Download Lesson 12

Lesson 12
Pharmacists and Pharmacy Technicians
WORK DESCRIPTION
Pharmacists dispense drugs prescribed by physicians, dentists, and a few other health
practitioners. They provide information to patients about medications and their use. They advise
physicians and other health practitioners on the selection, dosages, and side effects of
medications. Pharmacists must understand the use, composition, and effects of drugs.
Compounding (the actual mixing of ingredients to form powders, tablets, capsules, ointments, and
solution) is only part of a pharmacist's practice, because most medicines are produced by
pharmaceutical companies in a standard dosage and form.
Retail pharmacists answer customers' questions about prescription drugs, such as possible adverse
reactions and interactions. They answer questions about over-the-counter drugs and make
recommendations after asking a series of health questions, such as whether the customer is on any
other medication. They give advice about durable medical equipment and home health care
supplies. Those who own or manage community pharmacies may buy and sell non-health-related
merchandise, hire and supervise personnel, and oversee the general operation of the pharmacy.
Hospital and clinic pharmacists dispense medications and advise the medical staff on the
selection and effects of drugs, in some cases making rounds with them. They make sterile
solutions and buy medical supplies. They monitor drug regimens, advises patients on the use of
drugs when they are discharged from the hospital, and evaluate drug use patterns in the hospital.
Pharmacists who work in home health care prepare medications for use in the home and monitor
drug therapy. Most pharmacists keep computerized records of patients' drug therapies to insure
that harmful drug interactions do not occur. Some pharmacists specialize in specific aspects of
drug therapy, such as drugs with psychiatric disorders, intravenous nutrition, or the diagnostic use
of radiopharmaceuticals.
WORKING CONDITIONS
Pharmacists usually work in clean, well lighted, and well-ventilated areas. Many pharmacists
spend most of their time on their feet. When working with potentially dangerous or sterile
pharmaceutical products, pharmacists wear gloves and masks and work with special protective
equipment. Many community and hospital pharmacies are open long hours or around the clock,
so pharmacists may work evenings, nights, weekends, and holidays. Pharmacists who consult
may travel to nursing homes or other facilities.
About one out of seven pharmacists work part-time. Most full-time salaried pharmacists work
about 40 hours a week. Some, however, work more than 50 hours a week. Most self-employed
pharmacists work more than 50 hours a week.
EMPLOYMENT OPPORTUNITIES
Pharmacists hold about 170,000 jobs. Three out of five work in community pharmacies, either
independently owned, part of a drug store chain, or part of a grocery or department store. Most
community pharmacists are salaried, but a substantial number are self-employed. More than one
quarter work in hospitals, and some work for health maintenance organizations (HMOs), clinics,
nursing homes, and the Federal government. Some pharmacists hold more than one job, working
a standard week in their primary work setting and work part-time elsewhere.
TRAINING, OTHER QUALIFICATIONS, AND ADVANCEMENT
A license to practice pharmacy is required in all States, the District of Columbia, and U.S.
territories. To obtain a license, one must graduate from an accredited college of pharmacy (a few
States allow graduation from certain foreign pharmacy programs), pass a State examination, and
serve an internship under a licensed pharmacist. In 1998, all States except California and Florida
usually granted a license without extensive reexamination to qualified pharmacists already
licensed by another State. Many pharmacists are licensed to practice in more than one State.
Most States require continuing education for license renewal.
At least six years of study beyond high school are required to graduate from programs accredited
by the American Council on Pharmaceutical Education. A Doctor of Pharmacy (Pharm.D.)
normally requires at least six years, during which an intervening bachelor's degree may not be
awarded. Those who already hold the bachelor's degree may enter Pharm.D. Programs, but the
combined period of study is usually longer than six years.
Requirements for admission to colleges of pharmacy may vary. A few colleges admit students
directly from high school. Most colleges of pharmacy, however, require one or two years of
college-level pre pharmacy education. Entry requirements usually include mathematics and basic
sciences such as chemistry, biology, and physics, as well as courses in the humanities and social
sciences. Some colleges require the applicant to take the Pharmacy College Admissions Test (PCAT).
All colleges of pharmacy offer courses in pharmacy practice designed to teach students to
dispense prescriptions, communicate with patients and other health professionals, and to
strengthen their understanding of professional ethics and practice management responsibilities.
Pharmacists' training increasingly emphasizes direct patient care as well as consultant services to
other health professionals.
The pervious earned bachelor's degree in pharmacy is generally acceptable for most positions in
community pharmacies. However, a growing number of hospital employers prefer that a
pharmacist have a Pharm.D., or Ph.D. degree in pharmacy
Sixty-one colleges of pharmacy award the Ph.D. degree. Although a number of pharmacy
graduates interested in further training pursue an advanced degree in pharmacy, there are other
options. Some enter one or 2-year residency programs or fellowships. Pharmacy residencies are
organized, directed, postgraduate training programs in a defined area of pharmacy practice such
as pediatrics, cardiology, oncology, or hospital pharmacy management. Pharmacy fellowships
are directed and highly individualized programs designed to prepare participants to do
independent research.
Areas of graduate study include pharmaceutics and pharmaceutical chemistry (physical and
chemical properties of drugs and dosage forms), pharmacology (effects of drugs on the body),
and pharmacy administration, including social-behavioral aspects of patient care. Prospective
pharmacists should have scientific aptitude, manual dexterity, and good interpersonal skills.
In community pharmacies, pharmacists usually begin as employees. After they gain experience
and secure the necessary capital, many become owners or part owners of pharmacies.
Pharmacists in chain drug stores may be promoted to supervisory pharmacists at the store level
and then at the district level, and later to an executive position with the chain's headquarters.
Hospital pharmacists may advance to director of pharmacy services or to other administrative
positions. Pharmacists in the pharmaceutical industry may advance in marketing, sales, research,
quality control, production, packaging, and other areas.
JOB OUTLOOK
Employment of pharmacists is expected to grow faster than the average for all occupations
through the year 2010 due to the increased pharmaceutical needs of a larger and older population
and greater use of medication. As in other occupations, most job openings will result from the
need to replace pharmacists who leave the profession.
Other factors likely to increase demand for pharmacists through the year 2010 include the
likelihood of scientific advances that will make more drug products available; new developments
in administering medication; and increasingly sophisticated consumers seeking more information
about drugs.
The number of pharmacists in hospitals is expected to grow as pharmacists consult more and
become more actively involved in patient drug therapy decision-making. The increased severity
of the typical hospital patient's illness, together with rapid strides in drug therapy, is likely to
heighten demand for pharmacists in hospitals, HMOs, and other health care settings.
EARNINGS
Median annual earnings of full-time, salaried pharmacists is about $45,000. Half earn between
$37,600 and $51,400. The lowest 10 percent earn less than $26,100 and the top 10 percent more
than $59,500. Pharmacists working in chain drug stores have an average base salary of $49,800
per year in 1998, while pharmacists working in independent drug stores average $45,300;
discount stores average $53,200; supermarkets average $51,200; HMOs average $52,300; and
hospital pharmacists average $50,300, according to a survey by Drug Topics magazine published
by Medical Economics Publishing, Inc. The same survey shows that pharmacists employed in the
West earn higher incomes than pharmacists in other regions of the country. Also, pharmacists
employed by chain drug stores, supermarkets, discount stores, and HMOs receive more benefits
than those in independent drug stores. Pharmacists who are owners of pharmacies often earn
considerably more than salaried pharmacists.
Questions:
What is the work description of a Pharmacist?
About how many jobs do Pharmacists hold in the United States?
What are the requirements to be admitted into a pharmacy school?
Where do Pharmacists usually begin their careers?
What is the employment outlook for Pharmacists?
What is the median annual salary for full-time Pharmacists?
Pharmacy Technicians
WORK DESCRIPTION
Pharmacy technicians assist and support licensed pharmacists in providing health care and
medications to patients. Although people have been assisting pharmacists for many years, they
have not always been recognized as skilled workers, nor have they always been called pharmacy
technicians. Pharmacy technicians have been called pharmacy helpers, pharmacy clerks,
pharmacy aides, pharmacy assistants, and pharmacy support personnel. Some pharmacy
technicians are still given these older titles in some areas of the country, while in other areas they
may be called pharmacy technologists. Pharmacy technicians must have a broad knowledge of
pharmacy practice, and be skilled in the techniques required to order, stock, package, and prepare
medications, but they do not need the advanced college education required of a licensed
pharmacist.
Pharmacy technicians may perform many of the same duties as pharmacists; however, a
pharmacist must check all of a technician's work before medication can be dispensed to a patient.
Pharmacy technicians can work everywhere pharmacists work, although some State laws may
limit the duties pharmacy technicians can perform. Pharmacy technicians work in hospital
pharmacies, retail pharmacies, home health care pharmacies, nursing home pharmacies, clinic
pharmacies, nuclear medicine pharmacies, and in mail order prescription pharmacies. In addition,
some pharmacy technicians have been employed in non-traditional settings by medical insurance
companies, medical computer software companies, drug manufacturing companies, drug
wholesale companies, food processing companies, and even as instructors in pharmacy technician
training programs. Currently, hospitals, home health care, and retail pharmacies hire the majority
of pharmacy technicians.
When working in a pharmacy, pharmacy technicians must work under the direction of a licensed
pharmacist. In a retail pharmacy, technicians stock and inventory prescription and over-thecounter medications, maintain written or computerized patient medication records, count or pour
medications into dispensing containers, type prescription labels, prepare insurance claim forms,
and manage the cash register.
In hospitals, pharmacy technicians perform many of the same duties as they do in retail
pharmacy, but they have additional responsibilities including assembling a 24-hour supply of
medication for each patient, repackaging medications, preparing commercially unavailable
medications, preparing sterile intravenous medications, maintaining nursing station medications,
collecting quality improvement data, delivering medications to patient rooms, and operating
computerized dispensing and/or robotic machinery. In most practice settings, pharmacy
technicians perform any duties they are assigned by the pharmacist. The one requirement all
these pharmacy technicians' duties have in common is a need for absolute accuracy and precision
in both the technical and clerical aspects of the job.
Although pharmacy technicians work under the supervision of a licensed pharmacist, and must be
willing to take directions, they must be able to work competently without constant instruction by
the pharmacist. In any pharmacy setting the patient is the most important person. Pharmacy
technicians must truly care about, and find satisfaction in serving, the patient. Because of the
critical nature of many common pharmacy duties, the pharmacy technician must enjoy
performing precise work, where details can be a matter of life or death. Even if a task is
repetitive, a pharmacy technician must be able to complete the task accurately every time.
Pharmacy technicians must be able to maintain this accuracy even in stressful or emergency
situations.
Many pharmacy technician duties require good manual dexterity, and pharmacy technicians
should enjoy working with their hands. Good communication and interpersonal skills are
essential for a pharmacy technician who must interact with pharmacy coworkers, patients, and
other health care professionals on a daily basis. Finally, all employers want dependable
employees, but dependability is especially important for pharmacy technicians since a patient's
welfare may depend on their work.
WORKING CONDITIONS
Pharmacy technicians work the same hours and schedules as pharmacists. In both retail and
hospital pharmacies, pharmacy technicians should expect to work weekdays and some weekends.
Hospital pharmacies are often open and staffed 24 hours a day. Pharmacy technicians should not
expect to work the 9-5 weekday schedule common to some occupations and must be able to
handle non-traditional work schedules and the demands they place on family and friends.
EDUCATION, OTHER QUALIFICATIONS, AND ADVANCEMENT
There are no Federal and few State requirements for formal education or training of pharmacy
technicians. Informal, on-the-job training is still the most common training for pharmacy
technicians. However, many employers can no longer afford to train technicians on-the-job, and
are seeking formally educated pharmacy technicians. Formalized pharmacy technician training
was first offered by the armed forces, but is now offered by some hospitals, proprietary schools,
vocational/technical colleges, and community colleges. Most formal pharmacy technician
education programs include classroom and laboratory work in medical and pharmaceutical
terminology, pharmaceutical calculations, pharmacy record keeping, pharmaceutical techniques,
and pharmacy law and ethics. Pharmacy technicians must learn medication names, actions, doses
and uses.
Most formal training programs include clerkships or internships where students receive hands-on
training at actual pharmacy sites. Successful graduates of pharmacy technician programs receive
a certificate, a diploma, or an associate degree, depending on the individual program. The
American Society of Health-System Pharmacists (ASHP) has accredited pharmacy technician
education programs since 1983. ASHP accreditation insures that the program meets certain
minimum standards of pharmacy technician education. There are many good pharmacy
technician programs which have not yet been accredited. The Pharmacy Technician Certification
Board (PTCB) now offers a voluntary, National Pharmacy Technician Certification Examination.
These exams are designed to certify the competency of those individuals who demonstrate the
knowledge required to practice as a pharmacy technician.
Opportunities for advancement vary with the pharmacy technician's employer. Uniform career
ladders for pharmacy technicians are not yet well developed in all practice settings. Many large
hospitals do have career ladders, with pharmacy technicians advancing to supervisory roles, or
advanced, specialized, technical duties. Advancement in some practice sites is not possible, and
will require the pharmacy technician to change jobs.
EARNINGS
There is a broad range of starting salaries for pharmacy technicians, depending on the type and
location of pharmacy where they are employed. The starting salary in a hospital pharmacy is in
the range of $8.00 to $10.00 per hour (approx. $16,000-20,000 a year), while in a retail pharmacy
the starting salary range is generally lower (approx. $6.00 to $8.00 per hour or $12,000-17,000 a
year). In hospitals, there are usually shift differentials of 10 to 15% paid in addition to base pay
for work on evening, night, or weekend shifts. Most hospitals and many retail pharmacies
provide fringe benefits such as paid sick leave, medical and dental insurance, and retirement
plans. A well trained and an experienced pharmacy technician can earn up to $12-15.00 per hour.
JOB OUTLOOK
The increasing clinical emphasis of pharmacist's responsibilities, the increasing pharmacy
workload due to our aging population, and the increasing need to control health care costs make
the employment outlook for a well-trained pharmacy technician is good. Currently, pharmacy
technicians are assuming more responsibility for routine tasks, previously performed by
pharmacists, and will be responsible for mastering new pharmacy technology as it becomes
available.
Questions:
Pharmacy Technicians do what?
How does one become a Pharmacy Technician?
What are the formal education requirements for being a Pharmacy Technician?
What are the opportunities for advancement as a Pharmacy Technician?
What are the broad starting salaries for Pharmacy Technicians?
What is the job outlook for the Pharmacy Technician?
Optometrists and Ophthalmic Technicians
WORK DESCRIPTION
Over half the people in the United States wear glasses or contact lenses. Optometrists (doctors of
optometry, also known as Ode's) provide most of the primary vision care people need.
Optometrists examine people's eyes to diagnose vision problems and eye disease. They treat
vision problems, and in most States, they treat certain eye disease such as conjunctivitis or
corneal infections, as well. Optometrists use instruments and observation to examine eye health
and to test patients' visual acuity, depth and color perception, and their ability to focus and
coordinate the eyes. They analyze test results and develop a treatment plan. Optometrists
prescribe eyeglasses, contact lenses, vision therapy, and low vision aids. They use drugs for
diagnosis in all States, and, as of 1993, they may use topical and oral drugs to treat some eye
diseases in 37 States. Optometrists often provide postoperative care to cataract patients. When
optometrists diagnose conditions that require care beyond the optometric scope of practice such
as diabetes or high blood pressure, they refer patients to other health practitioners.
Optometrists should not be confused with ophthalmologists or dispensing opticians.
Ophthalmologists are physicians who diagnose and treat eye disease and injuries. They perform
surgery and prescribe drugs. Like optometrists, they examine eyes and prescribe eyeglasses and
contact lenses. Dispensing opticians fit and adjust eyeglasses and in some States may fit contact
lenses according to prescriptions written by ophthalmologists or optometrists.
Most optometrists are in general practice. Some specialize in work with the elderly, with
children, or with partially sighted persons who use specialized visual aids. Others develop and
implement ways to protect workers' eyes from on-the-job strains or injury. Some specialize in
contact lenses, sports vision, or vision therapy. A few teach optometry or do research.
Most optometrists are private practitioners who also handle the business aspects of running an
office, such as developing a patient base, hiring employees, keeping records, and ordering
equipment and supplies. Optometrists who operate a franchise optical store may have some of
these duties.
WORKING CONDITIONS
Optometrists work in places, usually their own offices that are clean, well lighted, and
comfortable. The work requires attention to detail and manual dexterity. Most full-time
optometrists work about 40 hours a week, but a substantial number work more than 50 hours a
week. Many work Saturdays and evenings to suit the needs of patients, but emergency calls are
few.
EMPLOYMENT OPPORTUNITIES
Optometrists hold about 35,000 jobs. The number of jobs is greater than the number of practicing
optometrists because some optometrists hold two or more jobs. For example, an optometrist may
have a private practice, but work in another practice, clinic, or a vision care center.
Although many optometrists are in solo practice, a growing number are in partnership or group
practice. Some optometrists work as salaried employees of other optometrists or of
ophthalmologists. Others work in hospitals, health maintenance organizations (HMOs), or retail
optical stores.
Some optometrists are consultants for industrial safety programs, insurance companies,
manufacturers of ophthalmic products, HMOs, and others.
TRAINING, OTHER QUALIFICATIONS, AND ADVANCEMENT
All States and the District of Columbia require that optometrists be licensed. Applicants for a
license must have a Doctor of Optometry degree from an accredited optometry school and pass
both a written and a clinical State board examination. In many States, applicants can substitute
the examinations of the National Board of Examiners in Optometry, usually taken during the
student's academic year, for part or all of the written examination. Licenses are renewed
everyone or two years and in most States, continuing education credits are needed for renewal.
The Doctor of Optometry degree requires completion of a four-year program at an accredited
optometry school preceded by at least three years of pre optometric study at an accredited college
or university (most optometry students hold a bachelor's degree). The Council on Optometric
Education of the American Optometric Association accredited seventeen U.S. schools and
colleges of optometry.
Requirements for admission to schools of optometry include courses in English, mathematics,
physics, chemistry, and biology. A few schools require or recommend courses in psychology,
history, sociology, speech, or business. Applicants must take the Optometry Admissions test
(OAT), which measures academic ability and scientific comprehension. Most applicants take the
test after their sophomore or junior year. Competition for admission is keen.
Optometry programs include classroom and laboratory study of health and visual sciences, as
well as clinical training in the diagnosis and treatment of eye disorders. Included are courses in
pharmacology, optics, biochemistry, and systemic disease. Business ability, self-discipline, and
the ability to deal tactfully with patients are important for success.
Optometrists wishing to teach or do research may study for a master's or Ph.D. degree in visual
science, physiological optics, neurophysiology, public health, health administration, health
information and communication, or health education. One-year postgraduate clinical residency
programs are available for optometrists who wish to specialize in family practice optometry,
pediatric optometry, geriatric optometry, low vision rehabilitation, vision therapy, contact lenses,
hospital-based optometry, and primary care optometry.
JOB OUTLOOK
Employment of optometrists is expected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations
through the year 2010 in response to the vision care needs of a growing and aging population.
Persons over the age of 45 visit optometrists and ophthalmologists more frequently because of the
onset of vision problems in middle age and the increased likelihood of cataracts, glaucoma,
diabetes, and hypertension in old age. Employment of optometrists will grow due to greater
recognition of the importance of vision care, rising personal incomes, and growth in employee
vision care plans.
Employment of optometrists would grow more rapidly are it not for anticipated productivity gains
that will allow each optometrist to see more patients. These gains will result from greater use of
optometric assistants and other support personnel, and the introduction of new equipment.
Replacement needs are low. In this occupation, replacement needs arise almost entirely from
retirements and deaths. Optometrists generally remain in practice until they retire; few transfer to
other occupations.
EARNINGS
According to the American Optometric Association, new optometry graduates in their first year
of practice earn a net income of about $45,000. Overall, optometrists earn median net income of
about $75,000. Optometrists in private practice generally earn more than salaried optometrists.
Incomes vary depending upon location, specialization, and other factors. Salaried optometrists
tend to earn more initially than optometrists who set up their own independent practice.
Questions:
What percentage of Americans wears glasses?
Optometrists do what kind of jobs?
How many jobs do people hold in the United States as Optometrists?
What are the educational requirements to become an Optometrist?
What is the job outlook for Optometrists?
How much do Optometrists earn in their first year of practice?
RELATED OCCUPATIONS
Workers in other occupations, who apply scientific knowledge to prevent, diagnose, and treat
disorders and injuries are chiropractors, dentists, physicians, podiatrists, veterinarians, speechlanguage pathologists, and audiologists.
Ophthalmic Laboratory Technicians
WORK DESCRIPTION
Ophthalmic laboratory technicians, also known as manufacturing opticians, optical mechanics, or
optical goods workers, make prescription eyeglass lenses. Some manufacture lenses for other
optical instruments, such as telescopes and binoculars. Prescription lenses are curved in such a
way that light is correctly focused onto the retina of the patient's eye, improving vision.
Ophthalmic laboratory technicians cut, grind, edge, and finish lenses according to specifications
provided by dispensing opticians, optometrists, or ophthalmologists, and then assemble the lenses
with frames to produce finished glasses.
Ophthalmic laboratory technicians should not be confused with workers in other vision care
occupations. Ophthalmologists and optometrists are eye doctors who examine eyes, diagnose and
treat vision problems, and prescribe corrective lenses. Ophthalmologists also perform eye
surgery. Dispensing opticians, who may do work described here, help patients select frames and
lenses, and adjust finished eyeglasses.
Ophthalmic laboratory technicians read prescription specifications, and then select standard glass
or plastic lens blanks and mark them to indicate where the curves specified on the prescription
should be ground. They place the lens into the lens grinder, set the dials for the prescribed
curvature, and start the machine. After a minute or so, the lens is ready to be finished by a
process in which a machine rotates the lens against a fine abrasive to grind the lens and smooth
out rough edges. The lens is then placed in a polishing machine, with an even finer abrasive, to
polish the lens to a smooth, bright finish.
Next, the technician examines the lens through a lensometer, an instrument similar in shape to a
microscope, and makes sure the degree and placement of the curve is correct. The technician
then cuts the lenses and bevels the edges to fit the frame, dips each lens into dye if the
prescription calls for tinted or coated lenses, polishes the edges, and assembles the lenses and
frame parts into a finished pair of glasses.
In small laboratories, technicians generally handle every phase of the operation. In large ones,
technicians may specialize in one or more steps, assembly-line style.
WORKING CONDITIONS
Ophthalmic laboratory technicians work in relatively clean and well-lighted laboratories and have
limited contact with the public. Surroundings are relatively quiet despite the humming of
machines. At times, technicians may wear goggles to protect their eyes, and may spend a great
deal of time standing.
Most ophthalmic laboratory technicians work a five-day, 40-hour week, which may include
weekends, evenings, or occasionally, some overtime. Some work part-time.
Ophthalmic laboratory technicians need to take precautions against the hazards associated with
cutting glass, handling chemicals, and working near machinery.
EMPLOYMENT OPPORTUNITIES
Ophthalmic laboratory technicians hold about 20,000 jobs. About half of these jobs are in retail
stores that manufacture and sell prescription glasses--mostly chains of optical goods stores or
independent retailers. Most of the rest are in optical laboratories. These laboratories manufacture
eyewear for dispensing by retail stores that sell but do not fabricate prescription glasses, and by
opthalmologists and optometrists. A few work for optometrists or ophthalmologists who
dispense glasses directly to patients.
TRAINING, OTHER QUALIFICATIONS, AND ADVANCEMENT
Nearly all ophthalmic laboratory technicians learn their skills on-the-job. Employers filling
trainee jobs prefer applicants who are high school graduates. Courses in science and mathematics
are valuable; manual dexterity and the ability to do precision work are essential.
Technician trainees start on simple tasks such as marking or blocking lenses for grinding, then
progress to lens grinding, lens cutting, edging, beveling, and eyeglass assembly. Depending on
the individual's aptitude, it may take six to 18 months to become proficient in all phases of the
work.
Some ophthalmic technicians learn their trade in the Armed Forces. Others attend the few
programs in optical technology offered by vocational-technical institutes or trade schools. These
programs have classes in optical theory, surfacing and lens finishing, and the reading and
applying of prescriptions. Programs vary in length from six months to one year, and award
certificates or diplomas.
Ophthalmic laboratory technicians can become supervisors and managers. Some technicians
become dispensing opticians, although further education or training may be required. Dispensing
opticians are those who dispense eyeglasses inside of department stores and malls.
JOB OUTLOOK
Employment of ophthalmic laboratory technicians is expected to increase about as fast as the
average for all occupations through the year 2010 due to rising demand for corrective lenses.
Nonetheless, most job openings will come from the need to replace technicians who transfer to
other occupations or leave the labor force.
Demographic trends make it likely that many more Americans will wear glasses in the years
ahead. Not only will the population grow, but also the number of middle-aged and older adults
will grow particularly rapidly. Middle age is a time when many people use corrective lenses for
the first time, and older persons require appreciably more vision care than the rest of the
population.
The public's heightened awareness of vision care should increase demand for corrective lenses.
The emergence of eye wear as a fashion item--eye wear now comes in an assortment of attractive
shapes and colors--has been enticing many people to purchase two or three pairs of glasses rather
than just one. Most new jobs for ophthalmic laboratory technicians will be in retail optical chains
that manufacture prescription glasses on the premises and provide fast service.
EARNINGS
According to the Opticians Association of America, the beginning average salary for ophthalmic
laboratory technicians in retail optical stores is about $15,000. Those with three to five years of
experience average $16,700; 6 to 9 years, $21,700; and 10 years or more, $24,370. Trainees may
start at the minimum wage.
Questions:
What is the job description for Ophthalmic Laboratory Technicians?
Where do Ophthalmic Laboratory Technicians work?
About what percentage of Ophthalmic Laboratory Technicians work for retail stores?
What are the employment opportunities for Ophthalmic Laboratory Technicians?
What is the beginning average salary for Ophthalmic Laboratory Technicians in retail stores?
Podiatrists
WORK DESCRIPTION
The human foot is a complex structure. It contains 26 bones, many muscles, nerves, ligaments,
and blood vessels. It is designed to provide balance and mobility. Podiatrists, also known as
doctors of podiatric medicine (DPM's), diagnose and treat disorders, diseases and injuries of the
foot and lower leg to keep this part of the body working properly.
Podiatrists treat corns, calluses, ingrown toenails, bunions, heel spurs, and arch problems; ankle
and foot injuries, deformities, and infections; and foot complaints associated with diseases such
as diabetes. To treat these problems, podiatrists prescribe drugs, order physical therapy, set
fractures, and perform surgery. They fit corrective inserts called orthotics, design plaster casts
and straps to correct deformities, and design custom-made shoes. Podiatrists may use a force
plate to help design the orthotics and shoes. Patients walk across a plate connected to a computer
that reads the patients' feet. From the computer readout, podiatrists order the correct design.
To diagnose a foot problem, podiatrists order x-rays and laboratory tests. Podiatrists consult with
and refer patients to other health practitioners when they spot systemic diseases, such as arthritis,
diabetes, and heart disease, of which first symptoms may appear in the foot. For example,
diabetics are prone to foot ulcers and infections due to their poor circulation.
Most podiatrists have a general practice. Some specialize in surgery, orthopedics, or public
health. Besides these certified specialties, podiatrists may practice a sub specialty such as sports
medicine, pediatrics, dermatology, radiology, geriatrics, and diabetic foot care. Podiatrists
generally are in private practice, which means that they run a small business. They may hire
employees, order supplies, and keep records.
WORKING CONDITIONS
Podiatrists usually work independently in their own offices. They may spend time visiting
patients or performing surgery at a hospital. Those with private practices set their own hours, but
to meet the needs of their patients, they may have some evening and weekend hours.
EMPLOYMENT OPPORTUNITIES
Podiatrists hold about 15,000 jobs. Most podiatrists are solo practitioners, although more are
entering partnerships and group practices. Others are employed in hospitals, nursing homes, and
offices and clinics of physicians. Public health departments employ podiatrists, too.
Geographic imbalances are pronounced in podiatric medicine. Most podiatry graduates establish
their practices in or near one of the seven States that have colleges of podiatric medicine-California, Florida, Illinois, Iowa, New York, Pennsylvania, and Ohio. Large areas of the
country, particularly the South, the Southwest, and non-metropolitan areas, have few podiatrists.
In these areas, primary care physicians and orthopedists typically provide foot care.
TRAINING, OTHER QUALIFICATIONS, AND ADVANCEMENT
All States and the District of Columbia require a license for the practice of podiatric medicine.
Each defines its own licensing requirements. Generally, the applicant must be a graduate of an
accredited college of podiatric medicine and pass written and oral examinations. Twenty-five
States require completion of an accredited residency program. Some States permit applicants to
substitute the examination of the National Board of Podiatric Examiners, given in the second and
fourth years of podiatric medical college, for part or all of the written State examination. Certain
States grant reciprocity to podiatrists who are licensed in another State. Thirty-one States require
continuing education for licensor renewal.
Prerequisites for admission to a college of podiatric medicine include the completion of at least
90 semester hours of undergraduate study, an acceptable grade point average, and suitable scores
on the Medical College Admission Test (MCAT). All require eight semester hours each of
biology, inorganic chemistry, organic chemistry, and physics and six hours of English. More than
90 percent of podiatric students have a bachelor's degree.
Colleges of podiatric medicine offer a four-year program whose core curriculum is similar to that
in other schools of medicine. Classroom instruction in basic sciences, including anatomy,
chemistry, pathology, and pharmacology, is given during the first two years. Third and fourth
year-students have clinical rotations in private practices, hospitals, and clinics. During these
rotations, they learn how to take general and podiatric histories, perform routine physical
examinations, interpret tests and findings, make diagnoses, and perform therapeutic procedures.
Graduates are awarded the doctor of podiatric medicine (DPM) degree.
Most graduates complete a hospital residency program after receiving a DPM. Residency
programs usually last one year. Residents receive advanced training in podiatric medicine and
surgery and serve clinical rotations in anesthesiology, internal medicine, pathology, radiology,
emergency medicine, and orthopedic and general surgery. Residencies lasting more than one
year provide more extensive training in specialty areas.
There are three recognized certifying boards for four specialty areas: The American Board of
Podiatric Surgery, the American Board of Podiatric Orthopedic and Primary Podiatric Medicine,
and the American Board of Podiatric Public Health. Certification means that the DPM meets
higher standards than those required for licensor. Each board requires advanced training,
completion of written and oral examinations, and experience as a practicing podiatrist.
People planning a career in podiatry should have scientific aptitude, manual dexterity,
interpersonal skills, and good business sense.
Podiatrists may advance to become professors at colleges of podiatric medicine, department
chiefs of hospitals, or general health administrators. They may enter a higher degree program.
JOB OUTLOOK
Employment of podiatrists is expected to grow faster than the average for all occupations through
the year 2010. More people will turn to podiatrists for foot care as the elderly population grows.
The elderly have more years of wear and tear on their feet and lower legs than younger people, so
they are prone to foot ailments.
Podiatric care is more dependent on disposable income than other medical services. Medicare
and most private health insurance programs cover acute medical and surgical foot services, as
well as diagnostic x-rays and leg braces. However, routine foot care--including the removal of
corns and calluses--is ordinarily not covered. Because disposable income is expected to rise,
more people are expected to pay for pediatric care out-of-pocket.
Establishing a new pediatric practice will be most difficult in the areas surrounding the seven
colleges of pediatric medicine and in the Northeast since podiatrists are concentrated in these
locations. Because replacement needs result mainly from retirements and deaths, they are low.
Most podiatrists continue to practice until they retire; few transfer to other occupations.
EARNINGS
According to a survey by the American Association of Colleges of Pediatric Medicine, average
net income of podiatrists is $100,287, but it varies greatly with years of experience. Podiatrists
with one to two years of experience earn $35,578 and those with 10 to 15 years of experience
earn $119,674.
Questions:
What are Podiatrists also known as?
What kind of treatment do Podiatrists do?
How does one obtain a license to practice in Podiatric Medicine?
What are the prerequisites for admission into a Podiatric Medical Training Program?
What is the job outlook for careers in Podiatry?
What is the average income for Podiatrists?
RELATED OCCUPATIONS
Workers in other occupations, who apply scientific knowledge to prevent, diagnose, and treat
disorders and injuries are chiropractors, dentists, optometrists, physicians, and veterinarians.
ADDITIONAL INFORMATION
For information on pediatric medicine as a career, contact: American Pediatric Medical
Association, 9312 Old Georgetown Rd. Bethesda, MD 20814-1621
Chiropractors
WORK DESCRIPTION
Chiropractors, also known as chiropractic doctors, diagnose and treat patients whose health
problems are associated with the body's muscular, nervous, and skeletal systems, especially the
spine. Interference with these systems is believed to impair normal functions and lower
resistance to disease. Chiropractors hold that misalignment of spinal vertebrae or irritation of the
spinal nerves can alter many important body functions by affecting the nervous system.
The chiropractic approach to health care is holistic, stressing the patient's overall well being. It
recognizes that many factors affect health, including exercise, diet, rest, environment, and
heredity. Chiropractors use natural, drugless, non-surgical health treatments, and rely on the
body's inherent recuperative abilities. They recommend lifestyle changes--in eating and sleeping
habits, for example--to their patients. When appropriate, chiropractors consult with and refer
patients to other health practitioners.
Like other health practitioners, chiropractors follow a standard routine to secure the information
needed for diagnosis and treatment. They take the patient's medical history, conduct physical,
neurological, and orthopedic examinations, and order laboratory tests. X-rays are an important
diagnostic tool because of the emphasis on the spine and its proper function. Chiropractors
employ a postural and spinal analysis unique to chiropractic diagnosis.
In cases where difficulties can be traced to involvement of musculoskeletal structures,
chiropractors manually manipulate or adjust the spinal column. Many chiropractors also use
water, light, massage, ultrasound, electric, and heat therapy and apply supports such as straps,
tapes, and braces. They counsel patients about nutrition, exercise, and stress management, but do
not prescribe drugs or perform surgery. Some chiropractors specialize in athletic injuries,
neurology, orthopedics, nutrition and internal disorders. Others specialize in taking and
interpreting x-rays and other diagnostic images.
Almost all chiropractors are solo or group practitioners who have the administrative
responsibilities of running a practice. In larger offices, chiropractors delegate these tasks to office
managers and chiropractic assistants. Chiropractors in private practice are responsible for
developing a patient base, hiring employees, and keeping records.
WORKING CONDITIONS
Chiropractors work in clean, comfortable offices. The average workweek is about 43 hours.
Chiropractors who work for themselves set their own hours, but may work evenings or weekends
to accommodate patients.
Chiropractors who take x-rays must take appropriate precautions against the dangers of repeated
exposure to radiation.
EMPLOYMENT OPPORTUNITIES
Chiropractors hold about 50,000 jobs. About 70 percent of active chiropractors are in solo
practice. The remainders are in group practice or work for other chiropractors. A small number
teach, conduct research at chiropractic colleges, or work in hospitals and HMO's.
Many chiropractors are located in small communities. There are geographic imbalances in the
distribution of chiropractors, in part because many establish practices close to colleges of
chiropractics.
TRAINING, OTHER QUALIFICATIONS, AND ADVANCEMENT
All States and the District of Columbia regulate the practice of chiropractic and grant licenses to
chiropractors that meet educational requirements and pass a State board examination.
Chiropractors can only practice in States where they are licensed. Some States have reciprocity
agreements that permit chiropractors licensed in another State to obtain a license without further
examinations.
Most State licensing boards require completion of a four-year chiropractic college course
following at least two years of undergraduate education, although a few States require a four-year
bachelors' degree. All State boards recognize academic training in chiropractic colleges
accredited by the Council on Chiropractic Education. For licensor, most State boards either
recognize all or part of the three-part test administered by the National Board of Chiropractic
Examiners. State examinations may supplement the National Board tests, depending on State
requirements.
To maintain licensor, almost all States require completion of a specified number of hours of
continuing education each year. Accredited chiropractic colleges and chiropractic associations
offer continuing education programs. Special councils within some chiropractic associations
offer programs leading to clinical specialty certification called diplomats certification, in areas
such as orthopedics, neurology, sports injuries, occupational and industrial health, nutrition,
radiology, thermography, and internal disorders.
The Council on Chiropractic Education accredits chiropractic schools in the United States. All
chiropractic colleges require applicants to have at least two years of undergraduate study,
including courses in English, the social sciences or humanities, organic and inorganic chemistry,
biology, physics, and psychology. Many applicants have a bachelor's degree, which may
eventually become the minimum entry requirement. Several chiropractic colleges offer prechiropractic study, as well as a bachelor's degree program.
During the first two years, most chiropractic colleges emphasize classroom and laboratory work
in basic science subjects such as anatomy, physiology, public health, microbiology, pathology,
and biochemistry. The last two years stress courses in skeletal manipulation and spinal
adjustments and provide clinical experience in physical and laboratory diagnosis, neurology,
orthopedics, geriatrics, physiotherapy, and nutrition. Colleges grant the degree of Doctor of
Chiropractic (D.C.).
Chiropractics require keen observation to detect physical abnormalities. It takes considerable
hand dexterity to perform manipulations, but not unusual strength or endurance. Chiropractors
should be able to work independently and handle responsibility. As in other health-related
occupations, empathy, understanding, and the desire to help others are desirable qualities for
dealing effectively with patients.
Newly licensed chiropractors have a number of options. They can set up a new practice, purchase
an established one, enter into partnership with an established practitioner, take a salaried position
with an established chiropractor to acquire the experience and the funds needed to equip and open
an office, or apply for a residency program.
JOB OUTLOOK
Demand for chiropractic is related to the ability of patients to pay, either directly or through
health insurance, and to public awareness of the profession, which is growing. The rapidly
expanding older population, with their increased likelihood of mechanical and structural
problems, will increase demand. As a result, employment of chiropractors is expected to grow
faster than the average through the year 2010.
In this occupation, replacement needs arise almost entirely from retirements and deaths.
Chiropractors generally remain in the occupation until they retire; few transfer to other
occupations.
EARNINGS
The average income for chiropractors is about $70,000, after expenses, according to the American
Chiropractic Association. In chiropractic, as in other types of independent practice, earnings are
relatively low in the beginning, and increase as the practice grows. The lowest 10 percent of
chiropractors have median net incomes of $31,000 or less, and the highest 10 percent earn
$190,000 or more. Earnings are influenced by the characteristics and qualifications of the
practitioner, and geographic location. Self-employed chiropractors must provide for their own
health insurance and retirement.
Questions:
What kinds of procedures can be performed by Chiropractors?
What are the requirements for entrance into a Chiropractic School?
What agency accredits Chiropractic Schools?
What skills to Chiropractors need to practice?
What is the job outlook for Chiropractors?
What is the average income for Chiropractors after expenses?
RELATED OCCUPATIONS
Chiropractors diagnose, treat, and work to prevent bodily disorders and injuries. So do
physicians, dentists, optometrists, podiatrists, veterinarians, occupational therapists, and physical
therapists.
ADDITIONAL INFORMATION
Contact: American Chiropractor's Association, 1110 North Glebe Rd., Suite 1000, Arlington, VA
22201