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Slovakia
National Flag
National Flag:
Three equal horizontal bands of white (top), blue, and red superimposed with the Slovak
emblem (a cross Lorraine atop 3 hills in a shield; the cross is white centered on a background
of red and blue) centered on the hoist side.
Population:
More than 5 and half million of inhabitans
Nationalities: Slovak (85.6%), Hungarian (10.8%), Romany (1.8%), Czech (1.2%),
Ruthenian (0.3%), Ukrainian (0.3%), German (0.1%), Polish (0.1%),Other (0.2%)
Religion: Roman-Catholic (60.3%), Greek-Catholic (3.4%), Protestant (6.2%), Reformist
(1.6%), Orthodox (0.6%), Without any confession (9.7%),No data (18.2%)
Capital: Bratislava
Bordering countries: Austria, Czech Republic, Hungary, Poland, The Ukraine
President: Mr. Kiska
Prime minister: Robert Fico (from July 2006)
Government type: parliamentary democracy
Independence: January 1, 1993 (from The Czecho-Slovak Federation, previously
Czechoslovakia)
Chief crops: wheat, rye, corn, potatoes, sugar beets
Livestock: cattle, pigs, chickens, sheep, goats
Major industries: car manufacturing, engineering, chemicals, oil refining, plastics
Natural resources: antimony ore, mercury, iron ore, copper, lead, zinc
Climate: temperate summers; cold, cloudy, humid winters
Terrain and Environment: Slovakia boasts rugged mountains in its central and northern
regions. The High Tatra alpine range houses Gerlachovsky stit, the highest peak at 8762 feet
(2655 meters). The southern region is made up of fertile lowlands. There is, however, air
pollution and acid rain. The extent of environmental danger posed by the controversial
Gabcikovo dam (which diverts water from the Danube river) remains an issue of debate.
The first recorded mention of Slav princes near Pannonia goes back to 803 CE. In 805, the
presence of Prince Vratislav, Lord of the Bratislava Castle, signifies the arrival of the second
historic Slav in the Middle Danube. In an anonymous Bavarian geographic work Descriptio,
Civitatum et Regionum ad septentrional emplagam Danubiti, it mentions, in 817, the
existence of 30 castles on the territory of the principality of Nitra and 11 castles on the
territory of the Kingdom of Great Moravia.In 822, emissaries sent by the Slavs visited
Emperor Louis the Pious at the Imperial Dietof Frankfurt and in 828, the Archbishop Adalram
of Salzburg consecrated the Church of thecourt of Prince Pribina in Nitra. The oldest
mentions of the subject of theChristianization of the Slavs in the Middle Danube goes back to
the seventh century, tothe epoch of Bishop Amand, an apostle of the Belges. After his
mission, the arrival oftravelling Irish and Scottish missionaries was attested to in the region of
High Nitra.
In 833, animportant political event took place in this region. Prince Mojmr, from the
principalityof Moravia, and his army, attacked the principality of Nitra, conquering it and
creatingin a relatively vast territory, a united Slav State. The Empire unified the Slavs of
Nitraand Moravia. The principality of Mojmr is known in historiography under the
incorrectname of Great Moravia. This designation was was assigned 100 years later, after
itsdisappearance, by the Byzantine Emperor Constantine VII, even though no historic
sourcefrom the 9th century mentions the formation of a State called Great Moravia.
Prince Pribina, after fleeing Nitra, became the Lord of theSlavs, occuying the Transdanubian
Pannonia. He founded the principality of Balaton, hadcastles and churches built, and obtained
remarkable results in his efforts ofChristianization in this region. After his death in 861, his
son Kocel, who ruled theprincipality of Balaton until 876, continued his father’s work.
The empire of Mojmr became the target of Christianizationled by the Frank clergy, which is
attested to by the Ecclestiastical Assembly of 852 atMohuc and the reports by the
Ecclesiastical Missions of Salzburg. But the rich deposits ofiron, silver and copper also served
as strong attractions to the rulers of the Frankempire. It was for this reason that Louis II the
German, with his armies, invaded theprincipality of Mojmr, stripping Mojmr I of his crown,
and entrusting the royalty tohis son, Rastislav.
Prince Rastislav I stood out as an efficient and wise lord.To put an end to the aggressiveness
of the Eastern Franks, he attempted, starting in 853,to establish an alliance with the Bulgars.
He resisted several military attacks by theFranks and, in 855, challenged the huge army of
King Louis the Pious at Devin and, in 857,even conquered Duke Carloman and established, in
857, a peace treaty with him.
Ratislav I wisely understood the importance ofChristianization of the Slavs and asked the
Pope in Rome, in 861, to send a Bishop to hiskingdom. His request fell on deaf ears in Rome
and, so, in 862, he asked the ByzantineEmperor Michael III to send him a Bishop and religion
teachers. The famous letter fromRatislav I to Emperor Michael III began with these words: "
...We, the Slavs, asimple people, have no-one to teach us the truth..." The Emperor agreed to
hisrequest and sent Ratislav two apostles, Cyril and Methodius, who were brothers and
nativesof the city of Salonika (today Thessalonika).
They, even before leaving the Byzantine Empire, had createdthe first Slavic alphabet, called
glagolitic and had translated several religious worksinto the Slavon language (ancient Slav).
After their arrival in the principality of Rastislav, Cyriland Methodius, accompanied by a
large group of scholars, founded, using as a model theAcademy of Constantinople, the first
academy in Slovakia and further developed writing inthe Slav language, to which were
translated other religious texts and in which severalliterary works, poems and judicial acts
were written (Proglas Poem, the work" Warnings to Lords, a judicial Code for the common
people, ", etc...)The work of Cyril and Methodius includes:
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first Slav alphabet
first translations into the Slav language -- the Slavon (ancient Slav) in 862
first large Slav school (863)
first translations and first literary, philosophical and legal works in the language of the
Subdanubian Slavs -- Slavon (863-886)
establishment of the Slavon language as the liturgical language (867), first liturgical
Slav language after Hebrew, Latin and Greek
First Slav Bishop - Cyril (Constantine) (868)
First legate of the Holy See for the Slav countries - Methodius (869)
First archdiocese in the Slav countries - Bishop Methodius (869)
The first archdiocese was not established in Prague until1344.
From 869-871, the intrigues and military attacks led by theEastern Franks against the
principality of the Slavs intensified. After Rastislav wastaken prisoner by the Franks and lost
his sight, and after the large anti-Germanicinsurrection of Slavomr, Svtopluk acceded to the
throne of the principality. From872-876, Svtopluk conquered the armies of Louis several
times and kept his independence.In 880, Pope John VIII, by the act "Industriae tuae "
crownedSvtopluk King and gave his kingdom the protection of the Holy See.
Important events during the period of the Kingdom ofSvtopluk:
- 874 Occupation of the Vistule Basin by Svtopluk
- 882 Occupation of the territory of Bohemia/present day Czech Republic excluding Moravia
- 883 Invasion and Occupation of Pannonia
- 889 Occupation of the territory of Lusatian Serbs
- 890 Treaty with Arnoul, confirmation of the sovereignty of Svtopluk I in Bohemia
- 892 Driving back of the common attack by the Frank, Alaman and Bavarian armies and
theMagyar tribes
- 893 Driving back of the attack by the armies of Arnoul, and upon his request, thesigning of a
peace treaty with Svtopluk
- 894 Death of King Svtopluk I, peace for the Slavs with the Bavarians, first invasionby the
Magyars into the Transdanubian region.
The death of King Svtopluk brought about the progressivedisintegration of the largest Central
European empire and eventually disappearance due tothe incessant invasions of the allied
Bavarian armies and the Magyars. However, the firstact which led to the disintegration of the
Empire was caused by the Slav Dukes of Bohemia(present-day Czech Republic) in 895,
which detached itself from the Empire of Svtoplukand asked Emperor Arnoul of Ratisbonne
for his protection against the Slavs.
In 897, Mojmr II tried once again to conquer theterritory of Bohemia, but failed, and in 898, a
struggle for the throne broke out betweenKing Mojmr II and his brother, Svtopluk II. Mojmr
II fought off the attack by theBavarian armies, who had been joined also by military troops of
the small Czech Lords andhe had Svtopluk II imprisoned.
In 899, the Bavarians once again attacked the Slavs andliberated Svtopluk II. In 900, Mojmr
once more fought off attacks from the Czech andBavarian armies.
In that same year, the Pope reconfirmed the archdiosese andthe three dioceses in the Slav
Empire and in 901, Louis IV the Younger and Mojmr IIreached a peace agreement in
Ratisbonne.
In 902 and at the beginning of 906, Mojmr II twice pushedback attacks from the Magyar
armies which resulted in their fleeing. However, during theirnext raid in the South, Mojmr II
as well as Svtopluk II were killed and the Magyarspillaged the Southern regions of Slovakia.
This was the beginning of the progressivedisappearance of the independent Slav State and
chronicles of that period describing thebattle of the Bavarians against the Magyars on July 4,
907 make no mention of anyparticipation by Slav armies.
The Finno-Ougrien tribes of the Magyars (Hungarians), who, after the break-up of the Slav
empire, occupied the plains between the Tisa river and the Danube, progressively imposed
their authority on the Slav tribes located nearby. At the same time, they began to adopt the life
style of the Slavs. Thus, they built cities, got involved in agriculture and the trades, practiced
the Christian religion and organized themselves into a State.
Bratislava Castle
In spite of that, hordes of Hungarian cavalry each year conducted raids to pillage the German
territories. It was not until the Battle of Augsburg on the Lech River in 955 that their
invasions ceased when King Otto I (the Great), completely destroyed the Magyar military
troops and forced the Magyar nomadic tribes to give up their aggressive and pillaging
lifestyle. The territory of the present-day Slovakia was progressively integrated, until the end
of the 11th century, into the developing multinational Hungarian State where the Hungarian
ethnic group was only a minority, which remained the case until its disappearance in 1918.
Until 1106, Slovakia kept a special status in the principality - Tertiapars Regni - Nitra, being
the capital. The first successor to the throne and the future Sovereign of the Hungarian throne
always ruled with much independence from the Central Power. He even had the right to mint
his own coins.
In 997, the head of the old Magyars, Geza, died and the question of his succession came up. It
was then that war broke out between his son Vajko (the future St. Stephen I) and the Head of
the "Comitat", the pagan Koppany. Vajko had to seek refuge in Slovakia and he organized the
Christian warriors and, with their help, conquered the pagan insurgents. Vajko, baptised later,
mounted the throne of Hungary in 1000 as Stephen I. Pope Sylvester II gave him the title of
King and a crown, which, thus, made him the first King of Hungary. In this developing State,
the Hungarians not only went back to the principal elements of the organization of the former
Empire of the Slav State during the period of Svatopluk I, but also brought into their language
most of the old Slav words connected to the organization of the State and the hierarchy, the
judicial system, the Church and religion, agriculture, the trades, social relations, etc. Most of
these words are still used today in Hungarian and their form in ancient Slav has hardly been
changed. When the Hungarian State was created, the Slovakian territory of Moravia was
detached from the other Slovakian territories and, after a complicated historical evolution, it
became part of the present-day Czech Republic. The Slovakian territories were, at the
beginning of the existence of the Hungarian Kingdom, the object of frequent and long battles
between them and the neighboring country sovereigns. Human and material losses linked to
these fierce struggles were multiplied by the bloody invasions of the Tatars from 1241-1243,
invasions which, sadly, were characterized by massive exterminations of populations and
famines. This resulted in the Hungarian Lords calling on the German colonists, who
contributed largely not only in the development of cities, but also in the development of the
mining, the metallurgical industry and the trades, not only in Hungary, but also throughout
Central and Eastern Europe.
Slovakia was rich in raw materials and fairly economically developed and therefore (until the
beginning of the Modern Era, Slovakia was the biggest producer of silver and the second
largest producer of gold in Europe) was, until theTurkish expansion, the richest and most
developed area of Hungary.
It was precisely for that reason that the first royal privileges were given to Slovakian cities -Trnava in 1238, Zvolen, Krupina, Stary Tekov in 1240, Nitra, Kosice in 1248, Banska
Stiavnica in 1255, Banska Bystrica in1255, Gelnica in 1270, Bratislava in 1291, etc. The
participation of the Slovaks in public affairs was attested to notably in the Privilegum pro
Slavis by Zilina, dated 1381,where King Louis I gave the Slovaks half of the seats on the
Municipal Councils.
The catastrophic collapse of the Hungarian armies of the Battle of Mohacs in 1526 brought
about the partition of Hungary into three parts and de facto Hungary ceased to exist.
The Ottoman Empire occupied, without the least resistance, the territorial center of the former
State, present-day Hungary, and set up a Turkish province there. Transylvania became a
Turkish protectorate vassal and a base which gave birth to all the anti-Hapsburg revolts led by
the Hungarian nobility during the period1604-1711. (The Hungarians, even today, call them
"revolutions" in which they sided with the Turks, all of which took place on Slovakian
territory). The third part of the Kingdom, Slovakia, resisted Turkish occupation (except for
the Southern regions) and became, in 1526, part of the Hapsburg Monarchy. At the same time,
the Austrian sovereign took over the function of Monarch of the "Kingdom of Hungary and
the capital of Slovakia, Bratislava, became, for the period between 1526 and 1784 the capital
and the coronation city of this Slovak "Hungary Kingdom." From 1526 to 1830, nineteen
Hapsburg sovereigns were crowned "Kings and Queens of Hungary" in Saint Martin's
Cathedral in Bratislava.
By Turkish invasion, Slovakia became, for almost two centuries, the principal battleground of
Turkish wars and Slovakia paid dearly for the defense of the Hapsburg Monarchy and,
moreover, the rest of Europe, against Turkish expansion, not only by the blood and the goods
of its population, but also by losing practically all of its natural riches, especially gold and
silver, which were used to pay for the costly and difficult combats of an unending war.
After the ousting of the Turks from Central Europe in 1786, Buda, which later became
Budapest, became the capital of Hungary. However, even during difficult historic periods,
even in spite of considerable human and material losses, and without having their own state,
the Slovakian people knew how to keep their vitality, their language and their culture in order
to continue to develop them. They began the era of "Lights" full of hope and ready to assume
their role in the national renaissance, ready to lead their struggle for the rebirth of their State.
During the 18th century, a Slovak national movement was founded with the aim of fostering a
sense of national identity among the Slovak people. Advanced mainly by Slovak religious
leaders, the movement grew during the 19th century. A key component was the codification
of a Slovak literary language by Anton Bernolak in the 1700s, and the reform of this language
by Ludovit Stur the following century. Hungarian control remained strict, however, and a
large Slovak movement did not emerge until the 20th century.
Andrej Hlinka
New signs of national and political life appeared only at the very end of the century. Slovaks
became aware of the fact that they needed to ally themselves with others in their struggle. One
result was the Congress of Oppressed Peoples of Hungary, held in Budapest in 1895, which
alarmed the government. In their struggle Slovaks received a great deal of help from the
Czechs. In 1896, the concept of Czecho-Slovak Mutuality was established in Prague to
strengthen Czecho-Slovak cooperation and support Slovakia. At the beginning of the 20th
century, growing democratization of political and social life threatened to overwhelm the
monarchy. The main rallying call was for universal suffrage. In Hungary only 5 percent of
inhabitants could vote. Slovaks saw in the trend towards democracy a possibility of easing
ethnic oppression and a break through into politics again. The Slovak political camp, at the
beginning of the century, split into different factions. The leaders of the Slovak National Party
based in Martin, expected the international situation to change in the Slovak's favor, and they
put great store by Russia. The Catholic faction of Slovak politicians lead by Father Andrej
Hlinka focused on small undertakings among the Slovak public and, shortly before the war,
established a political party named the Slovak Public Party. The liberal intelligentsia rallying
around the Hlas (Voice) journal, followed a similar political path, but attached more
importance to Czecho-Slovak cooperation. An independent Social-Democratic Party was
founded in 1905. The Slovaks achieved some results. One of the greatest of these was the
election success in 1906, when, despite continued oppression, seven Slovaks managed to get
seats in the Assembly. This success alarmed the government, and oppression was stepped up.
One result was the passing of a new education act known as the Apponyi Act, named after
education minister Count Albert Apponyi. This was the climax of the Magyarization process.
The new act stipulated four years of compulsory schooling, and that only Hungarian was to be
taught. The reign of terror claimed the lives of 15 Slovaks killed during consecration of a new
church at Cernova near Ruzomberok. The local inhabitants wished their new church to be
consecrated by the popular priest and patriot Andrej Hlinka. But the Hungarian authorities
decreed that the church should be consecrated by their own nominee. The public uproar was
put down by the police with guns. All this added to estrangement and resistance towards
Hungarian rule.
The Federation of Czechoslovakia
In 1867 the Habsburg domains in central Europe were reconstituted as the dual monarchy of
Austria-Hungary. During World War I (1914-1918) Czechs, Slovaks, and other national
groups of Austria-Hungary were joined by Czechs and Slovaks living abroad in campaigning
for an independent state. In October 1918, at the end of the war, Slovakia announced its
independence from the empire and incorporation into the new republic of Czechoslovakia.
The new republic included the Czech lands of Bohemia and Moravia, a small part of Silesia,
and Slovakia; within these boundaries were areas inhabited by hundreds of thousands of
Hungarians. A parliamentary democratic government was formed, and a capital was
established in the Czech city of Prague.
Slovaks, who were greatly outnumbered by the Czechs, differed in many important ways from
their Czech neighbors. The Slovak economy was more agrarian endless developed than its
Czech counterpart; the majority of Slovaks were practicing Catholics while the Czech
leadership believed in limiting the power of the church, and the Slovak people had generally
less education and experience with self-government than the Czechs. These disparities,
compounded by centralized governmental control from Prague, produced discontent among
Slovaks with the structure of the new state.
In the period between the two world wars, the Czechoslovak government attempted to
industrialize Slovakia. These efforts were not successful, however, due in part to the Great
Depression, the worldwide economic slump of the 1930s. Slovak resentment over what was
perceived to be economic and political domination by the Czechs led to increasing
dissatisfaction with the federation and growing support for extreme nationalist movements.
Father Andrej Hlinka and his infamous successor, Father Jozef Tiso, were joined by many
Slovaks in calls for equality between Czechs and Slovaks and greater autonomy for Slovakia.
Fall of the Austro-Hungarian Empire
After the outbreak of world war, the Slovak cause took firmer shapein resistance and
determination to leave the dual monarchy and form an independentrepublic with the Czechs.
The decision originated amongst people of Slovak descent inforeign countries. Slovaks in the
US were especially numerous and formed a sizeableorganization. These, and other
organizations in Russia, and neutral countries, backed theidea of a Czecho-Slovak republic.
Slovaks strongly supported this move. The most importantSlovak representative was Milan
Rastislav Stefanik, French citizen of Slovak origin, whoas a French general and leading
representative of the Czecho-Slovak National Council basedin Paris, made a decisive
contribution to the success of the Czecho-Slovak cause.Political representatives at home,
including representatives of all political persuasions,after some hesitation, gave their support
to the activities of Masaryk and Stefanik. Thenational campaign amongst Slovak inhabitants
was hindered by the fact that the Hungariangovernment had increased harassment of Slovaks
during the war. Despite stringentcensorship, news of their success abroad got through to
Slovakia and was received withmuch satisfaction. In the turbulent final year of the war,
sporadic protest actions tookplace in Slovakia politicians held a secret meeting at Liptovsky
Mikulas on May 1,1918. Finally the Prague National Committee proclaimed an independent
republic ofCzechoslovakia on 28 October, and, two days later, the Slovak National Council at
Martinacceded to the Prague proclamation.
World War II
Inaddition to Czechoslovakia’s internal conflicts, the rise of Nazi Germany in the1930s and
the aggressive policies of German dictator Adolf Hitler led to the demise of the Czechoslovak
federation. In 1938 the leaders of Great Britain, France, and Italy weretrying to avoid another
war with Germany and were willing to negotiate with Hitler. Theresult of their negotiations,
the Munich Pact, forced the government of Czechoslovakia tocede the Sudetenland, an area
inhabited largely by Germans, to Germany. Fearing that thefederal government would not be
able to protect Slovak interests, the Slovak leadershipnominated an autonomous provincial
government and approved a new constitution, creatingthe short-lived Second Republic of
Czechoslovakia. Faced with the threat of being dividedbetween Germany, Poland, and
Hungary, the Slovak government decided to withdraw from thefederation and declare its
independence. On March 14, 1939, the first independent SlovakRepublic was established, and
Father Tiso was chosen as head of government.
With independence, Slovakia came underheavy German influence and protection. Tiso
allowed German troops to occupy Slovakia inAugust 1939, and the country entered World
War II as Germany’s ally. Governmentpolicies were closely aligned with those of Germany’s
ruling Nazi Party, and between1942 and 1944 approximately 70,000 Slovak Jews and other
"undesirables" weresent to concentration camps (See Holocaustin Slovakia). Although some
Slovaks supported the state, an undergroundresistance movement also gained strength. In
1944 this movement organized the SlovakNational Uprising against German control.
When the war ended in 1945, the republic of Czechoslovakia wasresurrected, with the
exception of Ruthenia, a small area in the east that was taken overthe by Union of Soviet
Socialist Republics (USSR). Prime Minister Tiso was hanged fortreason and collaboration
with the Nazis, and other high party officials were alsopunished. Between 1945 and 1948,
Communists and representatives of other political partiesruled the country in a coalition
government, and a free press existed. Although theCommunist Party controlled many
important positions, it had less support in Slovakia thanin the Czech lands.
The Communist Regime
In February 1948 the Communists provoked a political crisis andtook over the government in
Prague. Under the leadership of Slovak Gustv Husk, the Communists patterned
Czechoslovakia’s economy and government on those of the Soviet Union. The state took
control of the country’s factories and many businesses; privateproperty was nationalized; and
farmers were forced to join collective farms in which allland and equipment were jointly
owned. The government prohibited opposition to the Communist Party and made efforts to
decrease the influence of churches. The CommunistParty became the only effective party in
Czechoslovakia.
In the 1960s party leaders andintellectuals in Slovakia and the Czech lands created a
movement to reform the Communistsystem. The movement, which came to be known as
"Socialism with a Human Face," was led by Alexander Dubcek, a Communist from Slovakia
who became the head ofCzechoslovakia’s Communist Party in January 1968. The USSR
feared that the reformswould threaten its influence in Czechoslovakia, and on August 21 of
that year, the Sovietmilitary, assisted by troops from other Communist countries of Eastern
Europe, invadedCzechoslovakia. As a result, nearly all the reforms that had been introduced
wereeliminated. Dubcek was replaced by Husk in April 1969, andultimately was expelled
from the party. Many other leaders and intellectuals who supportedliberalization also lost their
positions. The Husk government reestablished tight partycontrol and censorship of the press.
However, in January 1969 a new socialist federalrepublic was established, granting the Czech
and Slovak republics autonomy over localaffairs.
During the 1970s and 1980s, dissent took different forms in thetwo republics. In the Czech
lands, political organizing brought forth a powerful dissidentmovement called Charter 77. In
Slovakia, subversive activity was confined largely to theprivate sphere. Historically a
religious people, Slovaks turned to the practice ofCatholicism to express their opposition to
the Communist regime. During this period anumber of mass pilgrimages and religious
celebrations took place in Slovakia; becausethese events brought large numbers of people
together, they effectively became nationalistdemonstrations.
M. R. Štefánik
Slovakia after Communism
In 1989 revolts against the Communist governments swept through many eastern European
countries, including East Germany, Poland, Romania, and Czechoslovakia. In November
Slovaks joined with Czechs in mass protests against the Communist government. Less than
one month later, the government resigned and non-Communists took control of the country. A
new movement called Public Against Violence (PAV) was formed in Slovakia, bringing
together political dissidents, intellectuals, and Catholics to lead the transition to an open
democratic society. The federation's first free elections since 1946 were held in June 1990,
and were won by PAV in Slovakia and Vaclav Havel's Civic Forum in the Czech lands. Havel
was chosen as president of Czechoslovakia, and Marian Calfa, a Slovak, became vice
president. Within Slovakia, the new non-Communist government was led first by Vladmir
Meciar, then a member of PAV, and then in 1991 by Jan Carnogursky, leader of the Christian
Democratic Movement.
One of the major tasks facing the new government of Czechoslovakia was the reestablishment
of an economy based on free enterprise. The country began a mass privatization program with
the goal of shifting hundreds of state-owned companies into private hands, and took steps to
encourage foreign investment. However, as these and other reforms got underway, tensions
developed between the two republics. Because Slovakia had industrialized during the
Communist period, it inherited an inefficient, defense-oriented industrial base; the transition
to a market economy thus resulted in greater unemployment and economic hardship in
Slovakia than it did in the more economically advantaged Czech lands. Because of their
economic differences, Czechs and Slovaks held opposing views about the appropriate pace
and nature of economic reform; they also disagreed about how power should be divided
between the federal and republic-level governments. These differences complicated the
reform process and prevented the adoption of a new federal constitution.
The Breakup of Czechoslovakia
The results of the elections of June 1992 reflected the growing split between the two lands.
The liberal Movement for a Democratic Slovakia (HZDS), led by Slovak Vladmir Meciar,
and the conservative Civic Democratic Party, led by Czech Vaclav Klaus won the two largest
representations in parliament; each leader became the prime minister of his own republic.
Disagreements between the republics intensified, and it became clear that no form offederal
government could satisfy both. In July 1992 Slovakia declared itself a sovereign state,
meaning that its laws took precedence over those of the federal government.
Throughout the fall of that year, Meciar and Klaus negotiated the details for disbanding the
federation. In November the federal parliament voted to dissolve the country officially on
December 31, despite polls indicating that the majority of citizens opposed the split. In
January 1993 Czechoslovakia was replaced by two independent states: Slovakia and the
Czech Republic. Slovaks gathered for celebrations in their new nation's capital at Bratislava.
Independence
Under Meciar's leadership, the process of privatization slowed in Slovakia. In February 1993
Michal Kovac� was elected president of the country. Although a fellow member of the
HZDS party, Kovac was not a Meciar ally, and conflicts soon developed within the
government. Meciar's position was further undermined by the resignation and defection of a
number of party deputies in early 1994. In March of that year, Meciar resigned from office
after receiving a vote of no confidence from the Slovak parliament. An interim coalition
government comprising representatives from a broad range of parties was sworn in, with
Jozef Moravcik of the Democratic Union of Slovakia Party as prime minister. Moravcik's
government revived the privatization process and took steps to attract more foreign
investment to Slovakia. It also helped to calm the increasingly strained relations between
Slovaks and resident Hungarians, who had begun campaigning for educational and cultural
autonomy. In May a law was passed by parliament allowing ethnic Hungarians in Slovakia to
register their names in their original form; this replaced previous legislation requiring
Hungarians to convert their names to the Slavic form.
In elections held in the fall of 1994, the HZDS Party, led once again by Meciar, received 35
percent of the popular vote and announced its plans to form a government with the support of
the ultranationalist Slovak National Party. Although the two parties did not control enough
parliamentary seats to command a majority, this situation was resolved in November when the
left-wing Association of Slovak Workers joined Meciar's coalition. The new government took
office in December, and Meciar became prime minister for a third time. In an effort to reverse
Moravcik's liberalization policies, the Meciar government returned radio and television
communications to state control and blocked the privatization of state-owned companies.
These and other measures aimed at centralizing power in Meciar's hands were met with
concern by a number of Western governments.
In the months that followed, tensions mounted between Meciar's government and President
Kovc. In May 1995 the Slovak National Council passed a vote of no confidence in Kovac
over his alleged failure to control the activities of the Slovak Information Service, the
intelligence agency that had been transferred from Kovac's authority to that of the government
the previous month. The vote, which had no legal consequence, was declared unconstitutional
by Kovac. Prime Minister Meciar backed the resignation demand. In June Kovac was stripped
of his role as head of the armed forces.
Since becoming independent, one priority of Slovak foreign policy has been to maintain good
neighborly relations with the Czech Republic and other central European nations. However,
relations with Hungary have at times been strained, mainly over status of Slovakia's large
ethnic Hungarian population and by fears among Slovaks of Hungarian expansionism. In
March 1995 the two countries took an important step toward peaceful relations when prime
ministers signed an historic treaty of friendship and cooperation; the treaty reaffirmed the
Slovak-Hungarian border, contained pledges on the part both governments to protect and
foster the rights of ethnic minorities residing in their countries.
Slovakia and Hungary have also been involved in a dispute over the Gabcikovo dam, located
on the Danube on the Slovak-Hungarian border. The dam was initially part of a joint
hydroelectric project between Hungary and Czechoslovakia. The project called for the
diversion of the Danube and the construction of two major dams, one in each country.
However, in 1989 Hungary withdrew from the project, citing environmental concerns.
Czechoslovakia proceeded with the construction of the Gabcikovo dam, which was nearly
completed by October 1992. Hungary continued to object to the project, claiming that by
diverting the flow of the river, the Czechoslovak government had unilaterally altered the
border between the two countries. Slovakia inherited the dispute when it became an
independent country in 1993. That year, the EU demanded that the two governments forward
the issue to the International Court of Justice at The Hague for arbitration. In January 1995
Slovakia agreed to release more water from the Gabcikovo dam in order to reduce its effect
on the downstream environment. In March 1997 the International Court began hearing oral
arguments in the dispute. The court did not reach a conclusive decision and subsequent
negotiations have not resolved the issue.
Slovak Culture
The development of Slovak culture reflects the country's rich folk tradition, in addition to the
influence of broader European trends. The impact of centuries of cultural repression and
control by foreign governments is also evident in much of Slovakia's art, literature, and music.
There are 12 state scientific libraries in Slovakia, 473 libraries affiliated with universities and
institutions of higher learning, and 2,600 public libraries. The University Library in
Bratislava, founded in 1919, contains more than 2 million volumes and is the country's most
important library. The Slovak National Library (1863), located in Martin, includes a
collection of materials relating to Slovak culture.
Slovakia is also home to more than 50 museums. The Slovak National Museum (founded in
1893), located in Bratislava, contains exhibits on Slovak history, archaeology, and
musicology, and is probably the country's best-known museum. Other museums include the
Slovak National Gallery (1948), also in Bratislava; the Slovak National Uprising Museum
(1955), located in Banska Bystrica; and the Museum of Eastern Slovakia (1872), in Kosice.
Historical Cultural Synopsis
The emergence of culture and of Slovak national literature came late in the European context.
Elements of the Slovakian spoken language appeared in literary texts during the centuries
preceding the 18th century, but Anton Bernolak (1762-1813) was the first who attempted to
create a literary language. Bernolak's language was used by two talented writers, Jozef Ignac
Bajza (1755-1836), the author of the first Slovakian novel, and the famous classical poet Jan
Holly (1785-1849), who wrote his epic poems in alexandrine verse in order to prove the
Slovakian language malleable enough to be equal to complicated forms of ancient poetry.
The two main representatives of Slovakian literary classicism are the poet Jan Kollar (17951852) and the historian Pavel Jozef Safarik (1795-1861), even though both continued to write
in Czech, their work belongs equally to Czech and Slovakian literary heritage.
Both writers adopted J.G. Herder's philosophical conception about the glorious future
reserved to Slavs, and they became the most important promoters of Pan-Slavism. Holly,
Kollar and Safarik greatly helped to awaken national conscience and showed the way to the
creation of native literature.
19th Century
The most prestigious personality of the 19th century is undoubtedly Ludovit Stur (18121856): writer, scholar and deputy in the Hungarian Diet. He was the main architect of the
creation of a modern literary language (1844).
This language, based on the dialect from central Slovakia, was adopted by the entire nation.
Inspired by the Helegian philosophy, he developed the concept of Slovakian romanticism,
whose main characteristics are the pre-eminence of patriotic thought and the attachment to
popular traditions.
During the difficult period of forced "Hungary-isation" that followed the missed revolution of
1848, a few writers endeavoured to maintain the morale of a population progressively stripped
of its culture.
This situation delayed the advent of realism in Slovakia, and thus it is not before 1870 that a
new generation of writers began to raise the level of Slovakian literature.
"Realistic" authors chose their subjects in contemporary life, rather than in the past. This is
true for the poet Pavol Orszagh Hviezdoslav (1849-1921) and for the novelists Svetozar
Hurban Vajansky (1847-1916) and Martin Kukucin (1860-1928).
20th Century
At the beginning of the 20th century a literary group called "The Slovakian modernists"
whose leader was the poet Ivan Krasko (1876-1958) stood out among the rest. His style is
close to those of western symbolists yet exemplifying the worries of the poet for his peoples'
fate.
Prevalent in this writing style and common to all the literary streams of 19th century Slovakia,
is the constant concern to defend the very existence of the nation; its language and its culture.
The establishment of the Czechoslovakian republic (guaranteed by France with the treaty of
Trianon) enabled young talented Slovaks to go France to continue their studies; the painters
Imro Weiner-Kral and Ludovit Fulla were among them.
Guillaume Appolinaire and Andre Breton influenced young Slovakian poetry, whose most
talented representatives were Vladimir Reisel, Jan Rak, Ctibor Stitnicky and Rudolf Fabry.
Impregnated with their French culture, many were the Slovakian writers like Alexander
Matuska, Albert Marencin, Vladimir Minac and Jan Stevecky who contributed to bring the
two countries closer together.
Literature
In the late 18th century, a national movement began in Slovakia, with the aim of fostering
Slovak culture and identity. One of its leaders was Anton Bernolak, a Jesuit priest who
codified a Slovak literary language based on dialects used in western Slovakia. In the 19th
century, Protestant leaders Jan Kollar and Pavol Safarik developed a form of written Slovak
that combined the dialects used in central Slovakia and the Czech lands. The linguist and
Slovak nationalist Ludovit Stur, a contemporary of Kollar and Safarik's, rejected the Czech
influence and set out to develop a more authentic literary Slovak; his language was adopted
by a group of Slovak poets, whose work dealt largely with national Slovak themes. Poetry
remained an important literary form into the 20th century, and was used by some Slovak
writers to address the experience of World War II and the rise of Communism. During the
Communist period, Slovak literary culture suffered from heavy governmental control. The
works of Dominik Tatarka, Lubos Jurik, Martin Butora, Milan Simecka and Hana Ponicka
were exceptions to the pattern of politically influenced works.
Folk Art
Folk arts and crafts, which include wood carving, fabric weaving, and glass painting, have a
long and popular tradition in Slovakia, especially in rural areas. Examples of folk architecture,
such as wooden churches and brightly painted houses, are found throughout the country,
particularly in the Ukrainian communities of Eastern Slovakia.
The development of folk art and crafts developed throughout Slovak history which is
documented by the abundant archaeological findings on its national territory. These findings
were composed of tools and artefacts - over time, these useful objects became more and more
refined and thus became what we call today's folk art. The tradition of folk art and crafts has
been handed down through the generations and is supported by ULUV, The Centre for Folk
Art Production. Since 1954 ULUV's expositions have shown throughout dozens of countries.
Fine Art and Architecture
Slovak modern art is influenced both by Slovakian folklore and European art and is
represented today by numerous artistic associations.
Contemporary sculpture is divided between the old generation with artists like V. Kompanek
and A. Rudavsky who are from a classical school, using traditional material, and the younger
generation who use more original materials and are inspired by a more psychological
approach. A Slovak school of painting emerged in the mid-19th century. Sculpture and
architecture also developed in the 19th and 20th centuries, much of it heavily influenced by
western European styles. Peter Michal Bohn and J.B. Klemens were among the best-known
artists of this period. The work of landscape and figure painters Ladislav Mednansky and
Dominik Skutecky received widespread attention in the late 19th century. The cubist artist
Ester Simerova-Martincekova and surrealist Imrich Weiner-Kral were influential in the early
20th century. Other important 20th-century artists include Ludovit Fulla, Mikulas Galanda,
Martin Benka, and Mikulas Bazovsky. Dusan Jurkovic was an important architect of the early
20th century.
Among the well-known pieces of Slovakian art is the Venus of Moravany dating from the
Palaeolithic era, art forms from the stone and bronze age, as well as religious architecture
from the Great Moravian Empire. In Slovakia, artistic tradition in several forms developed
long ago.
Other Museums:
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Antol Museum
Balneology Museum
Betliar Museum
Bojnice Museum
Center Slovakia Museum
Cerveny Kamen Museum
Eastern Slovakia Museum
Liptov Museum
Little Carpathian Museum
Museum of Mining
Museum of History and Geography Zvolen
Museum of History and Geography Banska Bystrica
Museum of History and Geography Zilina
Museum of Slovak National Uprising
Museum of Spis
Museum of Nitra
Museum of Orava
Music
Music has long occupied an important and distinguished place in Slovak cultural life. In the
first half of the 19th century, a national musical tradition began to develop around Slovakia's
impressive folk heritage. Modern Slovak music has drawn from both classical and folk styles.
Well-known works from the 20th century include the compositions of Alexander Moyzes and
the operas of Jan Cikker.
Traditional Slovakian music is one of the most original of Slavic and European folklore. Its
oldest form is liturgical (in Slavon) from the time of Great Moravia (9th century) which is the
origin of the sacred music of the 15th and 16th centuries. National Slovakian music was
heavily influenced by liturgical and chamber music.
Today, music is one of the most significant aspects of Slovakian culture. Some of the most
renown orchestras are: The Philharmonic Orchestra of Bratislava and Kosice, The Symphonic
Orchestra of Bratislava Radio and The Slovak Chamber Orchestra.
Theatres:
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Astorka Theatre
Puppet Theatre Nitra
Puppet Theatre Zilina
Theatre of Andrej Bagar in Nitra
Theatre of J.G. Tajovsky
Romatan Theatre
Theatre of Slovak National Uprising in Martin
Thalia Theatre
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Naive Theatre of Radosina
LUDUS Theatre
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Chamber Opera
Nova Scena
Slovak National Theatre
Theatre of Spis
Trnava Theatre
Eastern Slovakia Theatre
State Opera
State Puppet Theatre
Stoka Theatre
Motion Pictures
During the Communist period, when art was to be directed to political ends, filmmakers in
Slovakia suffered from the same restrictions that affected their counterparts in the Czech
lands. Nonetheless, certain individuals, including Jan Kadar, Dusan Hanak, Stefan Uher, and
Juraj Jakubisko, gained international recognition for their work. As in many of the other postCommunist countries of Eastern Europe, the Slovak motion-picture industry has been affected
by the reduction in state subsidies and increased competition from international filmmakers.
Although the main film studio has been closed, filmmakers Jakubisko and Uher, as well as
Martin Sulik and Stefan Semjan, continue to make important and innovative films.
Society
Slovak Society
The people of Slovakia are descended from the Slavic peoples who settled the Danube river
basin in the 6th and 7th centuries B.C.E. Traditionally, the Slovak people were relegated to
the peasant class and even after emancipation they have had strong links to tilling the soil.
Under communism some industrialization was undertaken and today Slovak society includes
both elements of folk traditions and modern society. The political transformations of 1989
brought new freedoms that have considerably widened the societal outlook of the populace,
yet many of the cultural movements are still in their infancy and consequently a large part of
the elderly population is still rural and dependant on agriculture.
On January 1, 1993 Slovakia became an independent nation-state, recognized by the United
Nations and its member states. Although some aspects of the society already had a unique
national character, namely the language, many of the customs, laws and conventions were still
deeply influenced by past rulers: Czechs, Hungarians and the Austrian Habsburgs. However
the deep traditions, some dating back hundreds of years, of the Slovak people underlie the
apparent nascency of the Slovak Republic.