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Unit IV. Political Organization of Space—Basic Vocabulary and Concepts Annexation- Annexation is the legal merging of some territory into another body. A city might annex unincorporated areas or a country might annex other disputed territories. Sometimes also used to refer to mergers of countries. In international relations the term annexation is usually applied when the emphasis is placed on the fact that territorial possession is achieved by force and unilaterally rather than through treaties or negotiations. en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Annexation Antarctica- Earth's southernmost continent, underlying the South Pole. It is situated in the Antarctica region of the southern hemisphere, almost entirely south of the Antarctic Circle, and is surrounded by the Southern Ocean. At 14.0 million km² (5.4 million sq mi), it is the fifth-largest continent in area after Asia, Africa, North America, and South America. About 98% of Antarctica is covered by ice, which averages at least 1.6 kilometres (1.0 mi) in thickness; No one owns it Apartheid- Apartheid (International Phonetic Alphabet or in English and in Afrikaans) is the policy and the system of laws implemented and continued by "White" minority governments in South Africa from 1948 to 1990; and by extension any legally sanctioned system of racial segregation. The first recorded use of the word, which means "separateness" in Afrikaans and Dutch, was in 1917 during a speech by Jan Smuts, who became Prime Minister of South Africa in 1919. en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apartheid Balkanization- Balkanization is a geopolitical term originally used to describe the process of fragmentation or division of a region into smaller regions that are often hostile or non-cooperative with each other. The term has arisen from the conflicts in the 20th century Balkans. The first Balkanization was embodied in the Balkan Wars, and the term was further reaffirmed in the Yugoslav wars.en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Balkanization Border landscape- There are two types, exclusionary and inclusionary. Exclusionary is meant to keep people out, such as the border between the U.S. and Mexico. Inclusionary is meant to facilitate trade and movement, such as the U.S.-Canada border Boundary- Vertical planes between states that cuts through rocks below, and the airspace above the surface. Boundary, disputesDefinitional- Disputes that arise from the legal language of the treaty definition of the boundary itself; one of the countries involved will usually sue another country in the International Court of Justice (World Court). Locational- Disputes that arise when the definition of the border is not questioned but the intention of the border is, as when the border has shifted (ex., a river shifts its course, changing the landscape). Operational- Disputes that arise from two abutting or adjacent countries disagreeing about a major functionality of the border, as when the United States and Mexico disagree over the issue of illegal immigration into the United States. Allocational- Disputes that usually involve conflicting claims to the natural resources of a region and the drilling or mining of it. Boundary, origin- Antecedent- a boundary that existed before the cultural landscape emerged and stayed in place while people moved in to occupy the surrounding area... Subsequent- a boundary that developed with the evolution of the cultural landscape and is adjusted as the cultural landscape changes... Superimposed- A political boundary that ignores the existing cultural organization of the landscape, a superimposed boundary is usually placed by a higher authority, such as a superpower or a delegation of superpowers, to ease tension and satisfy the demands of the superpower alliances rather than the needs of the country in which the boundary is dividing the population. A boundary that is imposed on the cultural landscape which ignores pre-existing cultural patterns (typically a colonial boundary)... Relic- they no longer exist as international boundaries. Boundary, processDefinition- The phase in which the exact location of a boundary is legally described and negotiated Delimitation- in which the exact location of a boundary is legally described and negotiated Demarcation- The process of showing the physical representation of a boundary on the landscape; Phase in which the boundary is visibly marked on the landscape by a fence, line, sign, wall or other means Boundary, typeNatural/physical- Boundaries created with naturally occurring features. Ethnographic/cultural- Boundaries that are outlined by cultural factors such as language, religion, or ethic groups. Geometric- Boundaries created with latitude and longitude features or with other straight lines. Buffer state- A buffer state is a country lying between two rival or potentially hostile greater powers, which by its sheer existence is thought to prevent conflict between them. Buffer states when authentically independent typically pursue a neutralist foreign policy, which distinguishes them from satellite states. The conception of buffer states is part of the theory of balance of power that entered European strategic and diplomatic thinking in the 17th century. ... en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buffer_state; A country that lies between two states in conflict but which remains neutral. Capital- Principle city in a state or country. The best place to locate a capital is at the center of a country, so it is a somewhat equal distance from all parts of the country. Example: Paris, France Centrifugal- number tending to move away from a center; "centrifugal force" number tending away from centralization, as of authority; "the division of Europe into warring blocs produces ever-increasing centrifugal stress" Centripetal- number tending to move toward a center; "centripetal force" number tending to unify City-state- A city-state is a region controlled exclusively by a city. City-states were common in the ancient period. A city state was sovereign, although many cities were joined in formal or informal leagues under a high king. Many historical empires or leagues were formed by the right of conquest, (Examples: Mycenae; Rome,) but many were formed under peaceful alliances or mutual protection (Examples: Hanseatic League; Peloponnesian League.) en.wikipedia.org/wiki/City-state; A state that is comprised of a large urban area or city (ex., Singapore). Colonialism- The attempt by a country to establish settlements and impose political and economic control and principles. For example, it was a prevalent occurrence in the 17th through 20th century for countries in Europe to take areas around the world and make them into colonies; The practice of establishing political dominance over another people for economic, political, and territorial gain. Commonwealth- Territories that have established a mutual agreement for the benefit of both parties. Confederation- association of sovereign states by a treaty or agreement. It deals with issues such as defense, foreign affairs, trade, and a common currency. Conference of Berlin (1884)- Regulated trade and colonization in Africa. It formalized the scramble to gain colonies in Africa and set up boundaries for each country’s colonies. Core/periphery- are based on the observation that within many spatial systems sharp territorial contrasts exist in wealth, economic advancement, and growth-"development"- between economic heartlands and outlying subordinate zones. Examples: U.S. can be classified as a core country whereas India can be classified as a periphery country and Brazil as a semi-periphery country. Coup d'etat- A group revolt against a country's current ruling power. Customs Union One in which members remove all barriers to trade among themselves and adopt a common set of external barriers, thereby eliminating the need for customs inspection at internal borders. A customs union is a free trade zone with a Common External Tariff. Purposes for establishing a customs union normally include increasing economic efficiency and establishing closer political and cultural ties between the member countries. Decolonization- A process where a colonized people, by developing a consciousness based on the remnants of the traditional culture, redefine themselves as peoples and reassert the distinct qualities that historically guided their existence. Decolonization is the process by which a colony gains independence from a colonial power, a process opposite to colonization. Decolonization may involve peaceful negotiation and/or violent revolt by the native population; For example, decolonization is the movement of American/European colonies gaining independence. Some were peaceful struggles while others became violent. Devolution- Devolution is the both the decentralization of a government from a unitary to a federal system or a fracturing of a government like Balkanization. The release of power by the central or federal government to the different regions of the country. Example: Russia went through devolution after the fall of Communism in 1991. Domino theory- The domino theory was the idea that if one key nation in a region came under the control of communists, others would follow like toppling dominoes. The theory was used by many United States leaders during the Cold War to justify U.S. intervention in the Vietnam War. The "domino theory" was applied by President Dwight D. Eisenhower and his top advisers in 1954 to describe the prospects of 'communist expansion' in Asia if Indochina were to fall.' en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Domino_theory; Domino theory is the idea that if one land in a region came under the influence of Communists, then more would follow in a domino effect. The domino theory was used by successive United States administrations during the Cold War, to justify American intervention around the world. EEZ (Exclusive Economic Zone)- In international maritime law, an Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) is a seazone extending from a state's coast over which the state has special rights over the exploration and use of marine resources. Generally a state's EEZ extends 200 nautical miles (370.4 kilometers) out from its coast, except where resulting points would be closer to another country. An Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) is a sea zone over which a state has special rights over the exploration and use of marine resources. The country that controls the EEZ has rights to the fishing, whaling, etc., as well as the raw material resources. Electoral regions- Electoral regions are the different voting districts that make up local, state, and national regions. Enclave/exclave- An enclave is a country or part of a country mostly surrounded by the territory of another country or wholly lying within the boundaries of another country (Lesotho); a territory belonging to a state but separated from that state by another state. An exclave is a country which is geographically separated from the main part by surrounding alien territory (Azerbaijan). Ethnic conflict- An ethnic conflict is a war between ethnic groups often as a result of ethnic nationalism or fight over natural resources. Ethnic conflict often includes genocide. It can also be caused by boundary disputes. Example: The ethnic conflicts in Africa (Darfur, Sudan) Ethnocentrism- The idea that ones own culture is the point of reference for everything else. European Union- The European Union or EU is, in part, an inter-governmental and supra-national organisation, made up of European countries, which currently has 25 member states. The European Union-previously known as the European Community, created after World War II to unite the nations of Europe economically to avoid another war --is an institutional framework of 15 countries (25 from May 2004), sharing the common institutions and policies, for the construction of a united Europe. An example of a customs union (can add that to this). The European Union (EU) is a supranational and intergovernmental union of 27 democratic member states of Europe. The EU's activities cover most areas of public policy, from economic policy to foreign affairs, defense, agriculture and trade. The European Union is the largest political and economic entity on the European continent, with around 500 million people and an estimated GDP of US$13.4 trillion. Federal- Federalism is a political philosophy in which a group or body of members are bound together with a governing representative head. Federalism is the system in which the power to govern is shared between the national & state or provincial governments. This system stresses giving local areas more control and is usually found in multi-national countries as a way to deal with cultural differences. Forward capital- A forward capital is a symbolically relocated capital city usually because of either economic or strategic reasons. A forward capital is sometimes used to integrate outlying parts of a country into the state. An example would be Brasília. A capital city that is put in a particular location to show that the home country intends to use that land in the future, although it is not currently in use. Free Trade Zone- A free trade zone or export processing zone is a part or parts of a country where tariffs and quotas are eliminated and bureaucratic requirements lowered to attract companies raise the incentives of doing business there. en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Free_trade_zone Example: the NAFTA established a free trade zone throughout Canada, USA, and Mexico. Frontier- A frontier is a zone where no state exercises complete political control. It is usually uninhabited or sparsely inhabited. It separates countries where a boundary cannot be found. A current example can be found between Saudi Arabia and Yemen. Geopolitics- Geopolitics analyses politics, history and social science with reference to geography. The term was coined by Rudolf Kjellén, a Swedish political geographer, at the end of the 19th century. Kjellén was inspired by the German geographer Friedrich Ratzel the study of the relationships between a nation and the rest of the world - each nation has a sphere of influence it exerts over surrounding nations in areas such as trade, economic aid, military intervention etc. Geopolitics is the study that analyzes geography, history and social science with reference to international politics. It examines the political and strategic significance of geography, where geography is defined in terms of the location, size, and resources of places. A concept of political geography that is concerned with the study of human systems, which strive to organize land spatially to fit the needs of humans. Gerrymandering- Redistricting for advantage, or the practice of dividing areas into electoral districts to give one political party an electoral majority in a large number of districts while concentrating the voting strength of the opposition in as few districts as possible. The illegal redrawing of political boundaries for political gain by a political power. Global commons- Global commons is that which no one person or state may own or control and which is central to life. A global common contains an infinite potential with regard to the understanding and advancement of the biology and society of all life. (Forests, oceans, land mass and cultural identity). Areas that no country is allowed to own or claim as its territory. Heartland/rimland- A geopolitical hypthesis, proposed by British geographer Halford Mackinder during the first two decades of the twentieth century, that any political power based in the heart of Eurasia could gain sufficient strength to eventually dominate the world. Mackinder further proposed that since Eastern Europe controlled access to the Eurasian interior, its ruler would command the vast “heartland” to the east. Immigrant states- An immigrant state is a type of receiving state which is the target of many immigrants. Immigrant states are popular because of their economy, political freedom, and opportunity. One example would be the USA. A state that is comprised primarily of immigrants. International organization- an organization with an international membership, scope, or presence. Organizations are generally classified into two main categories: International nongovernmental organizations (INGOs) - non-governmental organizations (NGOs) that operate internationally. These may be either: o International non-profit organizations. Examples include the World Organization of the Scout Movement, International Committee of the Red Cross and Médecins Sans Frontières. o International corporations, referred to as multinational corporations. Examples include The Coca-Cola Company and Toyota. Intergovernmental organizations (IGOs), the type of organization most closely associated with the term "international organization." These are organizations that are made up primarily of sovereign states (referred to as member states). Examples include the United Nations, European Union, and World Trade Organization). Iron Curtain- The division of the Western European states, which employed the traditions of democracy and capitalism, from the Eastern European states, which employed the traditions of totalitarian leadership and communism. Irredentism- irredentism is claiming a right to territories belonging to another state on the grounds of common ethnicity and/or prior historical possession, actual or alleged. The word was coined in Italy from the phrase Italia irredenta ("unredeemed Italy"). This originally referred to Austro-Hungarian rule over mostly or partly Italian-inhabited territories; The attempt by one country to infuse ideas of coups or separatist movements into another country. Israel/Palestine - class notes - same with Sudan, Iraq and Euro/US migration and the rise of India and China; ongoing dispute between Israelis and the Palestinians. It forms part of the wider Arab– Israeli conflict. Though the State of Israel was established in 1948, the term is usually used also in reference to the earlier phases of the same conflict, between Zionist pioneers and the Arab population living in Palestine under Ottoman or British rule. Many attempts have been made to broker a two-state solution, which would entail the creation of an independent Palestinian state alongside an independent Jewish state (until 1948) or next to the State of Israel (after Israel's establishment in 1948). At present, a considerable majority of both Israelis and Palestinians, according to a number of polls, prefer the two-state solution over any other solution as a means of resolving the conflict. Most Palestinians view the West Bank and Gaza Strip as constituting the area of their future state, which is a view also accepted by most Israelis. A handful of academics advocate a one-state solution, whereby all of Israel, the Gaza Strip, and West Bank would become a bi-national state with equal rights for all. However, there are significant areas of disagreement over the shape of any final agreement and also regarding the level of credibility each side sees in the other in upholding basic commitments. Landlocked- Enclosed by land, or nearly enclosed, as a harbor; Example: Lesotho in South Africa Law of the Sea- Admiralty law (usually referred to as simply admiralty and also referred to as maritime law) is a distinct body of law which governs maritime questions and offenses. Under conventions of international law, the flag flown by a ship generally determines the source of law to be applied in admiralty cases, regardless of which court has personal jurisdiction over the parties. The term United Nations Convention on Law of the Sea (UNCLOS, also called simply the Law of the Sea or LOS) refers to several United Nations events and one international treaty. Lebanon- a country in Western Asia, on the eastern shore of the Mediterranean Sea. It is bordered by Syria to the north and east, and Israel to the south. Due to its sectarian diversity, Lebanon evolved in 1942 a unique political system, known as confessionalism, based on a community-based powersharing mechanism.[5] It was created when the ruling French mandatory powers expanded the borders of the former autonomous Otoman Mount Lebanon district that was mostly populated by Maronite Catholics and Druze. Lebanon is the historic home of the Phoenicians, a maritime culture which flourished for more than 3,000 years (3700-450 BC). Following the collapse of the Ottoman Empire after World War I, the five provinces that comprise present-day Lebanon were mandated to France. The country gained independence in 1943, and French troops withdrew in 1946. Mackinder, Halford J.- Sir Halford John Mackinder was a British geographer who wrote a paper in 1904 called "The Geographical Pivot of History." Mackinder's paper suggested that the control of Eastern Europe was vital to control of the world. He formulated his hypothesis as: Who rules East Europe commands the Heartland Who rules the Heartland commands the World-Island Who rules the World-Island commands the world Mackinder's Heartland (also known as the Pivot Area) is the core area of Eurasia, and the World-Island is all of Eurasia (both Europe and Asia). Manifest destiny- The belief that the U.S. government, with divine intervention, was destined to rule the land extending from the Atlantic Ocean to the Pacific Ocean. Median-line principle- The main tool recommended for delimitation of maritime boundaries between states in the UNCLOS is the so-called “median line.” Article 15 of Part II: Territorial Sea and Contiguous Zone states that: “Where the coasts of two States are opposite or adjacent to each other, neither of the two States is entitled, failing agreement between them to the contrary, to extend its territorial sea beyond the median line every point of which is equidistant from the nearest points on the baselines from which the breadth of the territorial seas of each of the two States is measured. The above provision does not apply, however, where it is necessary by reason of historic title or other special circumstances to delimit the territorial seas of the two States in a way which is at variance therewith.” The text stipulates that the median line should be the guiding principle in dispute resolution, however it also provides for the possibility of “special circumstances,” and this is precisely the problem in the case of the dispute between Russia and Norway. Microstate- A microstate is a very small internationally recognized sovereign state. Andorra, Monaco, San Marino, Liechtenstein, Nauru, Palau, Tuvalu, Saint Kitts and Nevis and the Holy See (Vatican) are all microstates. Size in the context of microstates can refer to either physical extent, or population - but usually to both. A state or territory that is small in both size and population. Ministate- microstate; independent country that is very small in area and population; Example: Switzerland Nation- A people who share common customs, origins, history, and frequently language; a nationality. A politically organized body of people under a single government; Ex. French people National iconography- the branch of art history which studies the identification, description, and the interpretation of the content of images. Nation-state- refers properly to the parallel occurrence of a state and a nation. An independent country dominated by a relatively homogeneous culture group; Example: France, Germany Nunavut- The territory created in the Canadian North on April 1, 1999 when the former Northwest Territories was divided in two. Nunavut means “our land” in Inuktitut language. Inuit, whose ancestors inhabited these lands for thousands of years, make up 85 percent of the population of Nunavut. Plural society- A society characterized by two g or more ethnicities living in the same area but each keeping its own identity and characteristics. Example: Canada—Canadians and French. Raison d’être- A basic, essential purpose; a reason to exist: “Professor Naylor argues that in the nuclear age, infantry forces have lost their raison d’être.” From French, meaning “reason for being.” Translated from the French "the reason for being." Many people feel nationalistic, placing great importance on the creation and protection of their state, and are willing to die for their state s independence. Reapportionment- The Process by which seats in the House of Representatives are reassigned among the States to reflect population changes following the decennial census. Regionalism- In national politics (or low politics), regionalisation is a process of dividing a political entity — typically a country — into smaller regions, and transferring power from the central government to the regions. Opposite process is called unitarisation. Religious conflict- result of religious extremism which is religious fundamentalism (or a religious movement who objectives are to return to the foundations of the faith and to influence state policy) carried to the point of violence. With violence comes conflict. Example: Hindu vs. Muslim Riots/Conflicts in India. Reunification- the act of coming together again; for example, the process that occured in the 1990's when East and West Germany became one country; Satellite state- The term satellite state, by analogy to stellar objects orbiting a larger object, such as planets revolving around the sun, refers to a country that is formally sovereign but that is in fact dominated by a larger hegemonic power. In extreme cases, satellite countries may be virtual colonies with little political, economic or military independence. Self-determination- Self-determination is a principle in international law that a people ought to be able to determine their own governmental forms and structure free from outside influence. Ex. America practices self-determination. Shatterbelt- an area of instability between regions with opposing political and cultural values Sovereignty- Sovereignty is the exclusive right to exercise supreme authority over a geographic region, government free from external control. A government has sovereignty if it has authority over all that occurs within the state and its authority is not restricted by any authority outside it. For example: Canada is NOT sovereign because it does not control all of its states, especially the French Quebec. State- a politically organized territory that is administered by a sovereign government and is recognized by a significant portion of the international community. A state has a defined territory, a permanent population, a government, and is recognized by other states. Example: The United States of America Stateless ethnic groups- an ethnic group that does not have a state. Stateless nation- a nation that does not have a state. Ex. Palestine Suffrage- the right to vote; the power to vote on issues regarding a person's or people’s welfare. For example, New Zealand was the first to give women the right to vote. However when this happened in 1893, New Zealand was a mostly self-governing colony of Britain Supranationalism- Supranationalism is a method of decision-making in international organizations, where power is held by independent appointed officials or by representatives elected by the legislatures or people of the member states. Member-state governments still have power, but they must share this power with other actors. Furthermore, decisions are made by majority votes, hence it is possible for a memberstate to be forced by the other member-states to implement a decision against its will. Territorial disputes- Any dispute over land ownership Territorial morphology- a State's physical shape. Compact- a state that possesses a roughly circular, oval, or rectangular territory in which the distance from the geometric center is relatively equal in all directions; examples include Burundi, Kenya, Rwanda, and Uganda. Fragmented- A state that is not contiguous whole but rather separated parts. An example is Indonesia. Elongated- A state whose territory is long and narrow in shape. An example is Chile. Prorupt- A country that has a protrusion extending out from its main base; A type of territorial shape that exhibits a narrow, elongated land extension leading away from the main body of the territory; example is the Caprivi Strip. Perforated- A state whose territory completely surrounds that of another state. An example is Lesotho. Territoriality- the instinctive compulsion to gain and defend a fixed and exclusive area maintained by an individual or group; a country’s or more local community’s sense of property and attachment toward its territory, as expressed by its determination to keep it inviolable and strongly defended. Human territoriality is a term associated with the work of Robert Sack that describes the efforts of human societies to influence events and achieve social goals by exerting and attempting to enforce control over specific geographical areas. Theocracy- A state whose government is under the control of a ruler who is deemed to be divinely guided, or of a group of religious leaders, as (for example) post-Khomeini Iran. The opposite of a theocracy is a secular state. A country where one particular religion is intertwined with the political structure. Treaty ports- Treaty ports were port cities opened by unequal treaties in China, Japan and Korea. The first five treaty ports were set up by Nanjing Treaty in 1842. The second group was set up following the Arrow War ended in 1860 and eventually more than 80 treaty ports were established in China. UNCLOS (United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea)- 1994, constitution for the ocean to protect resources; for example, the UN has set the Law of the Sea for 12 nautical miles. Unitary- characterized by or constituting a form of government in which power is held by one central authority; "a unitary as opposed to a federal form of government" This is usually found in nation-states because these countries have a one set of people with one cultural mindset about how things should be run. USSR collapse- The four principal elements of the old Soviet system were the hierarchy of soviets, ethnic federalism, state socialism, and Communist Party dominance. Gorbachev's programs of perestroika and glasnost produced radical unforeseen effects that brought that system down. As a means of reviving the Soviet state, Gorbachev repeatedly attempted to build a coalition of political leaders supportive of reform and created new arenas and bases of power. He implemented these measures because he wanted to resolve serious economic problems and political inertia that clearly threatened to put the Soviet Union into a state of long−term stagnation. But by using structural reforms to widen opportunities for leaders and popular movements in the union republics to gain influence, Gorbachev also made it possible for nationalist, orthodox communist, and populist forces to oppose his attempts to liberalize and revitalize Soviet communism. Although some of the new movements aspired to replace the Soviet system altogether with a liberal democratic one, others demanded independence for the national republics. Still others insisted on the restoration of the old Soviet ways. Ultimately, Gorbachev could not forge a compromise among these forces and the consequence was the collapse of the Soviet Union. Women’s enfranchisement- giving women the right to vote. For example, in the United States, the demand for the enfranchisement of American women was first seriously formulated at the Seneca Falls Convention (1848). Unit V. Agricultural and Rural Land Use—Basic Vocabulary and Concepts (Second Half) Adaptive strategies- The expression adaptive strategy is used by anthropologist Yehudi Cohen to describe a society’s system of economic production. Cohen argued that the most important reason for similarities between two (or more) unrelated societies is their possession of a similar adaptive strategy. In other words, similar economic causes have similar sociocultural effects. REDO Agrarian- Relating to agriculture. Agrarianism is a social and political philosophy, which stresses the viewpoint that the cultivation of plants, or farming leads to a fuller and happier life. Agribusiness- large-scale, capital-intensive, agricultural businesses incorporating supply, production and processing capacities. Commercial agriculture characterized by integration of different steps in the food-processing industry, usually through ownership by large corporations. A term for the businesses that provide the vast array of goods and services that support the agricultural industry. Example: Old North State Winegrowers Cooperative in North Carolina. Wine grape farmers came together to market a brand together. Agricultural industrialization- The use of machinery in agriculture, like tractors ext. Makes it a lot faster for farmers to yield crop. Example: most of the meat, dairy, eggs, fruits, and vegetables in supermarkets are produced using methods of agricultural industrialization. Agricultural landscape- the land that we farm on and what we choose to put were on our fields. Effects how much yield one gets from their plants. Agricultural location model- The multiregional computable general equilibrium model developed at Cemagref in Bordeaux, which integrates economic and geographical parameters, can be used to study key economic factors influencing activity locations and the impact of agricultural policies on the activities. Example: Von Thunen’s model. Agricultural origins- Through time nomadic people noticed the growing of plants in a cycle and began to domesticate them and use for there own use. Carl Sauer points out vegetative planting and seed agriculture as the original forms. He also points out that vegetative planting likely was originated in SE Asia and seed agriculture originated in W. India, N. China and Ethiopia. -Without the development of agriculture we would still have a relatively small and likely uneducated population. Think about the GGS theory. Agriculture- The deliberate effort to modify a portion of Earth’s surface through the cultivation of crops and the raising of livestock for subsistence or economic gain. It has influenced the growth of areas and human society / increased carrying capacity. The purposeful tending of crops and livestock in order to produce food and fiber. Animal domestication- Domestication of animals for selling or using byproducts. The general modification of an animal so that it is rendered more amenable to human control. Example: dogs and sheep were the first to be domesticated. Aquaculture- The cultivation of aquatic organisms especially for food -Allowed us to use the sea and its abundant sources of food for our benefit. Example: the bottom culture of oysters using the traditional methods practiced in Narragansett Bay in late 19th and early 20th centuries. Agirculture Surplus Agriculture Village Biorevolution- The revolution of biotechnology and the use of it in societies. Biotechnology is technology based on biology, especially when used in agriculture, food science, and medicine. The United Nations Convention on Biological Diversity has come up with one of many definitions of biotechnology: Genetic engineering. Biotechnology- Using living organisms in a useful way to produce commercial products like pest resistant crops. A set of biological techniques developed through basic research and now applied to research and product development. In particular, the use of recombinant DNA techniques. Example: cloning. Collective farm- A farm operated and worked by a group cooperatively. The farm, its buildings, and its machinery may be owned communally by the group, by an institution, or, as in communist countries, by the state. Collective farming is an organizational unit in agriculture in which peasants are not paid wages, but rather receive a share of the farm's net output. Example: kolkhozy farm that dominated Soviet agriculture between 1930 and 1992. Commercial agriculture (intensive, extensive)- Agriculture undertaken primarily to generate products for sale off the farm. Term used to describe large-scale farming and ranching operations that employs vast land bases, large mechanized equipment, factorytype labor forces, and the latest technology. Core/periphery- Core: the processes that incorporate higher levels of education, higher salaries and more technology and typically generates more wealth than the periphery processes in the world economy. Periphery: processes that incorporate lower levels of education, lower salaries, and less technology, and also generate less wealth than core processes in the world economy. Example: Core country: United States and European countries. Periphery country: Sub-Saharan Africa. Crop rotation- The practice of rotating use of different fields from crop to crop each year, to avoid exhausting the soil. Takes up large areas of land but keeps land usable for future generations. Example: rice followed by cotton. Cultivation regions- Regions were there is agricultural activity. Dairying- The “farming” and sale/distribution of milk and milk products. Debt-for-nature swap- When agencies such as the World Bank make a deal with third world countries that they will cancel their debt if the country will set aside a certain amount of their natural resources. Example: The USA under the Enterprise for the Americas Initiative and the Tropical Forest Conservation Act. Diffusion- The spatial spreading or dissemination of a cultural element (such as technological improvement) or other phenomena (a disease outbreak). There is contagious, hierarchical, stimulus, relocation, and expansion diffusion. Example: stimulus diffusion- McDonald’s in India with sandwiches that do not contain beef. Double cropping- Harvesting twice a year from the same land -Can cause agricultural exhaustion making people move away. The growing of two crops per year to double agricultural output. Example: harvest a wheat crop by early summer and then plant corn or soybeans on that acreage for harvest in the fall. Economic activity (primary, secondary, tertiary, quaternary, quinary)- Primary: subsistence farming based on little mechanization; performed by aboriginal tribes in Australia. Secondary: industrial activities in which factories take raw materials such as natural resources, and produce some type of product for either trade or sale. Many people in the U.S. are still employed in secondary economic activities. Tertiary: Service activities in which an increasing number of people are involved in selling goods rather than producing them. Quaternary: Activities that produce nothing one can physically touch, but are important in society (selling Internet time or providing satellite technologies, such as cell phone usage). Quinary sectors: Usually involving only about 10-15 percent of the workforce in an economy, these sectors employ the people who make decisions concerning the trade of commodities at the governmental and business executive levels. Environmental modification (pesticides, soil erosion, desertification)- Modifying the environment. It can be for good but also for bad. (Pesticides, soil erosion, desertification): The destruction of the environment for the purpose of farming. (Using pesticides that drain in to the water and soil and pollute them overuse of land causing the desert like conditions of desertification (dust bowl). -Doing harm to the environment through pesticides and causing desertification have horrible long term effect on humans and their future. Extensive subsistence agriculture (shifting cultivation [slash-and- burn, milpa, swidden], nomadic herding/pastoralism)- Shifting cultivation: The moving of farm fields after several years in search of more productive soil after depleting the nutrients in the original field. Slash and burn: The process of burning the physical landscape for both added space and additional nutrients put in the soil. Example slash and burn: Eastern Madagascar- cut down all trees for fire wood, then saplings are harvested to make charcoal, and then within a year, the plot is burned to create nutrients for grass to feed the family zebu. Extractive Industry- industry that involves mining, such as to obtain copper or other valuable minerals found in the ground. Example: Extractive Industries Transparency Initiative Farm crisis- Occurs when farmers are too productive, causing a surplus of crops, and therefore, lowering prices and producing less revenue for the farmers. Example: Midwest Farm Crisis of the 1980s. Farming- the practice of cultivating land or raising stock. Feedlot- a plot of land on which livestock are fattened for market. Farms that specialize in cattle or hogs and may have thousands of head of livestock. They can create large amounts of waste runoff, air pollution, and groundwater contamination. First agricultural revolution- Dating back about 10,000 years when humans first domesticated plants and animals. This allowed for future generations to grow larger because they no longer we just a hunter-gatherer society. The slow change from nonagricultural-based societies to more agriculturally based ones through the gradual understanding of seeds, watering, and plant care. Second Half Fishing- The technique, occupation, or diversion of catching fish. Example: Fishing provides a food source and employment to society. Food chain- A series of organisms interrelated in their feeding habits, the smallest being fed upon by a larger one, which in turn feeds a still larger one, etc. After harvesting, commercial grain is sent to the market area, usually in semi trailers, where it is sold to a manufacturer who makes a product with the grain, such as bread. The product is then sold to a wholesaler, who sells it to a grocery store, where individual customers can purchase it. Fossil fuels- Nonrenewable resources, including examples such as coal, oil, and natural gas, created by the breakdown of carbon-based sediment and. over time and under pressure, formed into the resources that we use today. Forestry- The science of planting and taking care of trees and forests. Trees provide building materials and fuel to society. Geothermal power- An alternative energy source that uses the heat from the Earth’s interior to heat homes and businesses on the surface of the Earth. Globalized agriculture- (also called universalized agriculture) Diffusion of agriculture across the globe. Grain farming- The mass planting and harvesting of grain crops, for example such as wheat, barley, and millet Greenhouse effect- The gradual warming of the Earth's atmosphere due to pollutants (greenhouse gases), primarily from more developed countries, which keep the warmer air closer to the Earth s surface. Green revolution- The application of biological science to the development of better strains of plants and animals for increasing agricultural yields (the Third Agricultural Revolution). Rapid diffusion of new agricultural technology, especially new high-yield seeds and fertilizer. Because of Green Revolution, agricultural productivity at a global scale has increased faster than the population. Agricultural development based on chemical fertilizers, pesticides, 20th-century cultivation techniques, and new crop varieties such as IR-8 ("miracle rice"). Growing season- The season in which crops grow best. Growing season can vary by location, societies rely on their growing season to which crops they can or cannot grow at their latitude. Hunting and gathering- Before the agriculture, humans gained food by hunting for animals, fishing, or gathering plants. They lived in small groups (less than 50 people), traveled frequently following game and seasonal growth of plants Hydroelectric power- The use of water to create electricity. Intensive subsistence agriculture- A form of subsistence agriculture in which farmers must expend a relatively large amount of effort to produce the maximum feasibly yield from a parcel of land. Popular in East, South, and Southeast Asia, because the ratio between farmers and arable land is so high, most of the work is done by the family by hand or by animal with processes refined over thousands of years. Intertillage- Tillage between rows of crops of plants. The manual clearing of rows in the field through the use of hoes, rakes, and other manual equipment. Livestock ranching- commercial grazing of livestock over an extensive area. Practiced is semi-arid or arid land, where vegetation is too sparse or the soil to too poor to support crops. Prominent in later 19th century in the American West; ranchers free roamed throughout the West, until the U.S. government began selling land to farmers who outlined their farms with barbed wire, forcing the ranchers to establish large ranches to allow their cattle to graze. Market gardening- The small scale production of fruits, vegetables, and flowers as cash crops sold directly to local consumers. Distinguishable by the large diversity of crops grown on a small area of land, during a single growing season. Labor is done manually Mediterranean agriculture- Farming in the land surrounding the Mediterranean Sea (Southern Europe, North Africa, and Western Asia), also in lands with similar climates (California, central Chile, Southwestern South Africa, and Southwestern Australia). Sea winds provide moisture and moderate winter; land is hilly with mountains frequently plunging directly into sea. Growing fruits, vegetables, flowers, and tree crops are the main crops, while animals are grown under transhumance – kept on coastal plains in winter and moved to hills in the summer. Mineral fuels- Natural resources containing hydrocarbons, which are not derived from animal or plant sources. Mining- Extraction of valuable minerals or other geological materials from the Earth, usually from an ore body, vein, or coal seam. Any material that cannot be grown from agricultural processes, or created artificially, is mined (mining in a wider sense then including extraction of petroleum, natural gas, and water). Mixed livestock with crop production- A type of farming where cows raised on a farm are fed with crops that are grown on the same farm. Nuclear power- A controversial form of alternative energy, nuclear power needs the nonrenewable resources such as uranium or plutonium for its production and creates long-lasting, dangerous waste products. It is, however, the most powerful energy source known. The two types of nuclear power are fission nuclear power and fusion nuclear power. Open pit mine- A mine in which the land is removed and the resources are extracted in the open air. Planned economy- (government controlled economy) an economy in which the government dictates the quantity and type of agricultural products that farmers can produce. Economic system in which a single agency makes all decisions about the production and allocation of goods and services. Commonly used in which state or government controls the factors of production and makes all decisions about their use and about the distribution of income. Example: Economy of the Soviet Union, in the 80’s and 90’s government presiding over planned economies began deregulating and moving toward market basted economies by introducing market forces to determine pricing, distribution, and production. Today most economies are market or mixed economies, except those in Cuba or North Korea. Plant domestication- Genetic modification of a plant such that its reproductive success depends on human intervention. Plantation agriculture- Production system based on a large estate owned by an individual, family, or corporation and organized to produce cash crop. Almost all plantations were established within the tropics; in recent decades, many have been divided into smaller holdings or reorganized as cooperatives. Often occurring in less developed countries, plantation agriculture involves the cultivation of one crop to be sold in more developed countries (e.g., coffee plantations in Costa Rica). - labor intensive Renewable- Energy replaced continually within a human lifespan, has an essentially unlimited supply and is not depleted when used by people. Some examples are solar energy, hydroelectric, geothermal, fusion and wind and are the most widely used. Resources that have the ability to replenish themselves in nature relatively quickly, thereby being infinitely available to consumers. Nonrenewable- Energy formed so slowly that for practical purposes it cannot be renewed. The three main fossil fuels (for example, petroleum, natural gas, and coal) plus nuclear energy are the most widely used, mostly because they are more cost efficient. These resources take thousands of years to be produced and cannot replenish themselves. Reserves- The amount of a resource that is left in the ground yet to be used Resource crisis- The eventual depletion of the fossil fuels on which energy-dependant economies rely heavily. Example: There is a resource crisis for petroleum in the world today. Rural settlement- Sparsely settled places away from the influence of large cities. Live in villages, hamlets on farms, or in other isolated houses. Typically have an agricultural character, with an economy based on logging, mining, petroleum, natural gas or tourism. Dispersed- Characterized by farmers living on individual farms isolated from neighbors rather than alongside other farmers in the area. Nucleated- a number of families live in close proximity to each other, with fields surrounding the collection of houses and farm buildings. Building material- houses and buildings are typically built from materials that are abundant in the area. Village form- Villages are normally permanent, with fixed dwellings; however, transient village can occur. Further, the dwellings of a village are fairly close to one another, not scattered broadly over the landscape (‘dispersed settlement’). Villages have been the usual form of community for societies that practice subsistence agriculture, and even for some nonagricultural societies. Sauer, Carl O.- defined cultural landscape, as an area fashioned from nature by a cultural group. A combination of cultural features such as language and religion; economic features such as agriculture and industry; and physical features such as climate and vegetation. “Culture is the agent, the natural area is the medium, the cultural landscape is the result.” Professor of geography at the University of California -Berkeley who started the field of cultural ecology, and began the hearths of seed agriculture and vegetative planting Carl Sauer was one of the most vehement critics of the philosophy of environmental determinism. Instead he believed that humans had power over their environments and weren't simply a product of them. Second agricultural revolution- Precursor to Industrial Revolution in the 19th century, which allowed a shift in work force beyond subsistence farming to allow labor to work in factories. Started in United Kingdom, Netherlands, and Denmark, especially with the Enclosure Act, which consolidated land in Great Britain. Potatoes and corn diffused from America’s to Europe, and other resources followed from colonial possessions to Europe. Coinciding with the Industrial Revolution, the Second Agricultural Revolution used the increased technology from the Industrial Revolution as a means to increase farm productivity. This revolution started exponential population increase. Seed agriculture- The taking of seeds from existing plants and planting them to produce new plants. Shaft mine- A mine in which tunnels are dug horizontally under the surface of the Earth and shafts are placed deep into the Earth. Shifting cultivation (also known as slash and burn agriculture)- The moving of farm fields after several years in search of more productive soil after depleting the nutrients in the original field Specialization- Third level of cities (behind World Cities, and Command and Control Centers), offer a narrow and highly specialized variety of services. Typically specialize in management, research and development of a specific industry (motor vehicles in Detroit), or are centers of government and education, notably state capitals that also have a major university (Albany, Lansing, Madison, or Raleigh-Durham). Slash and Burn agriculture- The process of burning the physical landscape for both added space and additional nutrients put in the soil. Solar energy- The use of the sun’s heat to create electricity, solar energy is one of the best renewable resources available because of its accessibility and cleanliness. Staple grains- For example, maize, wheat, and rice are the most produced grains produced world wide, accounting for 87% of all grains and 43% of all food. Maize staple food of North America, South American, Africa, and livestock worldwide, wheat is primary in temperate regions, and rice in tropical regions. Subsistence farmers- Producing the food that their families need to survive, subsistence farmers depend on the crops that they grow and the animal products they raise for their daily sustenance Suitcase farm- Individuals who live in urban areas a great distance from their land and drive to the country to care for their crops and livestock. This practice lends itself well to the growth of wheat. Allows families to continue their long relationships with the ancestral farm, but still enjoy the benefits of waged incomes in urban environments. These farms, where no one resides permanently and migrant workers provide the majority of manual labor cheaply, go against the grain of traditional farming in the United States. Survey patternsLong lots- (French) Houses erected on narrow lots perpendicular along a river, so that each original settler had equal river access. A system of farming where lots up to a half mile or more extend back from a river, which farmers use as their primary means of hauling their agricultural products to the market. Metes and bounds- (English) Uses physical features of the local geography, along with directions and distances, to define the boundaries of a particular piece of land. Metes refers to boundary defined by a measurement of a straight run, bounds refers to a more general boundary, such as a waterway, wall, public road, or existing building. Township-and-range- (U.S.A) Survey’s used west of Ohio, after the purchase of the Louisiana Purchase. Land is divided into six-mile square blocks (township), which is then divided into one-mile square blocks (range). Ranges were then broken into smaller parcels to be sold or given to people to develop. Sustainable yield- Ecological yield that can be extracted without reducing the base of capital itself, the surplus required to maintain nature’s services at the same or increasing level over time. Example, in fisheries the basic natural capital decreases with extraction, but productivity increases; so the sustainable yield is within the ranch that the natural capital together with production are able to provide satisfactory yield. Third agricultural revolution-‘Green Revolution’ Rapid diffusion of new agricultural techniques between 1970’s and 1980’s, especially new high-yield seeds and fertilizers. Has caused agricultural productivity at a global scale to increase faster than population growth. This transformation began in the latter half of the 2Oth century and corresponded with exponential population growth around the world. Mechanization- Farmers need tractors, irrigation pumps, and other machinery to make the most effective use of the new miracle seeds. Farmer’s in LDC’s cannot afford this machinery or the fuel to run the equipment, so governments must allocate funds to subsidizing the cost of seeds, fertilizers and machinery. Chemical farming- Increased use of fertilizers with nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium. The development of higher-yield crops has produced: a ‘miracle wheat seed” which is shorter and stiffer, less sensitive to variation in day length, responds better to fertilizers, and matures faster; a similar miracle rice seed, that was heartier and has increased yields; a high-yield corn seed is currently being developed. Food manufacturing- the Green Revolution has increased production to avoid widespread famine. Allowing the world population to grow about four billion since stared, also allowing populations in developing nations to consume 25% more than before. This increase in diets is questioned by the content in diets; Asian farmers are eating more rice than fish and other vegetables because they can rely on rice to grow efficiently. Topocide- The killing off of Iandscape to build a new one, topocide uses land for economic purposes in the sense that the intention is to destroy the previously existing landscape. “Tragedy of the commons”- social trap that involves a conflict over resources between interests and the common good. The parable demonstrates how free access and unrestricted demand for a finite resource ultimately dooms the resource through over-exploitation. This occurs because the benefits of exploitation accrue to individuals, each of which is motivated to maximize his or her own use of the resource, while the costs of exploitation are distributed between all those to whom the resource is available (which may be a wider class of individuals than those who are exploiting it). Garrett Hardin's term for the idea that humans will inevitably do what is best for themselves despite what is the best for the public good. Transhumance- pastoral practice of seasonal migration of livestock between mountains and lowland pasture areas; seasonal periodic movement of pastoralists and their livestock Truck farm- Commercial gardening and fruit farming, so named because truck was a Middle English word meaning bartering or the exchange of commodities. Predominant in Southeastern U.S.A, because of the long growing season and humid climate, accessibility to large markets of New York, Philadelphian, and Washington. Truck farms grow many of the fruits and vegetables that consumers demand in developed societies. Truck farms sell some of their product to fresh markets, but mostly to large processors for canning or freezing. Truck farms are highly efficient and large-scale operations that take full advantage of machines at every stage of the growing process. non-tropical and migrant labor. A form of truck farming is called specialty farming—where farmers are profitably growing crops that have limited but increasing demand among affluent customers, such as asparagus, peppers, mushrooms, strawberries, and nursery plants. Von Thünen, Johann Heinrich- 1826, Northern Germany. When choosing an enterprise, a commercial farmer compares two costs; cost of the land versus the cost of transporting production to market. Identifies a crop that can be sold for more than the land cost, distance of land to market is critical because the cost of transporting varies by crop. Also found that specific crops were grown in varying rings around city. Market-oriented gardens and milk producers in first ring, because of expense of transportation and perishability. In the next rings wood lots used for construction and fuel, because it is a heavy industry with high transportation costs. Next rings are used for various crops or pasture, with the outermost ring devoted to animal grazing. Von Thunen’s theory disregards site or human factors. Developed an Agricultural Land Use Model that suggested that certain crops were grown in direct relation to their distance to market. Wind Energy- Using the movement of wind to generate power by spinning the blades of windmills in wind parks, which then spin turbines, which then produce electricity, wind energy is one of the most promising types of renewable energy. Example: Receive wind energy through wind mills.