or job from someone else when they have
no right to do this
10.7 To what extent, and why, did Alexander II’s reign change direction in the
1860s?
what changes took place within Russia?
 ‘The Great Russian’ called on the educated classes to seize power from the
incompetent government in St. Petersburg and Moscow in July 1861.
 There was increasing number of student protests about a range of issues,
from the examination system to the problems of emancipation and the
Russian social structure.
 Young protestors were less disciplined and more out spoken in their
criticism of the regime than their fathers.
 Nicholas I. Turgenev, the author of the Russian Novel ‘Fathers and Sons’,
described the ‘Fathers’ as the older generations who hoped Russia could
regenerate itself through piecemeal reform. And the ‘Sons’ as men of action
who were impatient for the thoroughgoing transformation of Russia which
might resort involve revolution.
 These nihilists were aimed at emphasising the hopelessness of the Russian
State. They condemned Alexander’s reforms and looked for the abolition of
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the ruling Tsar. They were opposed to the influence of religion and Marxist
thinking.
Alexander tightened control. There were number of political arrest. The
publication of leading radical journals were temporarily suspended in 1862.
What was the effect of the revolt in Poland in 1863?
 Alexander II was faced with the revolt in Poland in 1863.
 Alexander’s reign had begun wit a variety of concessions to improve the lot
of peasants and to promote new cultivation techniques. But it still wasn’t
enough to appease the nationalist nobility.
 Open revolt broke out in January 1863 and lasted until August 1864, when it
was ruthlessness suppressed.
 The Polish Rising seemed to confirm Alexander II’s developing suspicion that
reform did more than good. The revolt had the effect of whipping up
patriotism within Russia, which curbed the radical activity.
 After its suppression, the military grew again.
What was Alexander II’s reaction to proposals for political reform in 1860s?
 In 1865, the St. Petersburg zemstvo petitioned Alexander II for a central
office to which the provincial zemstva might send representatives.
 When another petition was sent in 1866, Alexander II dissolved the St.
Petersburg zemstvo and exiled its most prominent figures. The move did not
help Alexander II’s reputation, or the future of the Tsars.
 The very men who would probably have been the Tsar’s natural allies, had he
set up a National Assembly, but unable to influence national politics. They
were now prepared to support the activities of radical groups.
How did Alexander II attempt to curb the growing unrest, 1866-1871?
 In 1866, Count Dmitri Tolstoy, who was regarded as a conservative and a
supporter of the Orthodox Church, was appointed Minister of Education.
 The Scots traveller, Sir Donald Mackenzie Wallace, described how he
‘received the mission of protecting the younger generation against pernicious
ideas’ and ‘determined to introduce more discipline into all educational
establishments’.
 Tolstoy reimposed restrictions on the entry to the universities and placed
discipline in the hands of the police. He strengthened governmental control
over the appointments of staff in schools.
 The crucial final examinations, which provided entrance to the universities
from these secondary schools, now became far more dependent on the rote
learning of classical grammar, in an attempt to discourage ‘free thinking’.
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Following another assassination attempt on the Tsar in 1867, controls were
tightened further, with an increase in censorship and a reduction in the
powers of the zenstva.
In1869, Alexander Herzen appealed for activist to spread the ideas of the
nihilists and ‘go to the people’, by which he meant the peasants who made up
the bulk of the Russian population. The ‘Chaikovsky Circle’, which met in St.
Petersburg (1869-72), organized the distribution of pamphlets and books
that had been banned, to support the idea of bringing the peasants into the
students’ campaign.
In the summer of 1874, some students dressed as peasants to win support.
The movement was not a success.
By the 1870s Alexander II had failed either to appease his subjects by reform,
or to curb disturbance by repression.
Vocabulary
Zemstva: Locally elected district and provincial councils with responsibility for
primary education, health, poor relief, local economic development, road building
and services such as sanitation, fire and water.
10.8 Why have historians differed in their views of Tsar Nicholas I and Tsar
Alexander II?
Was Nicholas I a reactionary?
 Historians have condemned the reign for its excessive repression,
characterized by strict censorship and the use of the secret police. They have
also criticized Nicholas I’s reign for its failure to tackle administrative and
social reform, or to do anything for the ailing Russian economy.
 The historian Hugh Seton-Watson points out that Nicholas I frequently spoke
out against the evils of serfdom, and that his fear of social disorder if
emancipation were carried out was ‘a real problem’, not merely an excuse.
 The codification of the law by Speransky, the attempt to improve the lot of
the state peasants, and the laws to help serfs and factory workers were all
passed during this reign.
 Nicholas II did not wish to appear influenced by outside pressure, nor did he
wish to encourage others to think, discuss or proffer advice without his
authority.
 According to the historian David Saunders, the Tsar knew that changes had
to be undertaken but was determined not to allow them to be promoted by
any movement or group beyond the control of government he believed that
reform could be achieved by the government acting alone.
Was Alexander II ‘Tsar Liberator’?
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Chapter 10: Russia 1801-1871
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Alexander II, Nicholas I’s son, is portrayed as a man who tried his best and
did great things for Russia, although he could never quite bring himself to go
far enough.
Historian Donald Treadgold described Alexander II as a ruler who did ‘more
to improve the lot of the Russian people than any other single person in their
history’. He carried through the most far-reaching reform in Russia in the
19th century, the emancipation of the serfs.
But there is also disagreements; the landowners received financial
compensation under the terms of the serfs’ emancipation. It was the nobility
and higher ranks of society that benefited from the improvements in
education, finance, and the organization of the army.
When faced with the Polish Rising of 1863-64, Alexander II responded just as
Nicholas II had done after 1848, with repression.
The course of Alexander’s reign changed in the 1860s.
But whether Alexander II had a conscious reforming policy until then or not,
remains a matter of debate.
How different were Tsar Nicholas I and Tsar Alexander II as rulers?
 Both Nicholas I and Alexander II are autocrats, patriotic, religious and
conservative in outlook. And they both believed that the initiative, whether
for conservation or change, belonged to the Tsar alone and that reform ‘from
above’ would help to strengthened the autocratic regime, not replace it. They
both became more repressive in the later stages of their reigns. They both
drew back from the development of constitutional government and tried to
ignore the mounting criticism around them.
 Nicholas II was responsible for few major reforming laws, Alexander II can
be credited with many far reaching changes.
10.9 How successful was Alexander II in foreign affairs, 1855-1871?
 Alexander continued the advance into Asia. This was supported by the
military and those who determined to find new markets to help improve the
Russian economy.
 Expansion of pan-Slavism.
 This was the belief that it was Russia’s duty to carry its superior civilization
to the uncultured tribes of Asia.
 Defeat in the Crimea and Alexander’s per-occupation with domestic policy,
kept Russia on the sidelines.
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Chapter 10: Russia 1801-1871
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The Russians had been humiliated by the war. Hey felt particularly aggrieved
by the opposition of the Austrians in 1855, shortly after Nicholas I had
helped them in 1848-49.
Alexander II’s relation with the other European powers were shaped by his
desire to break the alliance that had fought so successfully against Russia in
the Crimea, and to gain a favourable revision of the Treaty of Paris.
He looked for French for friendship, trying to separate the French from
Austrians. And he did in 1859.
As Prussia completed its work of unification, both Austria and France were
weakened.
Alexander II revised the Treaty of Paris because of the Franco-Prussian War
of 1870.
By 1871, Alexander could feel well pleased that his cautious policy had
enabled Russia to become master in this area once again. He even abandoned
his former Anti-Austrian prejudices, to join Bismarck’s Three Emperors’
League with Germany and Austria in 1872; which seemed to assure the
stability of Europe.
Vocabulary
Pan-Slavism: This movement, which was to become a major influence on Russian
foreign policy after 1871, regarded Russia as the natural protector and supporter
of the Slav people.
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