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Chapter 11 Communicating for Results
CHAPTER 11
COMMUNICATING FOR RESULTS
Chapter Outline
I.
ORGANIZATIONAL COMMUNICATION
A. Vertical Communication
B. Horizontal Communication
C. Grapevine Communication
II. THE COMMUNICATION PROCESS AND COMMUNICATION BARRIERS
A.
B.
C.
D.
Stage 1. The Sender Encodes the Message and Selects the Channel
Stage 2. The Sender Transmits the Message
Stage 3. The Receiver Decodes the Message and Decides if Feedback Is Needed
Stage 4. Feedback: A Response or a New Message May Be Transmitted
III. MESSAGE TRANSMISSION CHANNELS
A. Oral Communication
B. Nonverbal Communication
C. Written Communication
D. Combining Channels
E. Selecting the Message Transmission Channel
IV. SENDING MESSAGES
A. Planning the Message
B. The Message-Sending Process
C. Checking Understanding: Feedback
V. RECEIVING MESSAGES
A. Listening Skills
B. The Message-Receiving Process
VI. RESPONDING TO MESSAGES
A. Response Styles
B. Dealing with Emotional People
C. Criticism
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Communication is the process of transmitting information and meaning. Two major types of communications occur:
organizational and interpersonal.
I. ORGANIZATIONAL COMMUNICATION
A. Vertical Communication
Vertical communication is the flow of information both downward and upward through the organizational chain of
command. It is also called formal communication because it is recognized as officially sanctioned transmission of
information and meaning.
1.
2.
Downward Communications: This occurs when bosses send messages to their subordinates
Upward Communications: This occurs when employees send a message to their bosses.
B. Horizontal Communication
Horizontal communication is the flow of information between colleagues and peers. It is formal communication, but
it does follow the chain of command. Horizontal communication is needed to coordinate within a department and
among different departments. Most employees spend more time communicating with peers than with managers.
C. Grapevine Communication
The grapevine is the flow of information in any direction throughout the organization. It is informal communication
because it is not official and sanctioned by management. The grapevine, or rumor and gossip mill, can begin with
anyone in the organization and can flow in any direction.
II. THE COMMUNICATION PROCESS AND COMMUNICATION BARRIERS
The communication process consists of a sender who encodes a message and transmits it through a channel to a
receiver who decodes it and may give feedback.
A. Step 1. The Sender Encodes the Message and Selects the Channel
(1) Encoding the Message: The sender of the message is the person who initiates the communication. The message
is the information and meaning communicated. Encoding is the sender’s process of putting the message into a form
that the receiver will understand. The sender should consider the receiver of the message and determine the best way
to encode the message to ensure transmitting information and meaning.
(a) Perception Communication Barriers Watch semantics and jargon because the same word often means
different things to different people.
Overcoming Perception Barriers To overcome perception problems, you need to consider how the other person
will most likely perceive the message and try to encode and transmit it appropriately. Thus, the choice of words is
important. Be careful not to use jargon with people who are unfamiliar with the terminology.
(b) Information Overload Communication Barriers We all have a limit on the amount of information we can
understand at any given time.
Overcoming Information Overload To minimize information overload, send messages in a quantity that the
receiver can understand. When sending a message, do not talk for too long without checking to be sure the receiver
understands the message as you intended.
(2) Selecting the Channel: The message is transmitted through a channel. The three primary communication
channels are oral, nonverbal, and written.
(c) Channel Selection Communication Barriers Use of an inappropriate channel can result in missed
communication.
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Overcoming Channel Selection Barriers Before sending a message, give careful thought to selecting the most
effective channel.
B. Step 2. The Sender Transmits The Message
After the sender encodes the message and selects the channel, he or she transmits the message through the channel to
a receiver(s).
(d) Noise Communication Barriers As the message is transmitted, noise factors can disturb or confuse the
receiver.
Overcoming Noise Barriers To overcome noise we need to consider the physical surroundings before
transmitting the message. Try to keep noise to a minimum. If possible, stop the noise or distraction or move to a quiet
location.
C. Step 3. The Receiver Decodes the Message and Decides if Feedback is Needed
The person receiving the message decodes it. Decoding is the receiver’s process of translating the message into a
meaningful form. The receiver combines the message with other ideas and interprets the meaning of the message. The
receiver decides if feedback, a response, or a new message is needed.
(e) Trust and Credibility Communication Barriers When messages are sent, receivers take into account the trust
and credibility they have in the senders as they decide to accept or reject the message.
Overcoming Trust and Credibility Barriers To improve your trust level, be open and honest with people. If
people catch you in a lie, they may never trust you again. To gain and maintain credibility, get the facts straight
before you communicate.
(f) Not Listening Barrier to Communication People usually hear what the sender is saying, but often they do not
listen to the message or understand what is being transmitted. Not listening is sometimes the result of not paying
attention or noise distractions.
Overcoming Not Listening Barriers One method to help ensure that people are listening to your message involves
questioning them and having them paraphrase the message back to you.
(g) Emotional Barriers to Communication Everyone has emotions. Emotional people find it is difficult to be
objective and to listen.
Overcoming Emotional Barriers When communicating, you should remain calm and be careful not to make
others emotional by your behavior.
D. Step 4. Feedback: A Response or a New Message May Be Transmitted
After the receiver decodes the message, feedback may be given to the sender. You should realize that the role of
sender and receiver can change during a communication exchange.
(h) Filtering Communication Barriers Filtering is the process of altering or distorting information in order to
project a more favorable image. It includes lying.
Overcoming Filtering Barriers: To help eliminate filtering, you should treat errors as a learning experience,
rather than as an opportunity to blame and criticize employees.
III. MESSAGE TRANSMISSION CHANNELS
A. Oral Communication
1.
Face-to-Face: Most managers communicate one-on-one, face-to-face with employees.
Face-to-face communication is the appropriate channel for delegating tasks, coaching, disciplining, sharing
information, answering questions, checking progress toward objectives, and developing and maintaining human
relations.
2.
Meetings: There are a variety of types of meetings.
Meetings are appropriate for coordinating employee activities, delegating a task to a group, and resolving
employee conflicts.
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3.
Presentations: On occasion, you may be required to make a formal presentation. Prepare your presentations and
be sure they have the following three parts: 1. Beginning--the presentation should begin with a purpose statement
and an overview of the main points to be covered. 2. Middle--the presentation supports its purpose through a
discussion of the main points in the detail necessary to get the message across. 3. End--the presentation should
summarize the purpose, main points, and any action required of the audience.
Presentations are common at meetings and are appropriate for explaining information.
4.
Telephone: Before making a call, set an objective and write down what you plan to discuss. Use the paper to
write notes during the call. When receiving a call, determine the purpose of the call and decide if you or another
person should handle it. If not, transfer the call. When receiving calls at inconvenient times, arrange for a
callback. Conference calls (three or more people talking) are being used more frequently.
The telephone is the appropriate channel for quick exchanges of information and checking up on things. It is
especially useful for saving travel time. However, it is inappropriate for personal matters such as discipline.
5.
Voice Mail: It is commonly being used to replace written memos and to leave messages for people who don’t
answer the telephone.
Voice mail memos are appropriate for sending short messages containing information not needed in written
form for employees to refer to. It is also ideal for leaving a message that does or does not require the receiver to
call you back.
At the present time, video conference is not very commonly used. However, as the technology improves and
the costs go down, video conferencing will be used more frequently.
B. Nonverbal Communication
Nonverbal communication is messages sent without words. Nonverbal communication includes the setting (physical
surroundings) of the communication and body language. Body Language includes: 1. facial expressions (eye contact,
a smile, frown, wink, or a dirty look), 2. vocal quality (calm/excited/upset, soft/yelling), 3. gestures (using body
motion such as hand pointing and signaling, nodding of head), and 4. posture (sitting up straight or slouching, leaning
back or forward, crossing arms and/or legs). The old adage, “Actions speak louder than words,” is true.
Be aware of, or read, other people’s nonverbal communication because it tells you their feelings and attitudes toward
the communication and you as a person/manager. When talking to people, use nonverbal communication to convey
openness to messages. Smile, face the person and use eye contact that is comfortable for all; lean forward a bit and
gesture frequently to convey that you are listening and are interested; do not cross your arms or legs (signs of being
closed to communication), and speak in a pleasant, calm tone of voice.
C. Written Communication
“Learn to write.” The major advantages of written, over oral communication, are that it is usually more accurate and
provides a record. The major disadvantages are that it usually takes longer and hinders feedback.
The following is a list of commonly used written communications: 1. Memos--commonly used to send interorganizational messages. 2. Letters--commonly used to communicate with people outside the organization.
Computers--electronic mail (e-mail) are used to send memos and letters to save time and paper. Facsimile machine
(fax)-- is also used to send memos and letters instantly. Note that e-mail and fax are not numbered because they are
form of using memos and letters. 3. Reports--used to convey information. Reports usually involve an evaluation,
analysis, and/or recommendation to management or colleagues. Reports can also be sent by e-mail or fax. 4. Bulletin
board notices--usually are a supplement to another form of communication. 5. Posters (or signs)--commonly used as
reminders of important information such as mission statement, safety instructions, quality, clean -up before you leave,
etc. Posters can also be nonverbal graphics communication. For example, the “no” signs with the picture of what you
are not supposed to do circled with a line through it. 6. Newsletters--used to convey general information to all
employees.
Written communication is appropriate for sending general information; messages requiring future action; official,
or long-term messages (especially ones containing facts and figures); and messages that affect several people in a
related way.
1.
Writing Tips: Lack of organization is the number one writing problem. Before you begin writing, set an
objective for your communication. Keep the audience in mind. What do you want them to do? Make an outline,
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using letters and/or numbers, of the major points you want to get across. Now put the outline into written form.
The first paragraph states the purpose of the communication. The middle paragraphs support the purpose of the
communication: fact, figures, and so forth. The last paragraph summarizes the major points and clearly states the
action, if any, to be taken by you and the receivers.
Write to communicate, not to impress. Keep the message short and simple. Limit each paragraph to a single
topic and an average of five sentences. Sentences should average 15 words. Vary paragraph and sentence length.
However, a paragraph should not exceed one-half a page. Write in the active voice (I recommend ...) rather than
the passive voice (it is recommended...).
Edit your work and rewrite where necessary. To improve sentences and paragraphs, add to them to convey
full meaning, cut out unnecessary words and phrases, and/or rearrange the words. Check your work with the
computer spelling and grammar checkers. Have others edit your work as well.
D. Combining Channels
Nonverbal communication is usually combined with oral communications. You can also combine oral, nonverbal, and
written communication. Repetition is often needed to ensure that the message has been conveyed with mutual
understanding of the meaning.
Using combined channels is appropriate when the message is important and you want to ensure that employees
attend to and understand the message. For example, managers sometimes send a memo and follow up with a personal
visit or telephone call to see if there are any questions.
E. Selecting the Message Transmission Channel
Before you send a message, be sure to select the most appropriate channel of transmission. You have learned when
each type of channel is appropriate. Another consideration in selecting a channel is media richness.
Media richness refers to the amount of information and meaning conveyed through the channel. The more
information and meaning, the “richer” the channel. Face-to-face is the richest channel because it allows full oral and
nonverbal communication to be used. The telephone is less rich than face-to-face because many of the nonverbal cues
are lost when you cannot see facial expressions and gestures. All forms of oral communication are richer than written
communication because oral communication allows at least some nonverbal cues, which are lost with written
messages.
1.
A General Guide to Channel Selection: As a general guide, use rich oral channels for sending difficult and
unusual messages, less rich written channels for transmitting simple and routine messages to several people, and
combined channels for important messages that employees need to attend to and understand.
IV. SENDING MESSAGES
Sending the message is the second step in the communication process. Before you send a message, you should
carefully select the channel and plan how you will send the message. Then, send the message using the messagesending process.
A. Planning the Message
Before sending a message, you should plan: What. What is the goal of the message? Who. Determine who should
receive the message. How. With the receiver(s) in mind, plan how you will encode the message so that it will be
understood. Select the appropriate media for the audience and situation. When. When will the message be transmitted?
Where. Decide where the message will be transmitted (setting).
B. The Message-Sending Process
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The message-sending process: 1. develop rapport, 2. state your communication objective, 3. transmit your message, 4.
check the receivers’ understanding, and 5. get a commitment and follow up.
Step 1. Develop Rapport: Put the receiver at ease.
Step 2. State Your Communication Objective: The common business communication objectives are to influence,
inform, and express feelings. With the goal of influencing, it is helpful for the receiver to know the end result of the
communication before covering all of the details.
Step 3. Transmit Your Message:
Step 4. Check the Receiver’s Understanding: Ask direct questions, and/or use paraphrasing. Simply asking “Do
you have any questions?” does not check understanding.
Step 5. Get a Commitment and Follow Up: It is important to get a commitment to the action by a certain time or date.
C. Checking Understanding: Feedback is the process of verifying messages. Questioning, paraphrasing, and
allowing comments and suggestions are all forms of feedback that check understanding.
Paraphrasing is the process of having the receiver restate the message in his or her own words.
1.
The Common Approach to Getting Feedback on Messages and Why It Doesn’t Work: The most common
approach to getting feedback is to send the entire message, followed by asking “Do you have any questions?”
Feedback usually does not follow because people have a tendency not to ask questions. There are three good
reasons why people do not ask questions: 1. Receivers feel ignorant. 2. Receivers are ignorant. 3. Receivers are
reluctant to point out the sender’s ignorance. Generally, employees don’t ask questions when they do not
understand; students don’t either.
After managers send a message and ask if there are questions, they then proceed to make another common error.
Managers assume that if no questions are asked, communication is complete, that mutual understanding of the
message exist.
The most common cause of messages not resulting in communication is the lack of getting feedback that ensures
mutual understanding. The proper use of questioning and paraphrasing can help you ensure that your messages
are communicated.
2.
How to Get Feedback on Messages: Below are four guidelines you should use when getting feedback on
messages. 1. Be Open to Feedback: 2. Be Aware of Nonverbal Communication. 3. Ask Questions. 4. Use
Paraphrasing:
V. RECEIVING MESSAGES
The third step in the communication process requires the receiver to decode the message and decide if feedback is
needed. With oral communications, the key to successfully understanding the message is listening.
A. Listening Skills
Self-Assessment Exercise 11-1 provides feedback on listening skills.
B. The Message Receiving Process
The message receiving-process includes listening, analyzing, and checking understanding.
1.
Listening: Listening is the process of giving the speaker your undivided attention. As the speaker sends the
message, you should listen by: 1. Paying attention. 2. Avoiding distractions. 3. Staying tuned in. 4. Not assuming
and interrupting. 5. Watching nonverbals. 6. Asking questions. 7. Taking notes. 8. Conveying meaning.
2.
Analyzing: Analyzing is the process of thinking about, decoding, and evaluating the message. Poor listening is
caused in part by the fact that people speak at an average rate of 120 words per minute, while they are capable of
listening at a rate of over 500 words per minute. The ability to comprehend words more than four times faster
than the speaker can talk often results in minds wandering. To analyze, as the speaker sends the message, you
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should be: 1. Thinking. Listen actively by organizing, summarizing, reviewing, interpreting, and critiquing often.
3. Waiting to evaluate until after listening.
3.
Checking Understanding: Checking understanding is the process of giving feedback. After you have listened to
the message, or during if its a long message, check your understanding of the message by: 1. Paraphrasing. 2.
Watching nonverbal.
VI. RESPONDING TO MESSAGES
The fourth, and last, step in the communication process involves responding to the message. However, not all
messages require a response.
With oral communication, the sender often expects the receiver to respond to the message. When the receiver does
respond, the roles are reversed as the receiver now becomes the sender of a message. Roles can continue to change
throughout the conversation.
A. Response Styles
As the sender transmits a message, how you as the receiver respond to the message directly affects the
communication.
1.
Advising: Advising responses provide evaluation, personal opinion, direction, or instructions. Advising tends to
close, limit, or direct the flow of communication away from the sender to the receiver.
Appropriate Use of Advising Responses: Giving advice is appropriate when you are directly asked for it.
2.
Diverting: Diverting responses switch the focus of the communication to a new message. It is commonly called
changing the subject. Diverting responses tend to redirect, close, or limit the flow of communication. Diverting
responses used during the early stages of receiving the message may cause the sender to feel that the message is
not worth discussing, or that the other party’s message is more important.
Appropriate Use of Diverting Responses: The diverting response is appropriate when either party is
uncomfortable with the topic. Diverting responses may be helpful when they are used to share personal
experiences of feelings that are similar to that of the sender but that change the topic.
3.
Probing: A probing response asks the sender to give more information about some aspect of the message. It is
useful to get a better understanding of the situation. When probing, “what” questions are preferred to “why”
questions.
Appropriate Use of Probing Responses: Probing is appropriate during the early stages of the message to
ensure that you fully understand the situation. After probing, the other response styles are often needed.
4.
Reassuring: A reassuring response is given to reduce the intensity of the emotions associated with the message.
Essentially you’re saying, “Don’t worry; everything will be OK.” “You can do it.” You are pacifying the sender.
Appropriate Use of Reassuring Responses: Reassuring is appropriate to use when the other person lacks
confidence. Encouraging responses that give praise can help employees develop confidence.
5.
Reflecting: Reflecting responses paraphrase the message and communicate understanding and acceptance to
the sender.
When reflecting, be sure NOT to use the senders’ exact words or they may feel you are mimicking them, not
understanding them, or not listening closely. Reflecting in your own words leads to the most effective communication
and most effective human relations.
Appropriate Use of Reflecting Responses: Reflecting responses should be used when coaching and counseling.
The sender can feel listened to, understood, and free to explore the topic in more depth. As the communication
progresses, it is often appropriate to change to other response styles.
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B. Dealing with Emotional People
1.
Understanding Feelings: We should realize that: 1. Feelings are subjective; they tell us people’s attitudes and
needs. 2. Feelings are usually disguised as factual statements. 3. And most importantly, feelings are neither right
nor wrong. We cannot choose our feelings or control them. However, we can control how we express feelings.
2.
Calming the Emotional Employee: When an emotional employee comes to you, NEVER make put-down
statements because they only make the feelings stronger. True, you may get employees to shut up and you can
show them who is boss, but communication will not take place. The problem will still exist and your human
relations with the employee will suffer.
3.
Reflective Empathic Responding: Empathic listening is the ability to understand and relate to anther’s
situation and feelings. The empathic responder deals with feelings, content, and the underlying meaning being
expressed in the message. To calm emotional people, don’t argue with them. Encourage them to express their
feelings in a positive way. Empathically let them know that you understand how they feel. People want to be
listened to and understood; and if you do not listen to and understand others, they will avoid you. Paraphrase the
feeling to the person.
After you deal with emotions, you can proceed to work on content (solving problems). It may be wise to wait
until a later time if emotions are very strong. You will find that just understanding other’s feelings is often the
solution rather than advice.
C. Criticism
1.
2.
Giving Criticism: Even when bosses and others ask for feedback they usually don’t want to hear personal
criticism.
Getting Criticism: If you’re asking for personal feedback, remember that you are asking to hear things that may
surprise, upset, insult, and hurt your feelings. If you become defensive and emotional, and it is hard not to when
you feel attacked, the person will stop giving feedback.
If you want to improve your performance and your chances of having a successful career, seek honest feedback
about how you can improve your performance. When you get criticism, whether you ask for it or not, view it as
an opportunity to improve, stay calm (even when the other person is emotional), and don’t get defensive. Use the
feedback to improve your performance.
LEARNING OUTCOMES AND ANSWERS
1.
Describe the three ways communication flows through organizations.
First, communication formally flows vertically downward and upward through the chain of command. Second,
communication formally flows horizontally among colleagues and peers. Third, communication flows informally
through the grapevine in any direction.
2.
List the four steps in the communication process.
1. The sender encodes the message and selects the transmission channel. 2. The sender transmits the message
through a channel. 3. The receiver decodes the message and decides if feedback is needed. 4. The receiver may
give feedback, a response, or a new message through a channel.
3.
State the major advantages of oral and written communication.
The major advantage of oral over written communication is that oral communication is usually easier, faster, and
more encouraging of feedback. The disadvantages are that oral communication usually is less accurate and
provides no record.
The major advantages of written, over oral communication, is that written communication is usually more
accurate and provides a record. The major disadvantages are that written communication usually takes longer and
hinders feedback.
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Chapter 11 Communicating for Results
4.
State the general guide to channel selection.
As a general guide, use rich oral channels for sending difficult and unusual messages, less rich written channels
for transmitting simple and routine messages to several people, and combined channels for important messages
that employees need to attend to and understand.
5.
List the five steps in the face-to-face message-sending process.
The five steps in the face-to-face message-sending process are: 1. Develop rapport. 2. State your communication
objective. 3. Transmit your message. 4. Check the receiver’s understanding. 5. Get a commitment and follow up.
6.
Describe paraphrasing and state why it is used.
Paraphrasing is the process of having the receiver restate the message in his or her own words. Paraphrasing is
used to check understanding of the transmitted message. If the receiver can paraphrase the message accurately,
communication has taken place. If not, communication is not complete.
7.
List and explain the three parts of the message-sending process.
The three parts of the message-sending process are listening, analyzing, and checking understanding. Listening is
the process of giving the speaker your undivided attention. Analyzing is the process of thinking about, decoding,
and evaluating the message. Checking understanding is the process of giving feedback.
Define reflecting responses and state when they should be used.
Reflecting responses paraphrase the message and communicate understanding and acceptance to the sender.
Reflecting responses are appropriate to use when coaching and counseling.
8.
9.
Discuss what should not and what should be done to calm an emotional person.
To calm an emotional person, do not make statements that put the person down. Make reflective empathic
responses that let the emotional person know you understand how he or she feels. Paraphrase the feelings.
10. What is the difference among vertical, horizontal, and grapevine communication?
Vertical communication is formal and goes up and down the chain of command. Horizontal communication is
formal and flows between peers and colleagues at the same level. Grapevine communication is informal and
flows in any direction.
11. What is the difference between encoding and decoding?
The sender of the message encodes, whereas the receiver of the message decodes.
12. What does perception have to do with encoding and decoding?
When encoding and decoding messages, it is important to consider the other people involved in the
communication and to encode messages so they can be understood and decoded, taking into account the other
person’s possible perceptions.
13.
What is filtering?
Filtering is the process of altering or distorting information in order to project a more favorable image.
14.
What is the difference between nonverbal setting and body language?
The setting refers to where the communication takes place whereas body language includes: facial expressions,
vocal quality, gestures, and posture.
15.
What is the difference between voice mail and e-mail?
Voice mail comes orally through the telephone, whereas e-mail comes written on the computer.
16.
What are the three parts of a written outline?
The first part is the introduction, which states the purpose of the communication. The second part gives the
details of the communication. The third part is the summary, which repeats the purpose and states any action
necessary by the receiver.
17.
As an average, how many words should a sentence have and how many sentences should there be in a
paragraph.
On average, there should be 15 words to a sentence and 5 sentences to a paragraph. However, paragraph and
sentence length should vary.
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18.
What is media richness?
Media richness refers to the amount of information and meaning conveyed through the channel. The more
information and meaning, the “richer” the channel.
19.
What should be included in your plan to send a message?
A plan for sending a message should include: What--the goal or purpose of the communication. Who-determine who to send the message to. How--what channel will be used? When--select a time and date. Where-place of transmission.
20.
What are the four ways to get feedback on messages?
Be open to feedback. 2. Be aware of nonverbal communication. 3. Ask questions. 4. Use paraphrasing.
21.
Why should you listen, analyze, then check understanding?
You have to listen first so that you can hear the message. You analyze second so that you can decode the
message. You should check understanding third to be sure you have communicated effectively.
22.
Which response style do you use most often?
Answers will vary from advising, diverting, probing, reassuring, to reflecting.
23.
When calming an emotional employee, why shouldn’t you make put-down statements?
The put-down statement will make the emotions stronger rather than calm the person.
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