Download Vocab from Period 7 - AP Human Geography

Unit IV. Political Organization of Space—Basic Vocabulary and Concepts
Annexation- Annexation is the legal merging of some territory into another body. A city might annex
unincorporated areas or a country might annex other disputed territories. Sometimes also used to refer to
mergers of countries. In international relations the term annexation is usually applied when the emphasis is
placed on the fact that territorial possession is achieved by force and unilaterally rather than through
treaties or negotiations.
en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Annexation
Antarctica- Earth's southernmost continent, underlying the South Pole. It is situated in the
Antarctica region of the southern hemisphere, almost entirely south of the Antarctic Circle, and
is surrounded by the Southern Ocean. At 14.0 million km² (5.4 million sq mi), it is the fifth-largest
continent in area after Asia, Africa, North America, and South America. About 98% of Antarctica
is covered by ice, which averages at least 1.6 kilometres (1.0 mi) in thickness; No one owns it
Apartheid- Apartheid (International Phonetic Alphabet or in English and in Afrikaans) is the policy and
the system of laws implemented and continued by "White" minority governments in South Africa from
1948 to 1990; and by extension any legally sanctioned system of racial segregation. The first recorded use
of the word, which means "separateness" in Afrikaans and Dutch, was in 1917 during a speech by Jan
Smuts, who became Prime Minister of South Africa in 1919.
en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apartheid
Balkanization- Balkanization is a geopolitical term originally used to describe the process of
fragmentation or division of a region into smaller regions that are often hostile or non-cooperative with
each other. The term has arisen from the conflicts in the 20th century Balkans. The first Balkanization was
embodied in the Balkan Wars, and the term was further reaffirmed in the Yugoslav
wars.en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Balkanization
Border landscape- There are two types, exclusionary and inclusionary. Exclusionary is meant to keep
people out, such as the border between the U.S. and Mexico. Inclusionary is meant to facilitate trade and
movement, such as the U.S.-Canada border
Boundary- Vertical planes between states that cuts through rocks below, and the airspace above the
surface.
Boundary, disputesDefinitional- Disputes that arise from the legal language of the treaty definition of the
boundary itself; one of the countries involved will usually sue another country in the International
Court of Justice (World Court).
Locational- Disputes that arise when the definition of the border is not questioned but the
intention of the border is, as when the border has shifted (ex., a river shifts its course, changing the
landscape).
Operational- Disputes that arise from two abutting or adjacent countries disagreeing about a
major functionality of the border, as when the United States and Mexico disagree over the issue of
illegal immigration into the United States.
Allocational- Disputes that usually involve conflicting claims to the natural resources of a
region and the drilling or mining of it.
Boundary, origin-
Antecedent- a boundary that existed before the cultural landscape emerged and stayed in place
while people moved in to occupy the surrounding area...
Subsequent- a boundary that developed with the evolution of the cultural landscape and is
adjusted as the cultural landscape changes...
Superimposed- A political boundary that ignores the existing cultural organization of the
landscape, a superimposed boundary is usually placed by a higher authority, such as a superpower
or a delegation of superpowers, to ease tension and satisfy the demands of the superpower
alliances rather than the needs of the country in which the boundary is dividing the population. A
boundary that is imposed on the cultural landscape which ignores pre-existing cultural patterns
(typically a colonial boundary)...
Relic- they no longer exist as international boundaries.
Boundary, processDefinition- The phase in which the exact location of a boundary is legally described and
negotiated
Delimitation- in which the exact location of a boundary is legally described and negotiated
Demarcation- The process of showing the physical representation of a boundary on the
landscape; Phase in which the boundary is visibly marked on the landscape by a fence, line, sign,
wall or other means
Boundary, typeNatural/physical- Boundaries created with naturally occurring features.
Ethnographic/cultural- Boundaries that are outlined by cultural factors such as language,
religion, or ethic groups.
Geometric- Boundaries created with latitude and longitude features or with other straight lines.
Buffer state- A buffer state is a country lying between two rival or potentially hostile greater powers,
which by its sheer existence is thought to prevent conflict between them. Buffer states when authentically
independent typically pursue a neutralist foreign policy, which distinguishes them from satellite states. The
conception of buffer states is part of the theory of balance of power that entered European strategic and
diplomatic thinking in the 17th century. ...
en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buffer_state; A country that lies between two states in conflict but which remains
neutral.
Capital- Principle city in a state or country. The best place to locate a capital is at the center of a country,
so it is a somewhat equal distance from all parts of the country. Example: Paris, France
Centrifugal- number tending to move away from a center; "centrifugal force"
number tending away from centralization, as of authority; "the division of Europe into warring blocs
produces ever-increasing centrifugal stress"
Centripetal- number tending to move toward a center; "centripetal force" number tending to unify
City-state- A city-state is a region controlled exclusively by a city. City-states were common in the
ancient period. A city state was sovereign, although many cities were joined in formal or informal leagues
under a high king. Many historical empires or leagues were formed by the right of conquest, (Examples:
Mycenae; Rome,) but many were formed under peaceful alliances or mutual protection (Examples:
Hanseatic League; Peloponnesian League.)
en.wikipedia.org/wiki/City-state; A state that is comprised of a large urban area or city (ex., Singapore).
Colonialism- The attempt by a country to establish settlements and impose political and economic
control and principles. For example, it was a prevalent occurrence in the 17th through 20th century for
countries in Europe to take areas around the world and make them into colonies; The practice of
establishing political dominance
over another people for economic, political, and territorial gain.
Commonwealth- Territories that have established a mutual agreement for the benefit of both parties.
Confederation- association of sovereign states by a treaty or agreement. It deals with issues such as
defense, foreign affairs, trade, and a common currency.
Conference of Berlin (1884)- Regulated trade and colonization in Africa. It formalized the scramble
to gain colonies in Africa and set up boundaries for each country’s colonies.
Core/periphery- are based on the observation that within many spatial systems sharp territorial
contrasts exist in wealth, economic advancement, and growth-"development"- between economic
heartlands and outlying subordinate zones. Examples: U.S. can be classified as a core country whereas
India can be classified as a periphery country and Brazil as a semi-periphery country.
Coup d'etat- A group revolt against a country's current ruling power.
Customs Union One in which members remove all barriers to trade among themselves and adopt a
common set of external barriers, thereby eliminating the need for customs inspection at internal borders. A
customs union is a free trade zone with a Common External Tariff. Purposes for establishing a customs
union normally include increasing economic efficiency and establishing closer political and cultural ties
between the member countries.
Decolonization- A process where a colonized people, by developing a consciousness based on the
remnants of the traditional culture, redefine themselves as peoples and reassert the distinct qualities that
historically guided their existence. Decolonization is the process by which a colony gains independence
from a colonial power, a process opposite to colonization. Decolonization may involve peaceful negotiation
and/or violent revolt by the native population; For example, decolonization is the movement of
American/European colonies gaining independence. Some were peaceful struggles while others became
violent.
Devolution- Devolution is the both the decentralization of a government from a unitary to a federal
system or a fracturing of a government like Balkanization. The release of power by the central or federal
government to the different regions of the country. Example: Russia went through devolution after the fall
of Communism in 1991.
Domino theory- The domino theory was the idea that if one key nation in a region came under the
control of communists, others would follow like toppling dominoes. The theory was used by many United
States leaders during the Cold War to justify U.S. intervention in the Vietnam War. The "domino theory"
was applied by President Dwight D. Eisenhower and his top advisers in 1954 to describe the prospects of
'communist expansion' in Asia if Indochina were to fall.'
en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Domino_theory; Domino theory is the idea that if one land in a region came under
the influence of Communists, then more would follow in a domino effect. The domino theory was used by
successive United States administrations during the Cold War, to justify American intervention around the
world.
EEZ (Exclusive Economic Zone)- In international maritime law, an Exclusive Economic Zone
(EEZ) is a seazone extending from a state's coast over which the state has special rights over the
exploration and use of marine resources. Generally a state's EEZ extends 200 nautical miles (370.4
kilometers) out from its coast, except where resulting points would be closer to another country. An
Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) is a sea zone over which a state has special rights over the exploration
and use of marine resources. The country that controls the EEZ has rights to the fishing, whaling, etc., as
well as the raw material resources.
Electoral regions- Electoral regions are the different voting districts that make up local, state, and
national regions.
Enclave/exclave- An enclave is a country or part of a country mostly surrounded by the territory of
another country or wholly lying within the boundaries of another country (Lesotho); a territory belonging to
a state but separated from that state by another state. An exclave is a country which is geographically
separated from the main part by surrounding alien territory (Azerbaijan).
Ethnic conflict- An ethnic conflict is a war between ethnic groups often as a result of ethnic
nationalism or fight over natural resources. Ethnic conflict often includes genocide. It can also be caused by
boundary disputes. Example: The ethnic conflicts in Africa (Darfur, Sudan)
Ethnocentrism- The idea that ones own culture is the point of reference for everything else.
European Union- The European Union or EU is, in part, an inter-governmental and supra-national
organisation, made up of European countries, which currently has 25 member states. The European Union-previously known as the European Community, created after World War II to unite the nations of Europe
economically to avoid another war --is an institutional framework of 15 countries (25 from May 2004),
sharing the common institutions and policies, for the construction of a united Europe. An example of a
customs union (can add that to this). The European Union (EU) is a supranational and intergovernmental
union of 27 democratic member states of Europe. The EU's activities cover most areas of public policy,
from economic policy to foreign affairs, defense, agriculture and trade. The European Union is the largest
political and economic entity on the European continent, with around 500 million people and an estimated
GDP of US$13.4 trillion.
Federal- Federalism is a political philosophy in which a group or body of members are bound together
with a governing representative head. Federalism is the system in which the power to govern is shared
between the national & state or provincial governments. This system stresses giving local areas more
control and is usually found in multi-national countries as a way to deal with cultural differences.
Forward capital- A forward capital is a symbolically relocated capital city usually because of either
economic or strategic reasons. A forward capital is sometimes used to integrate outlying parts of a country
into the state. An example would be Brasília. A capital city that is put in a particular location to show that
the home country intends to use that land in the future, although it is not currently in use.
Free Trade Zone- A free trade zone or export processing zone is a part or parts of a country where
tariffs and quotas are eliminated and bureaucratic requirements lowered to attract companies raise the
incentives of doing business there. en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Free_trade_zone Example: the NAFTA
established a free trade zone throughout Canada, USA, and Mexico.
Frontier- A frontier is a zone where no state exercises complete political control. It is usually
uninhabited or sparsely inhabited. It separates countries where a boundary cannot be found. A current
example can be found between Saudi Arabia and Yemen.
Geopolitics- Geopolitics analyses politics, history and social science with reference to geography. The
term was coined by Rudolf Kjellén, a Swedish political geographer, at the end of the 19th century. Kjellén
was inspired by the German geographer Friedrich Ratzel the study of the relationships between a nation
and the rest of the world - each nation has a sphere of influence it exerts over surrounding nations in areas
such as trade, economic aid, military intervention etc. Geopolitics is the study that analyzes geography,
history and social science with reference to international politics. It examines the political and strategic
significance of geography, where geography is defined in terms of the location, size, and resources of
places. A concept of political geography that is concerned with the study of human systems, which strive
to organize land spatially to fit the needs of humans.
Gerrymandering- Redistricting for advantage, or the practice of dividing areas into electoral districts
to give one political party an electoral majority in a large number of districts while concentrating the voting
strength of the opposition in as few districts as possible. The illegal redrawing of political boundaries
for political gain by a political power.
Global commons- Global commons is that which no one person or state may own or control and which
is central to life. A global common contains an infinite potential with regard to the understanding and
advancement of the biology and society of all life. (Forests, oceans, land mass and cultural identity). Areas
that no country is allowed to own or claim as its territory.
Heartland/rimland- A geopolitical hypthesis, proposed by British geographer Halford Mackinder
during the first two decades of the twentieth century, that any political power based in the heart of Eurasia
could gain sufficient strength to eventually dominate the world. Mackinder further proposed that since
Eastern Europe controlled access to the Eurasian interior, its ruler would command the vast “heartland” to
the east.
Immigrant states- An immigrant state is a type of receiving state which is the target of many
immigrants. Immigrant states are popular because of their economy, political freedom, and opportunity.
One example would be the USA. A state that is comprised primarily of immigrants.
International organization- an organization with an international membership, scope, or
presence. Organizations are generally classified into two main categories:


International nongovernmental organizations (INGOs) - non-governmental
organizations (NGOs) that operate internationally. These may be either:
o International non-profit organizations. Examples include the World Organization
of the Scout Movement, International Committee of the Red Cross and
Médecins Sans Frontières.
o International corporations, referred to as multinational corporations. Examples
include The Coca-Cola Company and Toyota.
Intergovernmental organizations (IGOs), the type of organization most closely associated
with the term "international organization." These are organizations that are made up primarily of
sovereign states (referred to as member states).
Examples include the United
Nations, European Union, and World Trade Organization).
Iron Curtain- The division of the Western European states, which employed the traditions of
democracy and capitalism, from the Eastern European states, which employed the traditions of totalitarian
leadership and communism.
Irredentism- irredentism is claiming a right to territories belonging to another state on the grounds of
common ethnicity and/or prior historical possession, actual or alleged. The word was coined in Italy from
the phrase Italia irredenta ("unredeemed Italy"). This originally referred to Austro-Hungarian rule over
mostly or partly Italian-inhabited territories; The attempt by one country to infuse ideas of coups or
separatist movements into another country.
Israel/Palestine - class notes - same with Sudan, Iraq and Euro/US migration and the rise of India
and China; ongoing dispute between Israelis and the Palestinians. It forms part of the wider Arab–
Israeli conflict. Though the State of Israel was established in 1948, the term is usually used also in
reference to the earlier phases of the same conflict, between Zionist pioneers and the Arab population living
in Palestine under Ottoman or British rule. Many attempts have been made to broker a two-state
solution, which would entail the creation of an independent Palestinian state alongside an independent
Jewish state (until 1948) or next to the State of Israel (after Israel's establishment in 1948). At present, a
considerable majority of both Israelis and Palestinians, according to a number of polls, prefer the two-state
solution over any other solution as a means of resolving the conflict. Most Palestinians view the West
Bank and Gaza Strip as constituting the area of their future state, which is a view also accepted by most
Israelis. A handful of academics advocate a one-state solution, whereby all of Israel, the Gaza Strip, and
West Bank would become a bi-national state with equal rights for all. However, there are significant areas
of disagreement over the shape of any final agreement and also regarding the level of credibility each side
sees in the other in upholding basic commitments.
Landlocked- Enclosed by land, or nearly enclosed, as a harbor; Example: Lesotho in South Africa
Law of the Sea- Admiralty law (usually referred to as simply admiralty and also referred to as maritime
law) is a distinct body of law which governs maritime questions and offenses. Under conventions of
international law, the flag flown by a ship generally determines the source of law to be applied in admiralty
cases, regardless of which court has personal jurisdiction over the parties. The term United Nations
Convention on Law of the Sea (UNCLOS, also called simply the Law of the Sea or LOS) refers to several
United Nations events and one international treaty.
Lebanon- a country in Western Asia, on the eastern shore of the Mediterranean Sea. It is bordered
by Syria to the north and east, and Israel to the south. Due to its sectarian diversity, Lebanon evolved in
1942 a unique political system, known as confessionalism, based on a community-based powersharing mechanism.[5] It was created when the ruling French mandatory powers expanded the borders of
the former autonomous Otoman Mount Lebanon district that was mostly populated by Maronite
Catholics and Druze. Lebanon is the historic home of the Phoenicians, a maritime culture which
flourished for more than 3,000 years (3700-450 BC). Following the collapse of the Ottoman Empire
after World War I, the five provinces that comprise present-day Lebanon were mandated to France.
The country gained independence in 1943, and French troops withdrew in 1946.
Mackinder, Halford J.- Sir Halford John Mackinder was a British geographer who wrote a paper in
1904 called "The Geographical Pivot of History." Mackinder's paper suggested that the control of Eastern
Europe was vital to control of the world. He formulated his hypothesis as: Who rules East Europe
commands the Heartland Who rules the Heartland commands the World-Island Who rules the World-Island
commands the world Mackinder's Heartland (also known as the Pivot Area) is the core area of Eurasia, and
the World-Island is all of Eurasia (both Europe and Asia).
Manifest destiny- The belief that the U.S. government, with divine intervention, was destined to rule
the land extending from the Atlantic Ocean to the Pacific Ocean.
Median-line principle- The main tool recommended for delimitation of maritime boundaries between
states in the UNCLOS is the so-called “median line.” Article 15 of Part II: Territorial Sea and Contiguous
Zone states that: “Where the coasts of two States are opposite or adjacent to each other, neither of the two
States is entitled, failing agreement between them to the contrary, to extend its territorial sea beyond the
median line every point of which is equidistant from the nearest points on the baselines from which the
breadth of the territorial seas of each of the two States is measured. The above provision does not apply,
however, where it is necessary by reason of historic title or other special circumstances to delimit the
territorial seas of the two States in a way which is at variance therewith.” The text stipulates that the
median line should be the guiding principle in dispute resolution, however it also provides for the
possibility of “special circumstances,” and this is precisely the problem in the case of the dispute between
Russia and Norway.
Microstate- A microstate is a very small internationally recognized sovereign state. Andorra, Monaco,
San Marino, Liechtenstein, Nauru, Palau, Tuvalu, Saint Kitts and Nevis and the Holy See (Vatican) are all
microstates. Size in the context of microstates can refer to either physical extent, or population - but usually
to both. A state or territory that is small in both size and population.
Ministate- microstate; independent country that is very small in area and population; Example:
Switzerland
Nation- A people who share common customs, origins, history, and frequently language; a nationality. A
politically organized body of people under a single government; Ex. French people
National iconography- the branch of art history which studies the identification, description, and the
interpretation of the content of images.
Nation-state- refers properly to the parallel occurrence of a state and a nation. An independent country
dominated by a relatively homogeneous culture group; Example: France, Germany
Nunavut- The territory created in the Canadian North on April 1, 1999 when the former Northwest
Territories was divided in two. Nunavut means “our land” in Inuktitut language. Inuit, whose ancestors
inhabited these lands for thousands of years, make up 85 percent of the population of Nunavut.
Plural society- A society characterized by two g or more ethnicities living in the same area but each
keeping its own identity and characteristics. Example: Canada—Canadians and French.
Raison d’être- A basic, essential purpose; a reason to exist: “Professor Naylor argues that in the nuclear
age, infantry forces have lost their raison d’être.” From French, meaning “reason for being.” Translated
from the French "the reason for being." Many people feel nationalistic, placing great importance on the
creation and protection of their state, and are willing to die for their state s independence.
Reapportionment- The Process by which seats in the House of Representatives are reassigned among
the States to reflect population changes following the decennial census.
Regionalism- In national politics (or low politics), regionalisation is a process of dividing a political
entity — typically a country — into smaller regions, and transferring power from the central government to
the regions. Opposite process is called unitarisation.
Religious conflict- result of religious extremism which is religious fundamentalism (or a religious
movement who objectives are to return to the foundations of the faith and to influence state policy) carried
to the point of violence. With violence comes conflict. Example: Hindu vs. Muslim Riots/Conflicts in
India.
Reunification- the act of coming together again; for example, the process that occured in the 1990's
when East and West Germany became one country;
Satellite state- The term satellite state, by analogy to stellar objects orbiting a larger object, such as
planets revolving around the sun, refers to a country that is formally sovereign but that is in fact dominated
by a larger hegemonic power. In extreme cases, satellite countries may be virtual colonies with little
political, economic or military independence.
Self-determination- Self-determination is a principle in international law that a people ought to be
able to determine their own governmental forms and structure free from outside influence. Ex. America
practices self-determination.
Shatterbelt- an area of instability between regions with opposing political and cultural values
Sovereignty- Sovereignty is the exclusive right to exercise supreme authority over a geographic region,
government free from external control. A government has sovereignty if it has authority over all that occurs
within the state and its authority is not restricted by any authority outside it. For example: Canada is NOT
sovereign because it does not control all of its states, especially the French Quebec.
State- a politically organized territory that is administered by a sovereign government and is recognized
by a significant portion of the international community. A state has a defined territory, a permanent
population, a government, and is recognized by other states. Example: The United States of America
Stateless ethnic groups- an ethnic group that does not have a state.
Stateless nation- a nation that does not have a state. Ex. Palestine
Suffrage- the right to vote; the power to vote on issues regarding a person's or people’s welfare. For
example, New Zealand was the first to give women the right to vote. However when this happened in
1893, New Zealand was a mostly self-governing colony of Britain
Supranationalism- Supranationalism is a method of decision-making in international organizations,
where power is held by independent appointed officials or by representatives elected by the legislatures or
people of the member states. Member-state governments still have power, but they must share this power
with other actors. Furthermore, decisions are made by majority votes, hence it is possible for a memberstate to be forced by the other member-states to implement a decision against its will.
Territorial disputes- Any dispute over land ownership
Territorial morphology- a State's physical shape.
Compact- a state that possesses a roughly circular, oval, or rectangular territory in which the
distance from the geometric center is relatively equal in all directions; examples include Burundi,
Kenya, Rwanda, and Uganda.
Fragmented- A state that is not contiguous whole but rather separated parts. An example is
Indonesia.
Elongated- A state whose territory is long and narrow in shape. An example is Chile.
Prorupt- A country that has a protrusion extending out from its main base; A type of territorial
shape that exhibits a narrow, elongated land extension leading away from the main body of the
territory; example is the Caprivi Strip.
Perforated- A state whose territory completely surrounds that of another state. An example is
Lesotho.
Territoriality- the instinctive compulsion to gain and defend a fixed and exclusive area maintained by
an individual or group; a country’s or more local community’s sense of property and attachment toward its
territory, as expressed by its determination to keep it inviolable and strongly defended. Human territoriality
is a term associated with the work of Robert Sack that describes the efforts of human societies to influence
events and achieve social goals by exerting and attempting to enforce control over specific geographical
areas.
Theocracy- A state whose government is under the control of a ruler who is deemed to be divinely
guided, or of a group of religious leaders, as (for example) post-Khomeini Iran. The opposite of a
theocracy is a secular state. A country where one particular religion is intertwined with the political
structure.
Treaty ports- Treaty ports were port cities opened by unequal treaties in China, Japan and Korea. The
first five treaty ports were set up by Nanjing Treaty in 1842. The second group was set up following the
Arrow War ended in 1860 and eventually more than 80 treaty ports were established in China.
UNCLOS (United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea)- 1994, constitution for the
ocean to protect resources; for example, the UN has set the Law of the Sea for 12 nautical miles.
Unitary- characterized by or constituting a form of government in which power is held by one central
authority; "a unitary as opposed to a federal form of government" This is usually found in nation-states
because these countries have a one set of people with one cultural mindset about how things should be run.
USSR collapse- The four principal elements of the old Soviet system were the hierarchy of soviets,
ethnic federalism, state socialism, and Communist Party dominance. Gorbachev's programs of
perestroika and glasnost produced radical unforeseen effects that brought that system down. As a means of
reviving the Soviet state, Gorbachev repeatedly attempted to build a coalition of political leaders supportive
of reform and created new arenas and bases of power. He implemented these measures because he wanted
to resolve serious economic problems and political inertia that clearly threatened to put the Soviet Union
into a state of long−term stagnation.
But by using structural reforms to widen opportunities for leaders and popular movements in the union
republics to gain influence, Gorbachev also made it possible for nationalist, orthodox communist, and
populist forces to oppose his attempts to liberalize and revitalize Soviet communism. Although some of the
new movements aspired to replace the Soviet system altogether with a liberal democratic one, others
demanded independence for the national republics. Still others insisted on the restoration of the old Soviet
ways. Ultimately, Gorbachev could not forge a compromise among these forces and the consequence was
the collapse of the Soviet Union.
Women’s enfranchisement- giving women the right to vote. For example, in the United States, the
demand for the enfranchisement of American women was first seriously formulated at the Seneca Falls
Convention (1848).
Unit V. Agricultural and Rural Land Use—Basic Vocabulary and Concepts (Second Half)
Adaptive strategies- The expression adaptive strategy is used by anthropologist Yehudi
Cohen to describe a society’s system of economic production. Cohen argued that the
most important reason for similarities between two (or more) unrelated societies is their
possession of a similar adaptive strategy. In other words, similar economic causes have
similar sociocultural effects. REDO
Agrarian- Relating to agriculture. Agrarianism is a social and political philosophy, which
stresses the viewpoint that the cultivation of plants, or farming leads to a fuller and
happier life.
Agribusiness- large-scale, capital-intensive, agricultural businesses incorporating supply,
production and processing capacities. Commercial agriculture characterized by
integration of different steps in the food-processing industry, usually through ownership
by large corporations. A term for the businesses that provide the vast array of goods and
services that support the agricultural industry. Example: Old North State Winegrowers
Cooperative in North Carolina. Wine grape farmers came together to market a brand
together.
Agricultural industrialization- The use of machinery in agriculture, like tractors ext. Makes it a lot faster for farmers to yield crop. Example: most of the meat, dairy, eggs,
fruits, and vegetables in supermarkets are produced using methods of agricultural
industrialization.
Agricultural landscape- the land that we farm on and what we choose to put were on our
fields. Effects how much yield one gets from their plants.
Agricultural location model- The multiregional computable general equilibrium model
developed at Cemagref in Bordeaux, which integrates economic and geographical
parameters, can be used to study key economic factors influencing activity locations and
the impact of agricultural policies on the activities. Example: Von Thunen’s model.
Agricultural origins- Through time nomadic people noticed the growing of plants in a
cycle and began to domesticate them and use for there own use. Carl Sauer points out
vegetative planting and seed agriculture as the original forms. He also points out that
vegetative planting likely was originated in SE Asia and seed agriculture originated in W.
India, N. China and Ethiopia. -Without the development of agriculture we would still
have a relatively small and likely uneducated population. Think about the GGS theory.
Agriculture- The deliberate effort to modify a portion of Earth’s surface through the
cultivation of crops and the raising of livestock for subsistence or economic gain. It has
influenced the growth of areas and human society / increased carrying capacity. The
purposeful tending of crops and livestock in order to produce food and fiber.
Animal domestication- Domestication of animals for selling or using byproducts. The
general modification of an animal so that it is rendered more amenable to human control.
Example: dogs and sheep were the first to be domesticated.
Aquaculture- The cultivation of aquatic organisms especially for food -Allowed us to
use the sea and its abundant sources of food for our benefit. Example: the bottom culture
of oysters using the traditional methods practiced in Narragansett Bay in late 19th and
early 20th centuries.
Agirculture Surplus
Agriculture Village
Biorevolution- The revolution of biotechnology and the use of it in societies.
Biotechnology is technology based on biology, especially when used in agriculture, food
science, and medicine. The United Nations Convention on Biological Diversity has come
up with one of many definitions of biotechnology: Genetic engineering.
Biotechnology- Using living organisms in a useful way to produce commercial products
like pest resistant crops. A set of biological techniques developed through basic research
and now applied to research and product development. In particular, the use of
recombinant DNA techniques. Example: cloning.
Collective farm- A farm operated and worked by a group cooperatively. The farm,
its buildings, and its machinery may be owned communally by the group, by an
institution, or, as in communist countries, by the state. Collective farming is an
organizational unit in agriculture in which peasants are not paid wages, but rather
receive a share of the farm's net output. Example: kolkhozy farm that dominated
Soviet agriculture between 1930 and 1992.
Commercial agriculture (intensive, extensive)- Agriculture undertaken primarily to
generate products for sale off the farm. Term used to describe large-scale farming and
ranching operations that employs vast land bases, large mechanized equipment, factorytype labor forces, and the latest technology.
Core/periphery- Core: the processes that incorporate higher levels of education,
higher salaries and more technology and typically generates more wealth than the
periphery processes in the world economy. Periphery: processes that incorporate
lower levels of education, lower salaries, and less technology, and also generate less
wealth than core processes in the world economy. Example: Core country: United
States and European countries. Periphery country: Sub-Saharan Africa.
Crop rotation- The practice of rotating use of different fields from crop to crop each year,
to avoid exhausting the soil. Takes up large areas of land but keeps land usable for future
generations. Example: rice followed by cotton.
Cultivation regions- Regions were there is agricultural activity.
Dairying- The “farming” and sale/distribution of milk and milk products.
Debt-for-nature swap- When agencies such as the World Bank make a deal with third
world countries that they will cancel their debt if the country will set aside a certain
amount of their natural resources. Example: The USA under the Enterprise for the
Americas Initiative and the Tropical Forest Conservation Act.
Diffusion- The spatial spreading or dissemination of a cultural element (such as
technological improvement) or other phenomena (a disease outbreak). There is
contagious, hierarchical, stimulus, relocation, and expansion diffusion. Example:
stimulus diffusion- McDonald’s in India with sandwiches that do not contain beef.
Double cropping- Harvesting twice a year from the same land -Can cause agricultural
exhaustion making people move away. The growing of two crops per year to double
agricultural output. Example: harvest a wheat crop by early summer and then plant corn
or soybeans on that acreage for harvest in the fall.
Economic activity (primary, secondary, tertiary, quaternary, quinary)- Primary:
subsistence farming based on little mechanization; performed by aboriginal tribes in
Australia. Secondary: industrial activities in which factories take raw materials such as
natural resources, and produce some type of product for either trade or sale. Many people
in the U.S. are still employed in secondary economic activities. Tertiary: Service
activities in which an increasing number of people are involved in selling goods rather
than producing them. Quaternary: Activities that produce nothing one can physically
touch, but are important in society (selling Internet time or providing satellite
technologies, such as cell phone usage). Quinary sectors: Usually involving only about
10-15 percent of the workforce in an economy, these sectors employ the people who
make decisions concerning the trade of commodities at the governmental and business
executive levels.
Environmental modification (pesticides, soil erosion, desertification)- Modifying the
environment. It can be for good but also for bad. (Pesticides, soil erosion,
desertification): The destruction of the environment for the purpose of farming. (Using
pesticides that drain in to the water and soil and pollute them overuse of land causing the
desert like conditions of desertification (dust bowl). -Doing harm to the environment
through pesticides and causing desertification have horrible long term effect on humans
and their future.
Extensive subsistence agriculture (shifting cultivation [slash-and- burn, milpa, swidden],
nomadic herding/pastoralism)- Shifting cultivation: The moving of farm fields after
several years in search of more productive soil after depleting the nutrients in the original
field. Slash and burn: The process of burning the physical landscape for both added space
and additional nutrients put in the soil. Example slash and burn: Eastern Madagascar- cut
down all trees for fire wood, then saplings are harvested to make charcoal, and then
within a year, the plot is burned to create nutrients for grass to feed the family zebu.
Extractive Industry- industry that involves mining, such as to obtain copper or other
valuable minerals found in the ground. Example: Extractive Industries Transparency
Initiative
Farm crisis- Occurs when farmers are too productive, causing a surplus of crops, and
therefore, lowering prices and producing less revenue for the farmers. Example: Midwest
Farm Crisis of the 1980s.
Farming- the practice of cultivating land or raising stock.
Feedlot- a plot of land on which livestock are fattened for market. Farms that specialize
in cattle or hogs and may have thousands of head of livestock. They can create large
amounts of waste runoff, air pollution, and groundwater contamination.
First agricultural revolution- Dating back about 10,000 years when humans first
domesticated plants and animals. This allowed for future generations to grow larger
because they no longer we just a hunter-gatherer society. The slow change from
nonagricultural-based societies to more agriculturally based ones through the gradual
understanding of seeds, watering, and plant care.
Second Half
Fishing- The technique, occupation, or diversion of catching fish. Example: Fishing provides a food
source and employment to society.
Food chain- A series of organisms interrelated in their feeding habits, the smallest being fed upon by a
larger one, which in turn feeds a still larger one, etc. After harvesting, commercial grain is sent to the
market area, usually in semi trailers, where it is sold to a manufacturer who makes a product with the grain,
such as bread. The product is then sold to a wholesaler, who sells it to a grocery store, where individual
customers can purchase it.
Fossil fuels- Nonrenewable resources, including examples such as coal, oil, and natural gas, created by
the breakdown of carbon-based sediment and. over time and under pressure, formed into the resources that
we use today.
Forestry- The science of planting and taking care of trees and forests. Trees provide building materials
and fuel to society.
Geothermal power- An alternative energy source that uses the heat from the Earth’s interior to heat
homes and businesses on the surface of the Earth.
Globalized agriculture- (also called universalized agriculture) Diffusion of agriculture across the
globe.
Grain farming- The mass planting and harvesting of grain crops, for example such as wheat, barley,
and millet
Greenhouse effect- The gradual warming of the Earth's atmosphere due to pollutants (greenhouse
gases), primarily from more developed countries, which keep the warmer air closer to the Earth s surface.
Green revolution- The application of biological science to the development of better strains of plants
and animals for increasing agricultural yields (the Third Agricultural Revolution). Rapid diffusion of new
agricultural technology, especially new high-yield seeds and fertilizer. Because of Green Revolution,
agricultural productivity at a global scale has increased faster than the population. Agricultural
development based on chemical fertilizers, pesticides, 20th-century cultivation techniques, and new crop
varieties such as IR-8 ("miracle rice").
Growing season- The season in which crops grow best. Growing season can vary by location, societies
rely on their growing season to which crops they can or cannot grow at their latitude.
Hunting and gathering- Before the agriculture, humans gained food by hunting for animals, fishing,
or gathering plants. They lived in small groups (less than 50 people), traveled frequently following game
and seasonal growth of plants
Hydroelectric power- The use of water to create electricity.
Intensive subsistence agriculture- A form of subsistence agriculture in which farmers must expend
a relatively large amount of effort to produce the maximum feasibly yield from a parcel of land. Popular in
East, South, and Southeast Asia, because the ratio between farmers and arable land is so high, most of the
work is done by the family by hand or by animal with processes refined over thousands of years.
Intertillage- Tillage between rows of crops of plants. The manual clearing of rows in the field through
the use of hoes, rakes, and other manual equipment.
Livestock ranching- commercial grazing of livestock over an extensive area. Practiced is semi-arid or
arid land, where vegetation is too sparse or the soil to too poor to support crops. Prominent in later 19th
century in the American West; ranchers free roamed throughout the West, until the U.S. government began
selling land to farmers who outlined their farms with barbed wire, forcing the ranchers to establish large
ranches to allow their cattle to graze.
Market gardening- The small scale production of fruits, vegetables, and flowers as cash crops sold
directly to local consumers. Distinguishable by the large diversity of crops grown on a small area of land,
during a single growing season. Labor is done manually
Mediterranean agriculture- Farming in the land surrounding the Mediterranean Sea (Southern
Europe, North Africa, and Western Asia), also in lands with similar climates (California, central Chile,
Southwestern South Africa, and Southwestern Australia). Sea winds provide moisture and moderate winter;
land is hilly with mountains frequently plunging directly into sea. Growing fruits, vegetables, flowers, and
tree crops are the main crops, while animals are grown under transhumance – kept on coastal plains in
winter and moved to hills in the summer.
Mineral fuels- Natural resources containing hydrocarbons, which are not derived from animal or plant
sources.
Mining- Extraction of valuable minerals or other geological materials from the Earth, usually from an ore
body, vein, or coal seam. Any material that cannot be grown from agricultural processes, or created
artificially, is mined (mining in a wider sense then including extraction of petroleum, natural gas, and
water).
Mixed livestock with crop production- A type of farming where cows raised on a farm are fed
with crops that are grown on the same farm.
Nuclear power- A controversial form of alternative energy, nuclear power needs the nonrenewable
resources such as uranium or plutonium for its production and creates long-lasting, dangerous waste
products. It is, however, the most powerful energy source known. The two types of nuclear power are
fission nuclear power and fusion nuclear power.
Open pit mine- A mine in which the land is removed and the resources are extracted in the open air.
Planned economy- (government controlled economy) an economy in which the government dictates
the quantity and type of agricultural products that farmers can produce. Economic system in which a single
agency makes all decisions about the production and allocation of goods and services. Commonly used in
which state or government controls the factors of production and makes all decisions about their use and
about the distribution of income. Example: Economy of the Soviet Union, in the 80’s and 90’s government
presiding over planned economies began deregulating and moving toward market basted economies by
introducing market forces to determine pricing, distribution, and production. Today most economies are
market or mixed economies, except those in Cuba or North Korea.
Plant domestication- Genetic modification of a plant such that its reproductive success depends on
human intervention.
Plantation agriculture- Production system based on a large estate owned by an individual, family, or
corporation and organized to produce cash crop. Almost all plantations were established within the tropics;
in recent decades, many have been divided into smaller holdings or reorganized as cooperatives. Often
occurring in less developed countries, plantation agriculture involves the cultivation of one crop to be sold
in more developed countries (e.g., coffee plantations in Costa Rica). - labor intensive
Renewable- Energy replaced continually within a human lifespan, has an essentially unlimited supply
and is not depleted when used by people. Some examples are solar energy, hydroelectric, geothermal,
fusion and wind and are the most widely used. Resources that have the ability to replenish themselves in
nature relatively quickly, thereby being infinitely available to consumers.
Nonrenewable- Energy formed so slowly that for practical purposes it cannot be renewed. The
three main fossil fuels (for example, petroleum, natural gas, and coal) plus nuclear energy are the
most widely used, mostly because they are more cost efficient. These resources take thousands of
years to be produced and cannot replenish themselves.
Reserves- The amount of a resource that is left in the ground yet to be used
Resource crisis- The eventual depletion of the fossil fuels on which energy-dependant economies rely
heavily. Example: There is a resource crisis for petroleum in the world today.
Rural settlement- Sparsely settled places away from the influence of large cities. Live in villages,
hamlets on farms, or in other isolated houses. Typically have an agricultural character, with an economy
based on logging, mining, petroleum, natural gas or tourism.
Dispersed- Characterized by farmers living on individual farms isolated from neighbors rather
than alongside other farmers in the area.
Nucleated- a number of families live in close proximity to each other, with fields surrounding
the collection of houses and farm buildings.
Building material- houses and buildings are typically built from materials that are abundant
in the area.
Village form- Villages are normally permanent, with fixed dwellings; however, transient
village can occur. Further, the dwellings of a village are fairly close to one another, not scattered
broadly over the landscape (‘dispersed settlement’). Villages have been the usual form of
community for societies that practice subsistence agriculture, and even for some nonagricultural societies.
Sauer, Carl O.- defined cultural landscape, as an area fashioned from nature by a cultural group. A
combination of cultural features such as language and religion; economic features such as agriculture and
industry; and physical features such as climate and vegetation. “Culture is the agent, the natural area is the
medium, the cultural landscape is the result.” Professor of geography at the University of California -Berkeley who started the field of cultural ecology, and began the hearths of seed agriculture and vegetative
planting Carl Sauer was one of the most vehement critics of the philosophy of environmental determinism.
Instead he believed that humans had power over their environments and weren't simply a product of them.
Second agricultural revolution- Precursor to Industrial Revolution in the 19th century, which
allowed a shift in work force beyond subsistence farming to allow labor to work in factories. Started in
United Kingdom, Netherlands, and Denmark, especially with the Enclosure Act, which consolidated land in
Great Britain. Potatoes and corn diffused from America’s to Europe, and other resources followed from
colonial possessions to Europe. Coinciding with the Industrial Revolution, the Second Agricultural
Revolution used the increased technology from the Industrial Revolution as a means to increase farm
productivity. This revolution started exponential population increase.
Seed agriculture- The taking of seeds from existing plants and planting them to produce new plants.
Shaft mine- A mine in which tunnels are dug horizontally under the surface of the Earth and shafts are
placed deep into the Earth.
Shifting cultivation (also known as slash and burn agriculture)- The moving of farm
fields after several years in search of more productive soil after depleting the nutrients in the original field
Specialization- Third level of cities (behind World Cities, and Command and Control Centers), offer a
narrow and highly specialized variety of services. Typically specialize in management, research and
development of a specific industry (motor vehicles in Detroit), or are centers of government and education,
notably state capitals that also have a major university (Albany, Lansing, Madison, or Raleigh-Durham).
Slash and Burn agriculture- The process of burning the physical landscape for both added space
and additional nutrients put in the soil.
Solar energy- The use of the sun’s heat to create electricity, solar energy is one of the best renewable
resources available because of its accessibility and cleanliness.
Staple grains- For example, maize, wheat, and rice are the most produced grains produced world wide,
accounting for 87% of all grains and 43% of all food. Maize staple food of North America, South
American, Africa, and livestock worldwide, wheat is primary in temperate regions, and rice in tropical
regions.
Subsistence farmers- Producing the food that their families need to survive, subsistence farmers
depend on the crops that they grow and the animal products they raise for their daily sustenance
Suitcase farm- Individuals who live in urban areas a great distance from their land and drive to the
country to care for their crops and livestock. This practice lends itself well to the growth of wheat. Allows
families to continue their long relationships with the ancestral farm, but still enjoy the benefits of waged
incomes in urban environments. These farms, where no one resides permanently and migrant workers
provide the majority of manual labor cheaply, go against the grain of traditional farming in the United
States.
Survey patternsLong lots- (French) Houses erected on narrow lots perpendicular along a river, so that each
original settler had equal river access. A system of farming where lots up to a half mile or more
extend back from a river, which farmers use as their primary means of hauling their agricultural
products to the market.
Metes and bounds- (English) Uses physical features of the local geography, along with
directions and distances, to define the boundaries of a particular piece of land. Metes refers to
boundary defined by a measurement of a straight run, bounds refers to a more general boundary,
such as a waterway, wall, public road, or existing building.
Township-and-range- (U.S.A) Survey’s used west of Ohio, after the purchase of the
Louisiana Purchase. Land is divided into six-mile square blocks (township), which is then divided
into one-mile square blocks (range). Ranges were then broken into smaller parcels to be sold or
given to people to develop.
Sustainable yield- Ecological yield that can be extracted without reducing the base of capital itself, the
surplus required to maintain nature’s services at the same or increasing level over time. Example, in
fisheries the basic natural capital decreases with extraction, but productivity increases; so the sustainable
yield is within the ranch that the natural capital together with production are able to provide satisfactory
yield.
Third agricultural revolution-‘Green Revolution’ Rapid diffusion of new agricultural techniques
between 1970’s and 1980’s, especially new high-yield seeds and fertilizers. Has caused agricultural
productivity at a global scale to increase faster than population growth. This transformation began in the
latter half of the 2Oth century and corresponded with exponential population growth around the world.
Mechanization- Farmers need tractors, irrigation pumps, and other machinery to make the
most effective use of the new miracle seeds. Farmer’s in LDC’s cannot afford this machinery or
the fuel to run the equipment, so governments must allocate funds to subsidizing the cost of seeds,
fertilizers and machinery.
Chemical farming- Increased use of fertilizers with nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium.
The development of higher-yield crops has produced: a ‘miracle wheat seed” which is shorter and
stiffer, less sensitive to variation in day length, responds better to fertilizers, and matures faster; a
similar miracle rice seed, that was heartier and has increased yields; a high-yield corn seed is
currently being developed.
Food manufacturing- the Green Revolution has increased production to avoid widespread
famine. Allowing the world population to grow about four billion since stared, also allowing
populations in developing nations to consume 25% more than before. This increase in diets is
questioned by the content in diets; Asian farmers are eating more rice than fish and other
vegetables because they can rely on rice to grow efficiently.
Topocide- The killing off of Iandscape to build a new one, topocide uses land for economic purposes in
the sense that the intention is to destroy the previously existing landscape.
“Tragedy of the commons”- social trap that involves a conflict over resources between interests and
the common good. The parable demonstrates how free access and unrestricted demand for a finite resource
ultimately dooms the resource through over-exploitation. This occurs because the benefits of exploitation
accrue to individuals, each of which is motivated to maximize his or her own use of the resource, while the
costs of exploitation are distributed between all those to whom the resource is available (which may be a
wider class of individuals than those who are exploiting it). Garrett Hardin's term for the idea that humans
will inevitably do what is best for themselves despite what is the best for the public good.
Transhumance- pastoral practice of seasonal migration of livestock between mountains and lowland
pasture areas; seasonal periodic movement of pastoralists and their livestock
Truck farm- Commercial gardening and fruit farming, so named because truck was a Middle English
word meaning bartering or the exchange of commodities. Predominant in Southeastern U.S.A, because of
the long growing season and humid climate, accessibility to large markets of New York, Philadelphian, and
Washington. Truck farms grow many of the fruits and vegetables that consumers demand in developed
societies. Truck farms sell some of their product to fresh markets, but mostly to large processors for
canning or freezing. Truck farms are highly efficient and large-scale operations that take full advantage of
machines at every stage of the growing process. non-tropical and migrant labor. A form of truck farming
is called specialty farming—where farmers are profitably growing crops that have limited but increasing
demand among affluent customers, such as asparagus, peppers, mushrooms, strawberries, and nursery
plants.
Von Thünen, Johann Heinrich- 1826, Northern Germany. When choosing an enterprise, a
commercial farmer compares two costs; cost of the land versus the cost of transporting production to
market. Identifies a crop that can be sold for more than the land cost, distance of land to market is critical
because the cost of transporting varies by crop.
Also found that specific crops were grown in varying rings around city. Market-oriented gardens and
milk producers in first ring, because of expense of transportation and perishability. In the next rings wood
lots used for construction and fuel, because it is a heavy industry with high transportation costs. Next rings
are used for various crops or pasture, with the outermost ring devoted to animal grazing. Von Thunen’s
theory disregards site or human factors. Developed an Agricultural Land Use Model that suggested that
certain crops were grown in direct relation to their distance to market.
Wind Energy- Using the movement of wind to generate power by spinning the blades of windmills in
wind parks, which then spin turbines, which then produce electricity, wind energy is one of the most
promising types of renewable energy. Example: Receive wind energy through wind mills.