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Name: Brianna Cardillo
Humanities
Date: 5/21/12
6-C
Student-Created, Open-Resource Examination on Law, Empire,
Government, and Society in Ancient Mesopotamia, Egypt, Greece,
Rome, and the Middle Ages
Essential Question: “How have past civilizations organized their society,
established governments and laws, and expanded their empires in order to
provide stability, security, and growth?”
Overview/Directions:
This is a learning examination. It is not a quiz. It is not a test. It is a long, multi-day
“open-book” examination. It is designed to have you master many key ideas in and
insights into the history of Western Civilization. It requires you to do research on the
HumantiesDigitalClassroom wiki, to read, to discuss, to learn, and to write—in short, to
study and understand. This examination begins your preparation for the Humanities
final examination next month, since about half of the Humanities final examination
covers government, law, and society.
It will take students both class time and homework time over four to seven days to
finish this examination. Patience, persistence, resourcefulness, and responsibility will
win the day. The ideas in this examination are challenging. The length of the
examination is challenging. However, because it is an open-book examination, it is not
at all difficult to earn a grade of 100 or better. In fact, it is easy to earn a grade better
than 100 if you use the resources, you finish the entire test and you hand it in.
This open-PowerPoint/Inspiration exam consists of four “specialty” sections—one on
Society, one on Government, one on Law, and one on War & Empire. Each section has
five parts: one on each of the five civilizations. Each of those parts has short, fact
questions and longer thinking questions that relate to the essential question of the
thematic unit. Short-response questions are each worth 1 point. Long-response
questions are each worth 5 points. Long-response questions have at least five lines
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provided for the response. There are 82 short-response questions, and 8 long-response
questions. Since 82 plus 40 is 122, a perfect score is 122.
Students will be permitted to choose one partner with whom to work, of if they want to
work alone, they may. The teacher reserves the right to assign students to exam
partners. You may do this test with one partner—no more. You may not do this test
with two, or more, other people. You may not divide the test in half, wherein each
partner does half. That is not permitted.
Three class periods will be devoted to the test. About half of the test must be done
outside of class. You may do this test on paper or digitally. You should use the studentcreated PowerPoint, Inspiration, and Word documents saved to the Humanities Digital
Classroom wiki to successfully complete this examination. However, if you wish, you
may use the Our World book to complete the test. That will not be an efficient use of
time, though.
Short-response questions do not have to be answered in complete sentences.
Sometimes one or two words or a phrase will be all that is required. Longer-response
questions must be answered in complete sentences with at least six sentences. Answer
every question. Do not skip any.
This test may be handed in no later than Tuesday, May 29. It may be handed in on paper
or digitally before Tuesday, May 29, either by e-mail or by uploading to a student’s wiki.
A blank copy of the test appears on the top of the HDC wiki.
Yours,
Mr. Baskin
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I. Society
A. Ancient Mesopotamia/Society
Read the following laws from The Code of Hammurabi. Then, answer the
questions that follow. Questions 1-6 are based on this list of laws.
Law 7: If a “purchaser” does not bring the merchant and witnesses
from whom he bought something, and its owner brings witnesses who
identify it, then the “purchaser” is a thief and shall be put to death, and
the owner receives [gets] the stolen article.
Law 122: If anyone gives to another person silver, gold, or anything
else to keep, he shall show everything to some witness, draw up a
contract, and then hand it over for safekeeping.
Law 134: If anyone [a man] is captured in war and there is not
sustenance [food] in his house, if then his wife goes to another house
[to get food], this woman shall be held blameless [innocent] of a crime.
Law 185: If a man adopts a child and to his [own] name as a son, and
rears [raises] him, this grown son cannot be demanded back again.
Law 195: If a son strikes his father, his hand shall be hewn [cut] off.
Law 197: If a man puts out the eye of another man, his eye shall be
put out.
Law 202: If anyone strikes the body of a man higher in rank than he,
he shall receive sixty blows [hits] with an ox whip.
1. According to Law 195, we can see that in Mesopotamian society, in
each household, the father was the head of each family.
2. According to which law, can we tell that Mesopotamian society
believed in charity for the needy, including women whose husbands
were missing? Law 134
3. According to which law can we tell that Mesopotamian society had
adoption of children? Law 185
4. According to which law or laws can we tell that Mesopotamian
society had businesses and merchants? Law 7
5. According to which law can we tell that Mesopotamian society had
different social classes of higher and lower rank which seem to have
been treated differently? Law 202
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Comprehension Questions (Choose either number 8 or 9)
The answer to question 8 and 9 may be found by looking at
the PowerPoints [PPTs] and notes on Society and Government in
both Humanities classes, created by Lauren Feeley, Angel Nieves,
Agatha Correa, and Caitlyn Elliott.
ONLY ANSWER EITHER NUMBER 6 OR 7, NOT BOTH.
6. According to the “Bull of Heaven” chapter from The Epic of
Gilgamesh or the Peace side of the Standard of Ur how can we tell
that the Mesopotamians had a society based on specialization of
labor? What were at least seven jobs in Mesopotamian society?
[Long response]
Mesopotamians had a society based on specialization of labor.
There were many different jobs that were performed, as proof by
the “Bull of Heaven” chapter in The Epic of Gilgamesh. Some jobs
were farmers, who milked cattle, sheep, and goats, shepherds, who
took wool from the sheep, herders, who kept cows, sheep, and
goats away from the lions, scribes, who kept record of written laws,
legends, and songs, slaves, who were in charge of the household
and were expected to be obedient wives, and kings, who kept the
palace and the country under control.
OR
7. In what way does the Peace side of the Standard of Ur show the
social pyramid of Ancient Sumer?
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[Continued on the next page.]
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B. Ancient Egypt/Society
The answers to questions 1 and 2 may be found in either Humanities class’
PPT’s. The answers to questions 3 and 4 may be found in the period 8 and
9 PPT created by Kayla Toohey.
1. Who is at the top of the Egyptian social pyramid? The Pharaoh
2. What are three jobs—responsibilities-- of the pharaoh? He rules
Egypt until his death, he must keep control of his people, and he
is expected to have all the right answers.
3. Who is at the bottom of the Egyptian social pyramid?
Farmers/slaves
4. According to Karla Galbo’s PPT (per. 8/9) on Ancient Egyptian
Society, how specifically might Egypt’s craftsmen have served the
pharaoh? They made things for him, such as statues in his honor, and they
sold jewelry in the market
C. Ancient Greece/Society
1. Briefly describe the upper-class Athenian. You must be a citizen,
and have no job. You must also be free from economic tasks, such as
trading. He must also own a slave or others to tend to his property and
fortune.
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2. What were some of the types of jobs done by middle-class
Athenians? They were merchants, contractors, manufacturers,
managers, tradesmen, craftsmen, and artists.
3. Briefly describe the people of the lower class in Athens. The
lower class people of Athens were made of free men, who were
slaves at one point in their life. These people were mostly not a
part of Athens (as in a citizen) so they could only ever be in
middle class. There are different ways that a slave can gain his
or her freedom. The slave may be freed by his or her ransom
being paid off by a relative or friend.
D. Ancient Rome/Society
1. Into what two groups were citizens of Ancient Rome divided?
Plebians and patricians
2. Describe one group listed in the answer to question. Plebians were
farmers, trades people, and crafts workers. They were known as the
“lower class.” People would often call them “plebs.” They also
refused to fight for Rome unless they were allowed to vote in the
Citizen’s Assembly.
3. Describe the other group. Patricians were the upper class or middle
class of Rome. They owned large farms, where plebians worked.
They had a lot of wealth, and slaves often ran their house. The
meals include several meat courses, all heavily spiced with herbs or
smothered in sauces, and ended with cakes, pastries, fruit and nuts.
4. Name two types of people in Rome who could not participate in
the Roman government. Slaves and women.
E. The Middle Ages/Society
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1. For whom did serfs work, and what kind of work did serfs do? The
serfs worked for lord, by farming their land, and working his lord’s
land, and paid him uncertain dues for use of the land.
2. Describe the homes and living conditions of serfs. Serfs lived with
their animals in small huts on the lord’s land. The hut had one
window, which was stuffed with straw in the winter. This hut was
often only a small speck on a large map.
3. What was the name of the set of rules that knights lived by? The
Code of Chivalry.
4. Whom, or what, was the life of a Catholic monk dedicated to
serving? The average Catholic Monk dedicated his life to three
vows: Poverty, Chastity, and Obedience. In other words, they
dedicated their life to serving God, by praying (worshiping), reading,
and manual labor.
5. What are the responsibilities of noblemen or vassals? In other
words, whom or what were they dedicated to serving? Noblemen
(vassals) were dedicated to serving the king, and his people. Some
examples were protecting the city gates, fighting in wars, fight for
God and Christendom, and demonstrate courage and skill in
tournaments to prove to his people that he was capable of
protecting them.
II. Government
A. Ancient Mesopotamia/Government
1. What is a city-state? A small country made of only one city.
2. What type of government did the Mesopotamians have? A
monarchy.
Ancient Egypt/Government
To answer these questions, first consult Kayla Toohey’s PPT, and then
consult Brianna Cardillo’s and Marissa Brown’s PPT.
1. Who was the first pharaoh and what was his great
accomplishment? The first Pharaoh was Menes, and his greatest
accomplishment was that he His armies swept north into the Nile
Delta, in about 3100 B.C. They overthrew the king of Lower Egypt,
and to show his victory, Menes made a new crown. The new crown
was pieces from both crowns, to show the unification of Egypt.
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2. What are two meanings of the word “pharaoh.” At first, it meant
“great ruler.” Now it is given to every ruler of Egypt. (we may now
infer that pharaoh means “royalty.”)
3. Though the Pharaoh did have a chief vizier, what were
Pharaoh’s own chief responsibilities in the kingdom? Concentrating
on governing the kingdom, keeping it prosperous, expanded
customs and local governments, traded more, allowed more
freedom of religion, and expanded the empire.
4. List four jobs of the vizier. Protecting the water supply, hiring
workers in the palace, keep track of who opens and closes any room in
the palace, and keeping records of laws, taxes, and court cases
5. What was the effect on pharaoh’s power when he replaced regional
leaders with governors? It increased drastically.
Ancient Greece/Government
To answer this section, refer either to Chandler Murphy’s or Tim Callery’s
presentations.
1. Athens’ original government was an oligarchy. What is an oligarchy?
An oligarchy is a system of government in which the richest and
most powerful citizens rule over the city or country.
2. Who served in the Assembly and how often did the Assembly
meet? The Assembly was made up of people who wanted to speak
about important issues going on in Greece. It contained 6,000
people and met every 9 days. Only male citizens, however, could
participate.
3. What was the role, or job, of the Assembly in Athens? The citizen’s
assembly met to vote on issues concerning the city.
4. What was the Council of 500 in Athens, or what was its function or
job?
The Council of 500 was a council of 500 people, who met to prepare an agenda,
decree laws, and vote on laws to make the government of Greece fair.
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5. How did a citizen get to serve in the Council of 500 and for how
long did he have to serve?
The council consisted of 50 people, who were randomly selected from each of
the ten tribes that Aristotle divided Athens up into. Citizens who were selected
could only serve twice on the council. Originally this council was a council of 400
until Aristotle changed it.
Describe and explain five traits of Athens that Pericles says are
unique to Athens, in his Funeral Speech. [Long response question.]
In his funeral speech, Pericles declared the many interesting traits of the Athenians. The
first one was that he thought Athenians don’t copy their neighbors, but are an example
to them with Athenian democracy. The next one is that they are a democracy with
public service merit awards, otherwise the Athenian democracy is a rewarding
democracy. Next, anyone, no matter if he is poor or any other condition can do public
service. One final one is that Athenians’ military achievements are only, because they
have strength and a good mind.
B. Ancient Rome/Government
1. What does the Latin word “republic” mean? A form of
government in which the laws are officially apportioned to the
control of the people.
2. Explain how a government that is republic works. Use the words
“elect” and “representatives” in your explanation. The Senate
would come up with laws that they thought people could decide
on, then they would let the representatives of Rome elect the
laws that they thought were acceptable.
3. What social class controlled the Roman Senate? The patricians.
4. What was the most powerful branch of the Roman government,
and what did that branch do? The third branch, the consuls.
5. What did the Tribunes to help the plebeian citizens who had
elected them? They worked to protect the rights of the Plebians.
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6. In Ancient Rome, there were two Consuls. What did each Consul
do? One would serve as a commander in the Roman army, and
one would act as a powerful judge.
The Middle Ages/Government
To answer the first question--a longer response question--read the
Government PPTs by Rose Iannuzzi and Alyssa Piesco, and by Emily
Maher and Danielle Jessup, and also review the Society PPTs
created by Kelli McKenna in periods 1/2 and by Lindsay Palmaffy
during periods 8/ 9.
1. Explain how the feudal system worked. Be sure to use the words
“lord,” “fief,” “land,” “vassal,” “service,” “knight,” “oath,”
“exchange.” [Long response]
Feudalism was developed around 800 A.D. It was a way to keep
the peace of England. To control the land, the lord divided the
land into fiefs. The vassals and knights would take an oath,
called the Oath of Fealty. It said that in exchange for their
service, they would be allowed to use a section of the land.
To answer the following questions first read the Law PPT and Inspiration map
created by Kayla Bugeya and Joseline Alvarez in the period ½ class, and Milton
Lanza’s PPT. If need be, go back to the Government PPT’s by Rose Ianuzzi and
Alyssa Piesco, and Emily Maher and Danielle Jessup.
Why did the nobles force King John to sign the Magna Carta?
It stated that the king couldn’t violate the rights of free men and
women by setting unfair taxes, take their goods, or hard labor
2. According to the 14th “law “in the Magna Carta, if the king had
to raise taxes, what is the only action the King could take,
legally? He must request a meeting at a fixed date and place of
the archbishops, abbots, and earls.
3. Use Milton Lanza’s excellent PowerPoint presentation in the
period 8/9 section on Law in the Middle Ages. Read his
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summaries of laws 9, 20, 21, and 28, 38, 39 and 60. Use his
translations to explain how the Magna Carta protected the
rights of citizens. In other words, what benefits or protections
did the citizens—in this case, the nobles—get from the Magna
Carta? [Long response.]
There are many ways the translations protected the citizen’s rights. The sheriff of
the king could never steal land from the nobles as long as they can pay for it. If a
free person is to be punished for a crime, the punishment must accord the crime.
If the crime is serious, the punishment can be serious, so they aren’t getting off
easy if they murder someone. Only nobles can try other nobles, and that way, if a
king or knight tries it, the punishment must accord the crime. No sheriff can steal
resources from a noble unless the sheriff pays or is given the resources himself.
No one can be arrested or imprisoned unfairly unless there is a witness to prove
that they are guilty, so the person isn’t getting arrested for a crime they didn’t
commit. All of these freedoms in our kingdom shall be followed by men in our
kingdom, whether they are priests or not. In other words, the laws apply to men.
This means, men aren’t allowed to do what they want, they have to follow the
same rules as the women.
III. Law
A. Ancient Mesopotamia/Law
1. What was the Code of Hammurabi? It was a clay tablet which
stated all the rules of Mesopotamia.
2. In what language was Code of Hummurabi written? Cuneiform.
3. What was one punishment for stealing in Ancient
Mesopotamia? You would be killed (hanged, drowned, etc) and
be buried there. If it was a stolen article, the article would be
returned, if it was a slave from the royal House, the slave would
become a free man, and if you break into a house of a neighbor,
they could kill you before the king.
4. One can see in the Code of Hammurabi, that one type—or one
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or two classes—of people were more valued than women or
poor people? Which class or group was most valued?
Men and the rich people.
5. In general, what does the expression, “An eye for an eye” mean? It meant that
if you caused something of your neighbor’s possession to be destroyed, you must
repay him/her with your own.
6. The Mesopotamians had harsh penalties for stealing, for helping
runaway slaves, and for misusing water. Knowing that their economy
was based on agriculture, why do you think that the penalties were so
harsh for destruction of property or for theft or for dishonesty, etc.?
For this response, please review the PPT created by Sabrina Patriciello,
with Katherine Maurno’s help, in the period 8/9 class. [Long response.]
There were so many harsh laws about destruction, theft, or dishonest
answers about property since the Mesopotamians depended on
agriculture. If multiple corn fields were destroyed, then many of the
citizens would die. If you stole your neighbors’ animals, you could be
put to death. Eventually, if this kept happening, the civilization would
have collapsed sooner.
B. Ancient Egypt/Law
1. What were some punishments meted out [given] for stealing
from Pharaoh? Those caught stealing were subject to corporal
[physical] punishment or death. Punishments might include
having your ears cut off, getting 200 blows and five open
wounds, branding, exile, mutilation, beheading, or being burned
alive.
2. According to Kaylor Toohey’s PPT on Law and Government of
Ancient Egypt (period 8/9), in Egypt who was the chief legal
officer and judge in the kingdom? The vizier.
C. Ancient Greece/Law
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1. Though Chandler Murphy points out in his PPT that there were
eight courts in Ancient Athens. What were the two most
important courts? The Citizen’s Assembly and the Council of
500.
2. Carefully read the tenth slide of Tim Callery’s Government and
Law PPT on Ancient Greece. Read the green and blue Lycurgus
quotes and read Tim’s explanation of those quotes. Then,
answer the following question:
“In a democracy how, or why, would the laws tend to encourage
peace, order and lawfulness within a community? Think. Who
wrote the laws in Athens? Who passed the laws in Ancient
Athens? So, why would there tend to be peace and order and
lawfulness in the polis [the city-state/the community]?”
[Long response]
Because Athenians’ wealth and democracy were kept alive by
the choices and votes of the people, they were changing laws
and government to keep Greece wealthy, healthy, wise, and in a
fair democracy. This democracy allowed everyone to participate
in governmental decisions. This way, everyone could pass and
write laws. This is why there tended to be peace. The Athenians
weren’t reluctant to follow the laws, because the laws were
equal for everyone.
D. Ancient Rome/Law
1. Why were the Twelve Tables written down? In other words, what
forced Rome’s patricians to write the laws down? The Twelve
Tables were written to protect the rights of Plebians. After the
rebellion in 494 B.C. which lasted for 500 years, the patricians were
forced to write laws. The Twelve Tables wasn’t a record of new laws,
but laws that were never written down that were fair to the rights of
the Plebians.
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2. In what location were the Twelve Tables placed in the city of
Rome? The Twelve Tables were displayed in the Forum, which
was part market, part town, square, and the place where
citizens presented their cases before judges.
3. Who enforced Rome’s laws? The Senate
E. The Middle Ages/Law
1. Accorrding to the Magna Carta, what may a sheriff not to with a
person’s property, unless….? The sheriff is not allowed to take someone’s land
unless they can’t pay for it.
2. According to the Magna Carta, what must the general relationship
or connection be between a crime and the punishment assigned to
the person who committed that crime? The general relationship is
that the crime must match up to the punishment. If you murdered
someone, you could be killed as well.
IV. War & Empire
A. Ancient Mesopotamia/War & Empire
1. Besides Sumer itself, what are the names of the other two
important empires in the region of Mesopotamia that
“reigned” along the Tigris and Euphrates? Babylonia and
Assyria.
2. What is the name of the written language that permitted the
Mesopotamians to communicate long distances across the
empire? The alphabet.
3. What is the name of the Mesopotamian king who built dams
across the Euphrates River and who created the
Mesopotamian Empire? Hammurabi.
4. Trade goods traveled across Mesopotamia. What positive
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effect did this have on Mesopotamia? Mesopotamia became
very prosperous, and got a surplus of supplies.
5. According to David Cannizarro’s and Marc Marrone’s PPT on
War & Empire in Ancient Mesopotamia, what can we learn
about how the Mesopotamians fought war from the war side
of the Standard of Ur? Use Marc’s and David’s slide, read
what they wrote, carefully observe the war side of the
Standard of Ur, and write your own description how war
was fought, with what weapons, etc.
The war was often fought, consisting of mostly blood and death.
There were often strong, white soldiers who stayed at base
while the slaves fought the war, and often died. The weapons
were spears, helmets, gear, swords, and often tools they made
themselves. They came into battle with chariots and horses,
pulled by horses, animals, such as cows or oxen, or anything
strong.
B. Ancient Egypt/War & Empire
Consult Joseph Walsh’s and Taylor Reilly’s and Brandon Hodges’
PPT’s on the Empire of Ancient Egypt.
1. To what lands did Egyptian/ trade expeditions go? And what
goods did the Egyptians obtain? Trades were often sent to
Greece or the Fertile Crescent. They got gold, copper,
precious stones, perfume, ivory, incense, and apes.
2. What are the start and end dates of Egypt’s New Kingdom?
1500 B.C. to 1000 B.C.
3. Which Egyptian Pharaoh reigned the longest during the
New Kingdom and was considered the strongest? (He is the
Pharaoh in A Place in the Sun, had red hair—we saw his mummy!—
was the Pharaoh of the Hebrew Exodus from Egypt, and is
considered the greatest “builder” of the Ancient World.) Ramses II
C. Ancient Greece/War & Empire
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To answer these questions use both Humanities class’ excellent
PPTs created by Davi Bendavid and Ray Huang, and by Matteo
Cosentino and Devan Fredericks.
1. When was the Persian War fought? It started at different
times (490 B.C. in Marathon, 480 B.C. in Salamis, and 479
B.C. in Mycale) and ended in 470 B.C.
2. What is the name of the type of Athenian ship that decisively
helped [made a huge difference] the Athenian navy? The
Athenian.
3. What was the outcome of the Persian War? Who won? The
war-fighting navy of Athens helped to defeat the Persians.
The Greeks finally defeated the Persian Empire in 470 B.C.
4. Who were the combatants [sides fighting each other] in the
Peloponnesian War, and over what were they fighting?
Athens and the Peloponnesian League (Olympia, Thebes,
Delphi, Corinth and the head Sparta) were fighting over the
fact that Pericles thought Athens could defeat Sparta.
5. How long did the Peloponnesian War last? From 431 B.C. to
404 B.C. (27 years)
6. List one or two negative consequences of the Peloponnesian
War. One-third of the Athens’ population died during the
war because of the plague broke out inside the city walls.
Also, Athens made a strategic military mistake that the
Athens made regarding Sicily is that the city’s leader sent the
Athenian navy to attack the island of Sicily.
7. What two military improvements did King Phillip II of
Macedonia introduce to his army? Phalanx and cavalry
8. At what age did Alexander the Great begin his conquest for
empire, shortly after the assassination [murder] of his father,
Philip? And at what age did Alexander die? Alexander the
Great started his conquest at age 20 and died at age 33, at
his daughter’s wedding.
9. One of Alexander the Great’s two teachers—really, they
were personal tutors—was the Greek philosopher Aristotle.
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Alexander loved everything Greek. In fact, the story goes
that Aristotle gave Alexander a copy of Homer’s Iliad.
Reportedly, Alexander slept with Homer’s Iliad under his
pillow at night. Alexander is credited with spreading
Hellenism. What is Hellenism? Hellenism is a mixture of
European, African, and Asian cultures.
Ancient Rome/War & Empire
1. According to Kristian Shala and Alexa’s Ryan’s PPT summary,
how many centuries did the Roman Empire last? 218 B.C. to
A.D. 800.
2. List two or three jobs of Rome’s soldiers. Butchers or
blacksmiths.
3. Who is the famous Roman general who rose from consul to
military governor of Gaul, who crossed the Rubicon River in
49 B.C., thereby starting a civil war, four years later declared
himself emperor [dictator], only to be stabbed to death in
the Senate building one year later, in 44 B.C. on March 15?
Julius Caesar.
4. During approximately what year was the Roman Empire at its
largest, or greatest, size? A.D. 211
5. List at least five warring tribes that invaded the Roman
Empire. Visigoths, Saxons, Jutes, Danes, and Angles
6. According to the summary at the end of Ronan Whelan’s
and Eric Johansen’s Roman Empire notes (done with help
from Tim Callery), why did Rome’s Empire start to crumble?
[Long response]
After Rome started invading so many lands, they got it stolen
from them. Then, the civilizations started to crumble. They
were so greedy that once they got so much land, someone
came and stole most of it from them. They became the most
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powerful civilization of all time. The armies finally got to small,
and the Barbarians took over the whole Roman Empire.
D. The Middle Ages/War & Empire
1. What lands did Charlemagne’s grandfather Charles Martel
Conquer? Slavic, Anglo Saxon, Lombard, Visigoth, Byzantine, and
Frankish empires and kingdoms.
2. What did Charlemagne believe his holy mission was?
Charlemagne’s mission was to restore the might and
grandeur of the Old Roman Empire, except by ruling with
Christian, German power.
3. Charlemagne conquered German, Italy, and France.
4. The Pope crowned king or emperor of the Holy Roman
Empire, also known as the Frankish Empire.
5. Go to Nico Vasquez’ and Chris Barnett’s PPT on War &
Empire in the Middle Ages. Click on the brown screen that
describes weapons of war to make the page readable. Read
over the list. Besides heavy swords, what tool usually used for
building was, in fact, used to knock down armor-wearing
opponents on horse back from atop their horse? Bows,
daggers, and lances.
6. Control over what Middle Eastern city were the Crusades
fought? Jerusalem
7. Against whom, in general, did the crusaders fight? Muslims