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COMMUNICATION
1. Communication defined
Communication is the transmission of common understanding through the
use of symbols. The term is derived from the Latin word 'communis' , meaning
"common". In other words, unless a common understanding results from the
transmission of verbal or nonverbal symbols there is no communication.
2. Key elements of communication
An early, elementary model of the communication process was presented by
Aristotle, which comprised the speaker, speech and the audience. The modern
models are more complex. The Shannon-Weaver Model developed as a model in
electronic communication has been adopted by behavioural scientists to explain
human communication. Shanon and Weaver set up a 5 ingredients model in
communication: a – source, a transmitter, a signal, a receiver and a destination.
The more generally accepted human communication models normally consists of
the following elements:
Source-Encoder-Message-Channel-Receiver-Decoder-Meaning- feedback -Noise
Source and Encoder -Communication requires a source that has some
thought, idea or information to transmit. A human source translates mental
perceptions into a code that represents the meaning; she or he wishes to
transmit. Language is the most popular code used to express such mental
perceptions.
Message -The result of ~he encoding process is the message -either verbal
or nonverbal. Source encodes meaning into a message that can be
transmitted. Message could take the form of spoken/printed words, graphics,
drawing, and expression of the face or gesture of the arm. The message
represents the meaning the source is trying to convey.
Channel -The channel is the carrier of the message. The five senses viz.
sight, sound, touch, taste and smell could all act as channels (in face to face
communication). The others are, air which carries sound waves, a telephone
system, written statements, computer networks, audio and video tapes.
Receiver-Decoder and Meaning -For the process of communication to
be complete the message must be decoded by the receiver which means
it must be interpreted by the receiver. Source and receiver must
understand the symbols used, they must attach similar meanings to their
symbols. The understanding depends upon communication skills,
attitudes, experience, knowledge, and environmental and socio-cultural
factors. Communication oriented towards the receiver has a greater
probability for success than communication structured entirely from the
source's perspective.
Feed-back -This enables the source to know whether or not the message
has been received and interpreted correctly and, therefore, it is desirable
to make provision for feed back in the communication process.
Noise- In the context of communication noise is any interfering factor that
can distort the intended message. Noise can be present in any element. A
source creates noise if it is unable to understand or describe something.
Encoding process contains noise if the meaning is not adequately
represented by symbols. Message is subject to transcription or other
mistakes. Channel might contain noises that prevent the message from
getting through accurately. With all these possibilities for
miscommunication it sometimes seems a wonder that persons can
communicate at all. The important point is to realise that there are
numerous opportunities for miscommunication, and to take them to
account in all communications.
3. Common barriers to effective communication
One of the ways in which .we can improve interpersonal communication is
by becoming aware of the barriers in communication. Communication Barriers
can be put 1tO few major categories. They are

Semantic Barriers -those relating to use of language

Physical Barriers -those relating to age, distance, time, noise

Socio- Psychological Barriers -those relating to things like attitude,
emotions etc.

Organisational barriers -While the factors noted above may exist
both at the interpersonal and organisational levels there are certain
barriers which are almost due to organisational factors.
Thus barriers may be within individuals or within organisations.
a) Organisational Barriers
i)
Organisational levels
The problems relating to the organisational levels are the physical
distance between members of the organisation, specialisation of task
functions and information ownership.
First, the more links there are in the chain of communication and the
further away is the receiver from the sender of a message, the harder it
will be for message success. One way out is to lessen the physical
distance between organisational membf3rs by reducing the number of
links. Second, job specialisation may make it difficult for experts in one
area to communicate effectively with those from other areas. Creating a
climate of togetherness and showing how one segment is dependent on
the other could open communication channels. Third, whenever greater
premium is placed upon achievement by position or knowledge rather than
achievement by cooperation, there will appear to be power accruing to the
"owner" of vital information. Way out of this is to instill a pride in group
work and attach importance to achievement of goals by cooperation.
ii)
Lack of understanding of the organisation
Lack of understanding of the responsibilities, needs and problems of
separate departments/divisions within the business structure could hinder
effective communication. Any attitude of the organisation revolving around
"my department" "my section" does not serve the cause of effective
communication. This happens because the personnel do not understand
the general objectives and goals of the top management.
iii) Status relationships among members within organisations
Free flow of communication is likely to be inhibited whenever persons are
placed in superior or subordinate positions. One's ego and status is very
important and whenever either is threatened friction and tension is likely to
develop and this will inevitably produce distortions, which can affect
communication adversely.
b. Personal Communication Barriers
As against organisational barriers there are certain personal
communication barriers. These consist of socio -psychological barriers, physical
barriers and semantic barriers.
i) Perception -This can be defined as a person's view of reality. No two
persons see things exactly alike due to different experiences in life. The
differences in perception can be attributed to the differences in one's
conception of reality. When people communicate about physical reality
there are few communication problems but there are times when
meanings are not definitive and the receiver of the message may have a
different interpretation of the communique. This is known as normative or
interpretive reality. Whenever two individuals discuss matters of personal
opinion there is a good chance of communication to break down. As one
moves from sensory to normative reality interpretations become
increasingly relative.
ii) Attitudes -Attitudes are the result of people's own experiences and are
formed through their social environment, educational background, and
political and other affiliations. These are sometimes so deep-rooted that it
may become very difficult to look at things in a different perspective.
iii) Inferences -When we communicate there are two types of statements
that we may make about an object, event, or person. Descriptions are
factual statements about an object, event, or person. Inferences are
conclusions we draw from our observations. However, both observations
and inferences are common and even necessary for us to deal with are
environments. Problems sometimes arise out of our failure to distinguish
between the two types of communication. When we treat inferences as if
they were factual observations we are misevaluating reality and miscommunicating to others who may treat our statements as description of
facts.
iv) Tendency to evaluate -We all have a natural tendency to judge,
evaluate, approve or disapprove the statement of another person. The
judgements may be based on the receiver's evaluation of the
communicator, the receiver's previous experiences with the
communicator, or the message's anticipated meaning.
 Confusion of Facts with Inferences -There appears to be a
common tendency among people to pass moral judgements on
situations about which they have no facts. A statement of fact is
possible only after observation and is limited to what has actually
been observed. On the other hand inferential statements can be
made any time because they go beyond what is observed. To
develop a habit of discriminating between description and
inferences one could ask oneself the following questions: First, did I
personally observe what I am talking or writing about? Second, do
my observational statements stay with, and not go beyond, my
observations? Third, when I deal with important inferences, do I
assess their probabilities? Fourth, when I communicate with others,
do I label my inferences as such and get them to label theirs?
 Either or Thinking (polarisation)- This is also classified as twovalued thinking or simply the judging of people and events in terms
of black or white. We tend to think and communicate in either or
terms. But the reality is seldom as clear-cut as the either-or-words.
An example of either-or-thinking is management's attitude toward
unions " all unionisation is bad". This attitude ignores the possibility
of some unions being better than others or some union members
being more honest than others.
 Bias and Prejudices -Bias and prejudice are an integral part of the
emotional nature of everyone. One type of bias is stereotyping. This
is the habit of classifying people in an indiscriminate manner
disregarding individual differences or distinctions between
individuals. We need to be constantly alert to the uniqueness and
differences of each person.
 Frozen evaluation -A frozen evaluation of a person, object or event
is judgement set in concrete and occurs when one forgets the
process of change. For example, we sometimes remember
someone with whom we had no contact for a number of years as
the same person we knew the last time we were with them. We
assume no change to occur even though people often change very
markedly. One way to thaw frozen evaluatior1 is to ask "when"?
v) Thalamic reaction -The th,3lamus lies at the base of the skull and its
function is to channel sensory impression to the cortex and return signals
for actions to the muscles. The cortex sorts out the sensory impressions,
co -relates them with memories stored there and weighs various courses
of actions. In an emergency the thalamus can short-circuit the cortex,
which can trigger an "emergency reaction" and we may react without
thinking. This emergency reaction can become a communication barrier. It
is important to control one's emotions, to slow down and think before
speaking.
vi) Blinderedness -The term is derived from the word blinders worn by a
horse and refers to the tendency to look only straight ahead. The tendency
to think that there is a limiting factor to the ways things can be done is the
result of blinderedness.
vii) Semantics and By Passing -This is the study of the way words are
used and the meaning they convey. The same words may mean entirely
different things to different people. Thus by passing occurs when the
sender and receiver of a message give different meanings to the words
that are used. This happens when persons engaged in communication
have dissimilar background and experiences with the particular symbols
being used. For communication to be effective it is necessary that the
receiver interpret the sender's words from the sender's perspective and
not her/his own. One way to reduce bypassing problem is for the sender to
be aware of the audience he or she is trying to reach. Second remedy is to
seek frequent feed back from the receiver, concerning his or her
understanding of the message.
viii) Timing -Effectiveness of communication can be reduced if timing is
not correct. One has to De always aware of what should be conveyed
when.
ix) Communication overload -When persons are loaded with more
information than they can adequately process it leads to communication
overload. As a result of this the receiver screens out messages which can
distort the message.
x) Resistance to change -Basically people resist change. Due to this
people may try to ignore or block out inormation when it conflicts with what
they believe, and hear what they want to hear. The manager's job is to
overcome resistance to change. One of the ways to do this is to explain to
people how new ideas can be beneficial to them as well as to the
management. .
xi) Poor listening skills -Although the last but not of least importance is
the lack of listening skills.
4. Basics of Effective Communication
It goes without saying that having known the barriers we must try and
remove those barriers to make communication more effective. However, it is
easier said than done and one really needs to make a conscious effort to
communicate effectively. We may try and remember some of the following points:
One must seek to clarify one's ideas before communicating.
Clarence Randall remarks " I don't advice you to start talking until you
have begun thinking. It's no good opening the tap if there is nothing in the
tank".
One must examine the true purpose of the communication by
asking oneself what one really wants to accomplish with the message -is it
to obtain information, initiate action or change another person's attitude?
One must consider the total physical and human setting whenever
one communicates -for example it is important to have a sense of timing,
place etc. .One needs to be mindful of the overtones and the basic content
of one's message.
One could take the opportunity, when it arises to, to convey
something of help or value to the receiver.
One must follow up one's communication and make certain that
every important communication has a" feed back" so that complete
understanding and appropriate action results.
One must be a good listener. In fact listening happens to be one of
the most important, most difficult and most neglected skills in
communication.
One must concentrate not only on the implicit meanings, but on
undertones, non- verbal communication also.
Some of the other things, which could help, are
Noting down important points
Asking questions and seeking clarifications
Repetition of important points
Empathy
Using language effectively
Avoiding speaking faults, which are.

Talking too slowly -makes the listener lose interest

Talking too rapidly -makes the listener lose comprehension

Talking too loudly- makes the listener and others disturbed

Talking too softly- makes the listener feel strained

Talking too much and being repetitive -makes the listener feel
bored

Parroting type of talk -makes the listener feel that your talk/speech
is a borrowed one

Talking tough -makes the listener feel distasteful

Talking personal details -makes the listener impatient

Talking endless irrelevant details -makes the listener feel that you
have lost touch.
Since one of the most important aspects of effective communication is the ability
to listen we may take a look at some of the listening sins one may commit. The
ten most frequently mentioned examples given include:
Does not smile when we talk.
Splits attention with other tasks.
Never really looks at me.
Always changes the subject.
Allows interruptions.
Never lets me complete a thought.
Fidgets, seems irritated.
Takes an awful lot of notes.
Tries to turn around what I say.
Makes me feel insignificant.
It is evident that there are a lot of emotions tied up in the act of listening. If we
do well the other persons feel good about themselves and their ideas. If we do it
poorly the emotions range from resentment to outright anger. To be an effective
listener one requires skill and knowledge. The primary factor determining ones
level of success as a listener is one's desire and attitude toward people. The
acronym P.O. W.E.R. might help one focus on the key ingredients of effective
listening.
Listen Perceptively- This means listening with senses other than vision;
listening between words for feeling and emotion; paying special attention to the
tone of voice used, what is left unspoken and what is implied.
Be Observant -According to a study conducted by Albert Mahrabian at UCLA
55 percent of communication is based on what people see. One needs to watch
a speaker for additional information.
Be Willing -It will not be an exaggeration to say that the act of listening may
well be one of the most unnatural acts that we perform. Setting aside our own
needs and agenda in favour of someone else's runs contrary to basic human
nature. No wonder, therefore, effective listening requires a conscious and
deliberate effort to make it work.
Be Engaged -This implies a level of connectedness with the speaker through
he use of active feedback. Being engaged as a listener means giving the speaker
feedback to let him or her know you are involved.
Be Respectful-This means listening with focused attention, time to speak
without interruptions and not letting ones mind race ahead to formulate a
response.
Becoming a P.O.W.E.R listener requires real commitment. Anyone one who
wishes o become a more effective manager and leader is wasting his/her time if
he/she fails to master this skill.
In the ultimate analysis we need to remember that the. basic fundamentals of
communication revolve around a sense of humanity toward one's fellow human
beings. And what does humanity stand for in communication transmission?
Honesty with other people
Understanding of their problem
Mutual respect
Awareness of their limitations
Negotiability "
Identification with their feelings
Trust and finally a
You orientation, not I
References: 1.
Organisational Communications: The Essence of Effective Management
by Phillip V. Lewis
2.
Organizational Communication by Arnold E. Schneider, William C.
Donaghy, Pamela Jane Newman
3.
Management Mess -ups by Mark Eppler.
4.
Management by Herbert G. Hicks & C. Ray Gullet
5.
Fundamentals of Management by Donnelly, Gibson & Ivancevich
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