Download File - AP Psychology

Chapter 9
Psychological Development
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Developmental Psychology
Developmental psychology –
The study of how organisms change over
time as the result of biological and
environmental influences
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How Do Psychologists
Explain Development?
Development is a process of
growth and change brought
about by an interaction of
heredity and the
environment
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The Nature-Nurture
Interaction
Nature-nurture issue –
Long-standing discussion over relative
importance of nature (heredity) and
nurture (environment) in their influence
on behavior and mental processes
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The Nature-Nurture Interaction
Twin studies and Adoption
Studies
• Developmental investigations
in which twins, especially
identical twins, are compared
in the search for genetic and
environmental effects
• Adoption studies –
Studies in which the adopted
child’s characteristics are
compared to those of the
biological family and the
adoptive family
Identical vs Fraternal
• Identical twins–
A pair who started life as a
single fertilized egg which
later split into two distinct
individuals
• Fraternal twins–
A pair who started life as two
separate fertilized eggs that
happened to share the same
womb
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The Nature-Nurture
Interaction – The Jim Twins
Think/Pair/Share: How can twin studies help
us in psychology with respect to the
Nature/Nurture Debate?
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Psychological Traits in Your Genes
While psychological traits are formed by
interaction of heredity and the
environment, many traits have a strong
genetic influence. However, we can never
discount the effects of the environment.
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What Capabilities Does the
Child Possess?
Newborns have innate
abilities for finding
nourishment, interacting with
others, and avoiding harmful
situations; the developing
abilities of infants and
children rely on learning
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Prenatal Development
Prenatal period –
The developmental period before birth
• Zygote – fertilized egg
• Embryo – 3 layers; heartbeat @ 3 weeks
• Fetus – 9 weeks
Placenta –
An organ that develops
between the embryo/fetus
and the mother
Teratogens –
Toxic substances that can damage the
developing organism
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Neonatal Period
(from birth to one month)
Sensory abilities
Motor abilities
Postural reflex
Grasping reflex
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A Recap! Infancy
(from one month to about 18 months)
• Rapid growth
• Many potential brain circuits are not fully
connected (no memory of events prior to
about age 3)
• Babies learn through classical conditioning
• Attachment
• Imprinting – Konrad Lorenz
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Infancy
(from one month to about 18 months)
Humans apparently have an inborn need for
attachment - Mary Ainsworth
• Secure attachment
• Anxious-ambivalent attachment
• Avoidant attachment
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Infancy
(from one month to about 18
months)
Harry and Margaret
Harlow
Contact Comfort
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Infancy (from one month to about 18
months)
• Psychosocial
Dwarfism and failure
to thrive (you can
also watch the video
on my website about
Danielle)
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Infancy
(from one month to about 18 months)
• Maturation –
The unfolding of
genetically programmed
processes of growth and
development over time
• Be familiar with the
maturation time line on
page 374 in your
textbook
Children “mature” at
their own rate.
If there are significant
delays (those doctors
visits are important!),
then a pediatric
specialist should be
consulted.
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What Are the
Developmental Tasks of
Infancy and Childhood?
Infants and children face
especially important
developmental tasks in the
areas of cognition and social
relationships – tasks that lay a
foundation for further growth in
adolescence and adulthood
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Cognitive Development – Jean Piaget
Cognitive development –
The process by which thinking changes
over time
Schemas –
Mental structures or
programs that guide a
developing child’s thoughts
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Cognitive Development
Assimilation –
Interpreting one’s new
experiences in terms of one’s
existing schemas. Asking
how it fits into a current
schema.
Accommodation –
Adapting one’s current
understandings (schemas)
to incorporate new
information. Taking in the
new information and
AP Tip: Think of this like
rearranging the existing
generalization and
schema.
discrimination!
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Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive
Development
Piaget believed that all
children “pass” through
these stages due to the
developing cognitive
(thinking/logic) ability of the
brain.
• Sensorimotor (Birth-2
years)
• Preoperational (2-7
years)
• Concrete Operational
(7-11 years)
• Formal Operational
(11 and up)
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Sensorimotor – Birth – 2 years
Key Terms:
• Sensory and
Motor Skills
• Mental
Representations
• Object
Permanence
Overview:
• Child relies heavily on innate motor
responses to stimuli
• Children build mental representations
or mental images based on their schema
of objects in their world (goes along with
language development)
• By about 18 mo. babies realize that
objects continue to exist even when they
can’t see them; separation anxiety then
kicks in
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Preoperational: 2-6/7 years
Key Terms:
Overview:
• Egocentrism
• Child believes the world revolves around
them and they can’t see things from
another person’s perspective
• Animistic
Thinking
• Inanimate objects have feelings
• Centration (lack of
conservation!)
• Irreversibility
• Center on only one bit of information at
a time (“I want the big glass of water!”)
• Cannot reverse operations (Adding is
easy, but subtracting is difficult)
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Social and Emotional Development
Theory of Mind –
An awareness that other people’s behavior
may be influenced by beliefs, desires, and
emotions that differ from one’s own (story
of Stuffy the rabbit)
Temperament – (Jerome Kagan)
Inborn and stable rudiments of
personality, such as shyness and boldness
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Social and Emotional Development
Lev Vygotsky: Zone of proximal development –
The difference between what a child can do with
help and what the child can do without any help
or guidance
Socialization –
The lifelong process of shaping an individual’s
behavior patterns, values, standards, skills,
attitudes and motives to conform to those
regarded as desirable in a particular society
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Concrete Operational: 7-11
yrs.
Key Terms:
• Conservation
• Shift in Mental
Operations
Overview:
• An understanding that the physical
properties of an object or substance do
not change despite appearances (two
different size glasses will hold the same
amount of water; cutting a sandwich in
two is still one whole sandwich)
• Children start to “think things through”
and the magical thinking of earlier stage
starts to be questioned. (e.g. Belief in
Santa).
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Formal Operational – Age 12 on
Key Terms:
• Abstract
Thought
Appears
Overview:
• Early adolescence is time when child
begins to grasp abstract ideas of moral
and ethics.
• This is typically when math becomes
more challenging (e.g., algebraic terms).
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Social and Emotional Development
Other factor’s influencing a
child’s social development
may include:
• Effects of day
care
• School influences
• Leisure influences
Parenting Styles:
• Authoritarian (My way
or the highway!)
• Authoritative (Let’s
discuss the rules and
come to an agreement.)
• Permissive (Let’s be
besties!)
• Uninvolved (I have
kids?)
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Erikson’s Psychosocial Stages
Age/Period
Principal Challenge
0 to 2 years
Trust vs. mistrust
2 to 3 years
Autonomy vs. self doubt
3 to 6 years
Initiative vs. guilt
6 years to puberty
Confidence vs. inferiority
Adolescence
Identity vs. role confusion
Early adulthood
Intimacy vs. isolation
Middle adulthood
Generativity vs. stagnation
Late adulthood
Ego-integrity vs. despair
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STAGE ONE
One = Bun
Trust the Bun!
EARLY
INFANCY/MEETING
BASIC NEEDS
TRUST VS.
MISTRUST
FOR EVEN
DEVELOPMENT,
EACH CRISIS MUST
BE MET ON TIME
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STAGE TWO
Two = Shoe
A shoe can be used as an auto!
AUTONOMY VS.
SHAME AND DOUBT
AGES 2–3
SELF-RELIANCE OR
RELIANCE ON
OTHERS
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STAGE THREE
Three = Tree
Take the Initiative and plant a tree
INITIATIVE VS.
GUILT: AGES 3–6
SELF-ESTEEM: “AM I
GOOD OR AM I BAD
?”
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STAGE FOUR
Four = Door
I am Industrious and Confident that I can
open the door!
INDUSTRY/CONFIDENCE
VS. INFERIORITY
AGES 6–12
THE CHILD ASKS, “AM I
SUCCESSFUL OR NO
GOOD?”
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STAGE FIVE
Five = Alive
I am alive, I have an identity!
IDENTITY VS. ROLE
CONFUSION
EARLY TEENS/PEER
PRESSURE
QUESTION: “WHO
AM I?”
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STAGE SIX
Six = Sticks
Two sticks are better than one!
INTIMACY VS.
ISOLATION
CHOOSING TO
SHARE YOUR LIFE
WITH ANOTHER OR
LIVE ALONE
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STAGE SEVEN
Seven = Heaven
I’m in heaven because I generated success
in my life!
GENERATIVITY VS.
STAGNATION
MIDDLE AGE/MID LIFE CRISIS
QUESTION: “AM I
SUCCESFUL IN MY
LIFE?”
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STAGE EIGHT
Eight = Mate/Date
I have made my mark with my mate, and
am ready for my date with the end of my
life.
EGO-IDENTITY VS.
DESPAIR
OLDER ADULTS
QUESTION: “HAVE I
LIVED A FULL AND
COMPLETE LIFE?”
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STAGE EIGHT( CONTINUED)
FEELINGS OF
ABANDONMENT
AND ISOLATION
 CRITICISMS OF
ERIKSON’S
THEORY OF
DEVELOPMENT

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What Changes Mark the
Transition of Adolescence?
Adolescence offers new
developmental challenges
growing out of physical
changes, cognitive changes,
and socioemotional changes
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The Transitions of Adolescence
Adolescence –
Developmental period beginning at
puberty and ending at adulthood
Rites of passage –
Social rituals that mark the transition
between developmental stages, especially
between childhood and adulthood
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Cognitive Development in Adolescence
Hormones rise to high levels
The frontal lobes undergo a “remodel”
This leads to sensation seeking and risk
taking, and preoccupation with body
image and sex
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Social and Sexual Identity in
Adolescence
Identity crisis
The increasing influence of peers
Common social problems in
adolescence
Delinquency
Sexual Identity comes into question
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Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral
Reasoning
“Should Heinz have stolen the too expensive
medicine to save his wife’s life?”
I. Preconventional morality (like Piaget’s
egocentrism)
Stage 1: Pleasure/pain orientation – Avoid pain
or avoid getting caught
Stage 2: Cost/benefit orientation; reciprocity –
Achieve/receive rewards or mutual benefits
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Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral
Reasoning
II. Conventional morality (like Piaget’s
Theory of Mind)
Stage 3: “Good child” orientation – Gain
Acceptance, avoid disapproval
Stage 4: Law-and-order orientation –
Follow rules, avoid penalties
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Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral
Reasoning
III. Postconventional (principled) morality
Stage 5: Social contract orientation –
Promote the welfare of one’s society
Stage 6: Ethical principle orientation –
Achieve justice, be consistent with one’s
principles, avoid self-condemnation
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Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral Reasoning
• Culture and morality
• Gender and morality – Carol Gilligan
• Studies have found no close connection between
people’s moral reasoning and their behavior.
Most moral reasoning comes after people have
intuitively decided how to act.
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What Developmental
Challenges Do Adults Face?
Nature and nurture continue
to produce changes
throughout life, but in
adulthood these changes
include both growth and
decline
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Elisabeth Kubler-Ross – Death and
Dying
Kubler-Ross identified 5
stages that terminally ill,
dying individuals, and
those experiencing grief
will go through
• Denial
• Anger
• Bargaining
• Depression
• Acceptance
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