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Ecology II
RNDr. Sylva Rödlová, Ph.D
D1, 2014
Atmosphere structure
• Troposphere – almost all
atmospheric phenomenons
(clouds, rain, lightning, smog,..) –
it reflects part of sunlight back to
Earth
• Stratosphere – in upper part is
ozone layer
• Mezosphere
• Termosphere
• Exosphere
• Elements in Atmosphere:
• 78% Nitrogen, 21% Oxygen, 1%
others
Atmosphere – harmful substances, pollution
Pollution:
1. Greenhouse gases
2. Substances harmfull to ozone layer (chlorofluorocarbon, …)
3. Other harmfull substances- SO2, NO, NO2, ammonia, volatile
organic compounds (VOC), …difuse solid substances – dust
particles - PM10 (particulated matter, < 10 m), heavy metals,
polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH), .. …
4. Tropospheric ozone and other oxidants
Exhalation – pollutants in air (journalistic term)
Emission – discharge of pollutants from a source (in time
unit)
Immission – air polluting substances in atmosphere
(concentration)
Air pollution
• While ambient air quality in Europe improved in several respects
during the last decades of the 20th century, current levels of air
pollution do affect public health. They can cause respiratory diseases
and reduce life expectancy.
Three major air pollutnats with health effects:
• Particulate Matter (PM10, PM5,….)
• Ozone
• Nitrogen Dioxide
• Black triangle – Czech, German, Poland (formerly)
– S and N oxides in air created acids and caused
acidification (dead forests – Krušné hory,
lakes - Šumava) – acids of S and N
http://www.photoextract.com/cs/foto/58427.html
Atmosphere - pollution
anthropogenic sources of pollutants:
-
Thermic power plants (burning fosils marerials)
-
Transportation (motor vehicals)
-
Industrial production
-
Agriculture practices (forest burning, cattle breeding,
rice cultivation,…)
-
Local furnaces – waste burning
Natural sources of pollutants:
-
Dust particles (land without or with very scarse
vegetation )
-
Forest fires
-
Vulcanism
Mount St. Helens
Sand storm in Texas, 1935
Ozone
• Ozone is a form of oxygen having the molecular form of
O3. It is a bluish, unstable gas with a pungent odour,
found in two parts of the atmosphere: the stratosphere
and the troposphere
• The ozone layer (Strathosperical ozone): The
stratosphere contains a layer in which the
concentration of ozone is greatest, the so called ozone
layer. The layer extends from about 12 to 40 km. Unit
of measurement - Dobson unit.
• It shields the Earth from ultraviolet radiation's harmful
health effects on humans and the environment. This
layer is being depleted by human emissions of chlorineand bromine-containing compounds.
• tropospheric ozone: At ground level (in the
troposphere), ozone is considered an air pollutant that
can seriously affect the human respiratory system. It is
a chemical oxidant and a major component of
photochemical smog.
Ozone layer
Ozone in high atmospheric layers, Northern
hemisphere, 30.3.2011, Envisat satellite
Average UV radiation /year in CR, 1964 –
2008
http://zpravy.idnes.cz/rekordni-mnozstvi-uv-zareni-v-cesku-d7n-/domaci.aspx?c=A120809_125915_domaci_hv
http://technet.idnes.cz/satelit-zmeril-rekordni-ubytek-ozonu-nad-arktidou-fw8-/veda.aspx?c=A110405_113547_veda_nyv
Ozone – measurements, health risks
Stratosférický ozón
-
90% of ozone is between 15 an 40 km above the Earth, where th UV-B radiatiton is
absorbed (2 – 8 ppm – parts per milion)
Strathospheric ozone - O3 is measured in Dobson units
(DU) 100 DU = sloupec čistého ozónu o výšce 1 mm (celk. asi 3,5mm)
- Ozone decrease in stratosphere by 1 % = increase of UV B radiation
- DNA demage, skin and eyes cancer, decrease of immunity at people and other
organisms
Troposheric ozone - „ozone hole“ = depletion of ozone layer, substances with Br
and Cl – decompozition of ozone (CFC – chloro-fluoro carbons)
-
10 % of ozone in 1,5 m layer above ground,
strong oxidizing agent, its concentration
increases (thanks to NOx from automobile
transportation
-
Health risks – respiratory difficulty, mucous
membrane and eyes illneses, …
Endogenous ozone – in endothermic white blood
cells
Ozone dissociation
chloro - and fluoro- derivatives of hydrocarbons („freons“) :
Cl + O3 ……… ClO + O2 ozone dissociation most easy at
O + ClO ……… Cl + O2 low temperatures, therefore
O + O3 ……… 2 O2
dozone depletiotion above Poles
Ozone in medicine
Atopic dermatitis therapy, acne therapy, other dermal problems therapy
Ozonotherapy - dentistry
Water desinfection
Creating and disociating of ozone in a natural way
O2 …UV 180 – 240 nm… O + O
photochemical reaction
O2 + O ….  O3……….UV 200 – 300 nm ….. O2 + O
Type
UV - A
UV - B
UV - C
UV radiation - 5% sun radiation
wavelength
Absorption
(nm)
harmfulness
in
atmosphere
320 - 400
little – skin
little
aging
280 - 320
lethal
A lot
180 - 280
lethat
A lot
CFCs = Chloro-fluoro-Carbons is ODS – ozone depleting substance
Antarctic and Arctic Ozone Holes
• Each year since the late 1970s, much of the
stratospheric ozone above Antarctica has disappeared
during September, creating what is popularly called the
ozone hole.
• The hole is caused by chlorine and bromine pollution
in the atmosphere. It normally peaks in mid-October
and usually closes in November, when ozone-rich air
from the north moves over Antarctica.
• In 1993, ozone dipped to 91 Dobson units (DU), the
record low. In 1995, it was 98 DU.
• Increase in UV – B by 2 % = increase of cancer health
risk by 3-6 %
Total Ozone Mapping Spectrometer
Ozone
Montreal Protocol on Substances That Deplete the Ozone
Layer
• The nations of the world have joined in the Montreal
Protocol on Substances That Deplete the Ozone Layer to
phase out the production of chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs)
and halons, the major sources of ozone-depleting halogen
compounds in the stratosphere.
Photochemical, oxidative, summer, dry smog
Los Angeles smog
• When nitrogen oxides and hydrocarbons (in particular, unsaturated hydrocarbons)
coexist in the atmosphere, if they receive ultraviolet light via the irradiation of
sunlight, photochemical reaction occurs.
• The photochemical reaction generates: oxidants including ozone (important
indicator, secondary pollutant – no own source, precursors =VOC + UV),
peroxyacetyl nitrate (PAN), nitrogen dioxide and peroxide; reduction materials such
as formaldehyde and acrolein; in aerosol. In addition, when there is sulfur dioxide
in the air, sulfuric acid mist is generated.
• Short-term exposure to ozone peaks can temporarily affect the lungs, the
respiratory tract, and the eyes. It can also increase the susceptibility to inhaled
allergens. Long-term exposure to relatively
low concentrations of ozone can reduce
lung function
• In EU 6 from 10 citizens living in cities
• Lee (no wind) behind big cities and industrial
zones
• Mountain stations – sun radiation increases
with altitude
Photochemical smog genensis
NO2 + uv --> NO + O
O + O2 --> O3
London smog – winter smog
• Smog = smoke and fog. Classic smog results
from large amounts of coal burning in an area
and is caused by a mixture of smoke and
sulfur dioxide (fosil fuels burning). Europe anthropogenic
sources>natural sources of SO2. Globaly - conversely
Now – mostly SPM (suspended
particulate matter) - soot, CO, NO2, various organic
compounds (benzo-a-pyren), heavy metals.
90 % respirable
Chemical composition variable
• The Great Smog, also referred to as the Big Smoke, befell London
starting on 5.12.1952, and lasted until 9.12.1952. This catastrophe
caused the death of 4 – 12 thousands. Deaths in most cases during
the Great Smog were due to respiratory tract infections from hypoxia
(low level of oxygenation of blood) due to mechanical obstruction of
the air passages by pus arising from lung infections caused by the
smog. The lung infections were mainly bronchopneumonia or acute
purulent bronchitis.
SO2 emision in CR, 1990 - 2004
SO2 Emisions
2010 limit (Götoborg protocol
2010 limit (2001/81/EC Directive)
Thousands
of tons
Highest 24 h concentration of small dust particles
concentration
Climate change
• It is very likely that, overall, human
activities since 1750 have had a global
warming effect on the Earth.
• The Earth’s climate is influenced by many
factors, mainly by the amount of energy
coming from the sun, but also by factors
such as the amount of greenhouse gases
and aerosols in the atmosphere, and the
properties of the Earth’s surface, which
determine how much of this solar energy is
retained or reflected back to space.
Sahara – 8 000 years ago
and now
Climate change
• Greenhouse gases such as carbon
dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4) and
nitrous oxide (N2O) have
significantly increased since the
beginning of the industrial
revolution. This is mainly due to
human activities, such as the
burning of fossil fuels, land use
change, and intensive agriculture.
Greenhouses in Alméria (Spain) –
producing of tomatoes, cucumbers
Climate change – Greenhouse effect
Water vapour, carbon-dioxide and
methane form a natural blanket of
air around the Earth. However, the
burning of fossil fuels and
deforestation has led to a massive
increase in the amount of carbondioxide released into the
atmosphere. We are also releasing
larger quantities of other
greenhouse gases, such as methane
and nitrous oxide.
The surface of the earth is
heated by the sun. As it warms
up, it reflects heat back into the
atmosphere.
About 70% of the sun's energy is radiated
back into space. But some of the infrared
radiation is trapped by greenhouse gases,
which warm the atmosphere, and reflect
heat back down to Earth.
As a result of the greenhouse effect, the
Earth is kept warm enough to make life
possible. But some scientists say that
increased emissions of greenhouse gases
are disturbing the balance of this complex
system, causing global warming. In the last
100 years, the average global temperature
has increased by about 0.4 to 0.8° C.
Greenhouse gases
-
water steam…………. 62 %
- CO2………… 22 % - breathing, organic substances
degradation, volcanos , incineration
- Trophospherical ozone … .7 %
- N2O ……..……. 4% - fossil fuels and biomass burning,
fertilizing
- Methane ……………… .. 2,5 % - swanp gas, volcanos,
cattle breeding, gas and coal mining, dumping, rice
cultivation
- Other gases…..……..2,5 %
Climate change – Greenhouse Gases Emissions
Expressed in giga
tonnes of CO2
equivalent per year
which includes
different
greenhouse gases
scaled using global
warming potentials.
(Note: 1 Giga tonne = 1 000
000 000 tonnes)
Greenhouse gases - emision
ppm (parts per million) - amount of CO2 molecules per 1
million molecules of dry air.
Year oscillation = different absorbtion of CO2 by plants on
northern and southern hemisphere (more dryland on the
north hemisphere). Summer = decreasing of CO2 on
northern hemisphere.
: http://globalchange.gov/publications/.../us-impacts (U.S. Global Change
Research Program)
http://www.esrl.noaa.gov/gmd/ccgg/trends/
Greenhouse gases - emision in CR
Energetics – mobile
sources – 13%
Greenhouse gases emision - trend
In % , 100 % = 1990
Energetics – stationary sources
Agriculture
Mobile sources
Indrustry
Waste
Energetics
68 %
Industry – 9 %
Agriculture – 5 %
Greenhouse gases emisions
trends in CR in 1990 – 2007
in %
Energetics – stationary sources
Energetics – fugutive sources
Agriculture
Mobile sources
Indrustry
Waste
Climate change
1. Temperature
2. Sea level
3. Snow cover
From 1850 to 2000
Greenhouse gases:
-Water steam – 62%
-CO2 – 22%
-Trophospherical ozone = 7%
-CO – 4%
- NH4 – 2,5%
- Others - 2,5 %
Climate change - problems
• Sea level rising – people are loosing
their homes - migration
• More rain in rain forrests and higher
latitudes – risk of floods
• Less rain in middle latitudes and low
semideserts – lack of water
Malé, capital of
Maledives
Climate change - problems
• Continental and mountain
glaciers melting
• Animals are loosing their
habitats – higher extinction
and new habitats colonization
Glacier Rongbuk (near Everest in 1921 and 2008)
Climate change - problems
• More diseases and deaths caused by extreme
hot, floods, droughts, fire....
• Changes in insect habitats and thus occurence
of some diseases (malaria, tropical fevers,...)
Climate change – risk of conflicts
lk
Decrease of water
resources due to climate
change
Increase of floods, storms,
disasters
Decrease of crop due to
climate change
Migration caused by
climate change
epicentre
http://grist.org/news/the-16-scariest-maps-from-the-e-u-s-massive-new-climate-change-report/
http://www.natur.de/de/10/Die-fuenf-furchterregendsten-Karten,1,0,1104.html
SOIL
- - Surface of land = 170 mil km2 … 29 % of surface of Earth
- Yet natural nondisturbed ecosystems (also hard-accessible)
… 58 mil km2
- Other uninhabited areas… 40 mil km2 (mountains, glaciers,
tundra,….)
- Built-up surface …5 mil km2 (in CR loss every year - 100 km2
– by new built-up areas and forestation)
- Arable land – nowadays - 16 mil km2) …cca 10 % of dry
land
- Meadows and Pastures… 30 mil km2
- Forests 30 mil km2
- Newly salinizated soil annually : 1,5 bil. ha of the best soils.
Soil-creating processes
Soil is creating by soil-creating processes (weathering of
rocks, influence of organisms and physical and chemical
factors).
Characteristic structure, that could be seen in digged soil pit =
soil profile. Characteristic for every soil type (horizons,
depth,..)
Man destroyed the same amout of soil in the history he works
with nowadays. (decline of some civilization – in
Mediterranean, middle East, middle America,…)
-Last century – loss of 10 mil km2 cultivated soil
- 1 cm of topsoil takes up to 200 years to form
Soil
Soil – nonrenewable source
Threats to Soil:
-Erosion
-Desertification
-Pollution – salinization, chemical substances
-Deforestation
-Soil firming
•
•
•
•
1 Humus
2 Arable soil
3 Subsoil
4 Fragments of
stale rock
• 5 Bedrock
Loss of soil in large surfaces is nonreturnable (Syria)
Erosion
loss of upper layer of soil caused by deforestation or bad agriculture
habits (trees stabilize this layer) and rain or wind.
Some types of soil are more endangered (loess).
Bad agriculture habits – slope fields, large fields withour ridges, some
crops (corn, potatoes, sunflower, hop, grapes,…)
75 bil. tons of soil annually
38 % Asia
28 % Africa
16 % N. America + Europe
14 % S. America
4 % Australia
Loess erosion in slopes, China
Intensive agriculture in
extreme slopes, Virunga,
Rwanda
Desertification
• Desertification is the persistent degradation of dryland ecosystems
by variations in climate and human activities. Desertification is
caused by a combination of social, political, economic, and natural
factors which vary from region to region (deforestation, excessive
pasture, unsuitable agriculture praxis,….)
• It threatens the livelihoods of some of the poorest and most
vulnerable populations on the planet – 1/6 of world´s population!
Desertification is largely caused by unsustainable use of scarce
resources.
• Some 10 to 20% of drylands are already degraded, and ongoing
desertification threatens the world’s poorest populations and the
prospects of poverty reduction. Desertification is one of the greatest
environmental challenges today and a major barrier to meeting basic
human needs in drylands
Goats on argan oil tree in Maroko
Sahara – Lybia, wadi Matendush
foto autoři
Desertification
Progressive enlarging of desert and lossiong of soil
Steps against desertification
The same place in Burkina Faso in
1986 (in photo)
-Better water using
-Afforestation = soil protection
-Stone lines building
-Barrier building (sand dunes stabilization)
-Increasing the value of soil by nature fertilizer, composting
(humus layer enlarging)
- Soil property assessment
Present – day drylands and their cathegories
Salinization
Destruction of soil caused by salts (natural, artificial)
Salts are brought to soil by water (evaporates, not enough to take the soils
away)
Usually irrigated or arid areas
Overexploiting of water sources
Makes cultivation impossible
Salinization: accumulation of soluble salts: NaCl, CaCl2, MgSO4,
Ca(HCO3)2 in soil profile. Unsuitable irrigation and unsuitable (no)
drainage system.
World´s forests , biomes
Map of bioms
Map of bioms
Biomes are climatically and geographically defined as similar climatic conditions on the Earth, such as
communities of plants, animals , and soil organisms, and are often referred to as ecosystems.
Some parts of the earth have more or less the same kind of abiotic and biotic factors spread over a large
area, creating a typical ecosystem over that area. (ecosystem – coral reef, but also river)
Major ecosystems are termed as biomes – in some english literature
Biosphere - World´s forests
Carbon is removed from the atmosphere (photosynthesis) and absorbed in wood, leaves
and soil (after decomposition) - world’s forest ecosystems are estimated to store more
carbon than the entire atmosphere.
Tropical rain forests - ½ of known animal species, 2/3 of all known plant species, 40%
of predators, 80% of insect species on 6% of world´s surface
World´s forests :
- provide raw materials
- maintain biodiversity
- protect soil and water
resources
- play a role in climate
change mitigation
- represent home for many
nations
- other functions, that we
don´t know about (yet)
Deforestation
- Forests cover
a third of our planet's dry land.
-Forests are heavily exploited (they are used more than they renew), but important
efforts are being made to use and manage them more sustainably (somewhere,
utilization for sustinability, international programmes). Reality – labeling, lobby…
- but 60 000 km2 (an area roughly the size of Ireland) continue to be lost or modified
by logging or other human interventions each year. Mainly tropical rain forrests are
deforested.
Deforestation in Borneo
Large scale soy-fields in the southern Amazon
Deforestation
Main reasons for deforestation:
- Cattle breeding
- Wood (timber wood, wood as a fuel, wood as a raw
material,…)
- Mining of mineral resources
- Agriculture displacement (plantation cultivation – soya,
coffee, cocoa, bananas, pineapples,….)
- Large area projects – new highways building, artificial lake
constructing (hydropower station),….
Tropical products:
- Rubber, various vegetal oils, latex, foodstuff – bananas, rice, lemons,
nuts, chocolate, materials for medicinal drugs,…..
Oil palm plantation
Buldozers near forest, Gabon
Cattle pasture, former rainforest, Amazon
Deforestation consequences
Price and importance of tropical rain forests can´t be measured
by elementary economic point of view (it is „store“ of various
species, important in global and local climate maintanance, …..)
Global warming
-20% of man-made CO2 comes from forests burning
Biodeiversity loss
- Rain forest destroying = threat to 1 animal and 1 plant specie /
day
Ecological cycle changing
- regulation of water cycle on local scale = climate condition
changing – droughts, floods, erosion, degradation…..
Decrease of natural nations living in forests
- 140 mil. of people in direct threat (Amazonian natives, middle
America natives, Pygmies of central Africa, Penaks in Borneo,
Bataks in Philipines, others…), marginalization of human rights