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Cognitivisme en constructivisme
Hoorcollege Didactiek 1
De -ismen
• Behaviorisme (1924 – Pavlov, Watson, Thorndyke,
Skinner)
• Cognitivisme (1956 – Bruner e.a.)
• Constructivisme (Piaget, 1923; Dewey, )
• Sociaal Constructivisme (Activity Theory, Vygotsky)
• Nieuwe ontwikkelingen en terugblik
De -ismen
• Onderwijsvisie
•
•
•
•
Onderzoeksbevindingen
Visie op het kind/de mens
Wetenschapsfilosofische visie
Maatschappijvisie
• Historie
• Geen opeenvolging
• Wel ‘modes’
• Debat/conflict
Behaviorisme: de
mechanica van het gedrag
Give me a dozen
Wat vooraf ging: Mentalism
• Psychology is the Science of Mental Life, both of its
phenomena and their conditions. The phenomena
are such things as we call feelings, desires,
cognitions, reasonings, and the like. (James, 1890).
• Depends upon being able to identify and classify
“feelings, desires, cognitions, reasonings, and the
like”
• Dependence on introspection and verbal reports
Skinner on operant conditioning
Behaviorisme
• Rejection of mentalism:
• appeal to thoughts and desires to explain behavior
• use of introspection to study conscious mental experience
• dependence upon verbal reports
• Aim: A complete explanation of all behavior in terms of
conditioned responses - e.g.
• Language as a complex set of conditioned responses – words produced
in response to particular objects or situations
• Analyzing a sentence as a chain of elements, each serving as a
conditional stimulus for the succeeding element
• Literatuur
• Pavlov (1904) Discovery of stimulus-response bond
• Watson (1913) ‘Psychology as the Behaviorist Views It’
• Skinner (1971) ‘Beyond Freedom and Dignity’
Behaviorisme - Trainingsschema's
variable interval/ratio, consistent and precise,
reinforcement stronger than punishment
Behaviorisme - transfer
• Generalisatie
Voorbeeld 1
rechthoek
Voorbeeld 2
Voorbeeld
3
Non
Voorb
eeld 2
Nonvoorbeeld 1
Behaviorisme - Taakanalyse
• subgoaling – isolate components of behaviour – to
create opportunities for positive reinforcement.
Behaviorisme - wereldbeeld
"Give me a dozen healthy infants,
well-formed, and my own specified
world to bring them up in and I'll
guarantee to take any one at
random and train him to become
any type of specialist I might select doctor, lawyer, artist, merchantchief, and yes, even beggarman and
thief, regardless of his penchants,
tendencies, abilities, vocations, and
race of his ancestors” (Watson,
1924).
Behaviorisme - Beperkingen
The majority of the rats
ended up choosing Path 6 in
the sunburst maze.
Path 6 ended up just in front
of where the entrance to the
food box had been - as
marked by the light
Cognitivisme: structuur,
brein informatie
Cognitivisme – kennisstructuren
GEEL
PAARS
ORANJE
BLAUW
GROEN
BLAUW
GEEL
GROEN
ROOD
BLAUW
ORANJE
ROOD
ZWART
PAARS
ORANJE
Cognitivisme – Structuur
• Kennis stuurt waarneming
• We zoeken regelmaat II I
• Achter een woord zit een
concept
• Leerparadox
• Creëer structuur
• Li, K, Ca, Na, Mg, Al, Zn, Fe, Sn,
Pb, Cu, Ag, Hg, Au
• mit, nach, bei, seit, von, zu,
entgegen, außer, aus,
gegenüber, an
Cognitivisme – geheugen en
chunking - betekenisvolle eenheden
De Groot, 1946
Newell & Simon, 1972
Cognitivisme – Novice -Expert
Problems that have something rotating
Inclined plane problems
Physics Novices
Card sorting (Chi, 1981)
Cognitivisme – Novice -Expert
Conservation of energy problems
Newton’s second law, F = m a
Cognitivisme – Transfer
• Using knowledge in a new context
• Deep vs. Surface similarity
• Rote vs. insightful
Bepaal de oppervlakte
Judd, 1908
Wertheimer, 1959
Expert behaviour – a model to
teach? – medical reasoning
• A 38-year-old, unemployed man with a history of
neurotic depressions and alcohol abuse. One year
earlier, this patient had had an attack of pancreatitis,
and now called the family physician with a complaint of
severe, boring pain in the upper part of the abdomen.
He suffers from a chronic relapsing alcohol-induced pancreatitis with minor pancreatic insufficiency.
• Novice (2nd year), intermediate (5th year), expert
• Elements of the case presented on cards
• Think aloud while reading cards, differential diagnosis at
the end. Sessions were tape recorded and transcribed
Analysis: rewrite in propositions – argument given? - classify
biomedical or clinical
Geheugen
• TEACHER: What number Equals 2 + 4 + 3?
• CHILD: 2 + 4 = 6, now, what was the other number?
• TEACHER: What number Equals 2 + 4 + 3?
• CHILD: Now, 2 plus, uh, what are the other
numbers?
• 6-and-7-year-olds, M-space 3 on average
• Adult: 7±2 (limited evidence)
(Romberg & Collis, 1987)
Geheugen
Input
Sensorische
buffer
Werkgeheugen
Langetermijngeheugen
Response
Sensorisch geheugen
(buffer)
Werkgeheugen (STM)
Lange-termijngeheugen
(LTM)
Grootte
groot
klein (7 ± 2?)
groot
Inhoud
sensorische input
verbaal/visueel
episodisch/semantisch
Duur
0,5 s
20-30 s
permanent
Bron
omgeving
omgeving en LTM
vanuit STM
Verlies
verval
overschrijven/verval
onvindbaarheid
Redundante informatie
Experiment compared reading materials consisting solely of simple prose
passages with materials consisting of the same passages plus informative
illustrations depicting the content of each passage. Reading proficiency
improved more under the no illustrations condition (children aged 6-7).
“Uninformative” illustrations had no such effect.
It was concluded that informative illustrations are redundant and so impose an
extraneous working memory load that interferes with learning to read.
Torcasio, S., & Sweller, J. (2010). The use of illustrations when learning to read: A cognitive
load theory approach. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 24(5), 659-672.
Cognitive load
• Focus on working memory load
• Germane load (growing insight)
• Intrinsic load (nessecary for the learning task)
• Extrinsic load
• Highly critical of:
• ‘Interesting’ illustrations and examples
• Inquiry and discovery learning
• Advocates
• Multi-channel information (diagram + auditory)
• Direct instruction
• Component skills first, then build more complex
Meta-cognition – planning and control
force
pict
math
writt
read
anal
expl
plan
impl
verif
Time (minutes)
Time (minutes)
Meta-cognitie – te onderwijzen?
Instructietheorieën
• Gagne
• Van Merrienboer - Ten steps to complex learning
http://web.mit.edu/xtalks/TenStepsToComplexLearning-Kirschner-VanMerrienboer.pdf
Direct Instruction
Constructivisme: mens
zoekt betekenis
Beyond Cold Conceptual Change
• The article highlights the difficulties of a cold, or overly
rational, model of conceptual change that focuses only on
student cognition without considering the ways in which
students' motivational beliefs about themselves as learners
and the roles of individuals in a classroom learning
community can facilitate or hinder conceptual change
• If students did not see themselves as intentional learners
with some control over their learning, they might be less
willing to try actively to resolve discrepancies between their
prior knowledge and the new information. Instead, they
might regard the discrepancies as something beyond their
understanding, something that takes place in the classroom
but not under their control.
Pintrich, P. R., Marx, R. W., & Boyle, R. A. (1993). Beyond cold conceptual change: The
role of motivational beliefs and classroom contextual factors in the process of
conceptual change. Review of Educational research, 63(2), 167-199.
Evolutionair/ Bildung
• Non scholæ sed vitæ
discimus
• Betekenis zoeken in dienst
van (over)leven
• Genesis
• Rousseau (Emile)
• Goethe (Wilhelm Meister)
Context – Wason selection problem
R 7 2 Q
If there is an R on one side of the card, then there is a 2
on the other (Wason, 1966).
Which cards need to be turned over to verify wether
the rule is correct?
Context
Manche
ster
Train
Leeds
Car
Every time I go to Manchester I travel by car (Wason, Shapiro 1971).
Bus
No
tickect
Bike
Ticket
Deontic: if I go by bus, I should buy a ticket (Cosmides1989)
Veel kennis is context-gebonden
(situated)
• Biodiversiteit
• Van ’Transfer’ naar ’Recontextualiseren’
Als je wiskunde nodig hebt…
• Mensen zonder formele kennis ontwikkelen
effectieve strategiën (Ethnomathematics)
• Braziliaanse straatverkopers
• wisselgeld
• Klanten in de supermarkt (Lave, 1988)
• Goedkoopste aanbieding
• Weight watchers
• 3/4 van een 2/3 OZ bakje kwark
Genetisch-Socratisch-Exemplarisch
• Verstehen ist ein Menschenrecht
• Genetisch
• Beginnen vanuit leerlingdenken
• Dragende vragen ontwikkelen met de leerlingen zonder ze
zelf te stellen
• Socratisch
• Waarnemen en redeneren, autoriteit is geen argument
• Proberen de ander te begrijpen
• Je weet niet precies waar je uitkomt
• Exemplarisch
• Selecteer ”dragende” voorbeelden voor diepgaande
behandeling
• Mut zur Lücke
Wagenschein, 1968
Wagenschein - Socratisch
• Verdunklendes Wissen
•
•
•
•
Water kookt bij 100 graden (Genseberger)
De aarde draait om zijn as
Met C14 methode kunnen we weten hoe oud iets is
Democratie is goed
• Wie aber kann man einwenden, wenn dass Kind schon
weiß dass die Erde rotiert? In diesem heute kaum
vermeidlichen Fall bewährt sich der Frontalangriff auf
das Scheinwissen: ”Wie, ihr glaubt das, wo doch kein
ständiger Ostenwind weht, und die Apfel niet, wie sie
dan doch müßten, in des übernächsten westlichen
Nachbars Garten schwirren!” Mehr Studenten als zu
hoffen wäre, sind gegen diesen Einwand Wehrlos. - Es
setzt dann ebenfalls ein Staunen ein, ein echt
Sokratisches.
The Beautiful Risk of Education
“(..) the experience of being taught, the experience of
receiving the gift of teaching, is not an experience that
can be produced by the teacher – which means that the
teacher’s power to teach is a weak, existential power, a
power that relies on interaction and encounter and not a
strong, metaphysical power.”
“Yet taking the risk out of education is exactly what
teachers are increasingly being asked to do. […] Policy
makers, politicians, the popular press, “the public,” and
organizations such as the OECD and the World Bank […]
want education to be strong, secure, and predictable,
and want it to be risk-free at all levels.”
‘the language of learning’ replaces ‘the
language of education’
Onderzoekend leren in een
authentieke praktijk
• Klimaatmodelleren ”Voorspellen is moeilijk”
• VWO 5/6
• Motief: wat is de toekomst van ons klimaat, hoe krijgen
we zekerheid?
• Open opzet, veel tijd voor formuleren vragen
• Uiteindelijk wel min of meer vast eindpunt
• Leraar geeft eigen draai (”Chris” en ”Dirk”)
• Verwachtingen “de goede leraar”
• Legt duidelijk uit
• Verdeelt moeilijke problemen in subvragen
• Need for closure
Ormel (2009).
Constructive alignment
Susan likes to get to the
bottom of things, to reach
understanding. She often
reflects on possibilities,
implications, applications.
Robert is a different type of
student, his goal is to get a
piece of paper, … and a decent
job
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6Ngc9ihb35g
Self Determination Theory
• Psychologische basisbehoeften
• Autonomie, Relatie, Competentie.
• Motivatie (drive) tot gedrag dat bijdraagt aan
behoeftenvervulling
• Kwaliteit van motivatie:
Educational reconstruction
• Analyse van vakinhoud, ook vanuit historisch en
maatschappelijk perspectief
• Geschiedenis niet als keurslijf maar als inspiratie
• Onderzoek van leerling- en docentperspectieven
(oa. voorkennis, en –vaardigheden, interesse,
houding, self-efficacy)
• Ontwerp en evaluatie van onderwijs (teaching and
learning sequences)
Duit, R., Gropengießer, H., Kattmann, U., Komorek, M., &
Parchmann, I. (2012). The Model of Educational
Reconstruction–a Framework for Improving Teaching and
Learning Science1. In Science education research and
practice in Europe (pp. 13-37). SensePublishers.
Sociaal constructivisme
Deelname aan cultuur, gemedieerd door
taal
• Vygotsky, Dewey – inwijding in de cultuur,
• de leraar als vertegenwoordiger van die cultuur (More
Knowledgeable Other)
• Mediating tools
• Zone of Proximal Development
Tools & Signs
Subject
Object
Sociomathematical norms
Yackel & Cobb, 1996
Kennis bestaat in sociale gemeenschap
• Lave ea. Community of Practice
• Woorden verwijzen naar sociale constructen
• Taal (sociale conventie) bepaalt wat je kunt zeggen
• Legitimate peripheral participation
• Maar ook postmodernisme
• Kuhn - Paradigmashift
• Latour & Woolgar (1979) ”In the process of
communicating the results of their work, facts harden as
scientists construct arguments to convince their peers
• Macht/de Leitkultur wordt geproblematiseerd
Historisch besef
• de samenhang tussen
interpretatie van het
verleden, het begrijpen
van het heden en het
perspectief op de
toekomst.’
• moet leiden tot
‘competent gedrag’ op
basis van kennis van de
geschiedenis.
• Gedeeld verleden?
Projecten, authentieke praktijken,
leraar als cultuurdrager
maar ook
Anti oppressive pedagogies (Freire)
en ook
Nieuw leren, 21st century skills,
leraar als facilitator
Reflectie
Woorden en betekenissen
Behaviorisme
Cognitivisme
Construct.
Motivatie
Beloning
?
Zingeving
Kennis
S -> R
Structuur
Betekenis
Feedback
Beloning
Informatie
School
Handige
organisatievor
m
Leraar
Reinforcer
Soc. Construct
Lerende
Cultuur/
Consensus
Curriculum
Community
Informatiebron
More Knowledgable Other?
Cultuurdrager?
Facilitator?
Aan de activiteit kent men het
paradigma?
• Memoriseren, dús behavioristisch?
• Samenwerkend leren, dús constructivistisch?
• Nee, zie bijv. Ebbens – nadruk op procesvaardigheden.
Epistemologie en cultures of
curriculum
• Wat is kennis, wat is waarheid?
• Pre-reflective reasoning
• "When there is evidence that people can give to convince
everybody one way or another, then it will be knowledge,
until then, it's just a guess."Quasi-reflective reasoning
• Quasi-reflective reasoning
• "People think differently and so they attack the problem
differently. Other theories could be as true as my own, but
based on different evidence.”
• Reflective reasoning
• "One can judge an argument by how well thought-out the
positions are, what kinds of reasoning and evidence are used
to support it, and how consistent the way one argues on this
topic is as compared with other topics."
King & Kitchener, 1994
Alles komt terug/Nog relevant?
USA: culture wars
• Skinner’s 1953 book “Science and Human Behavior”
lent solid experimental backing to the more traditional
methods of education that had been practiced for
thousands of years until their overthrow by Dewey. But
Dewey’s die had been firmly cast and constructivism
continued to gain momentum until it now completely
dominates education in the United States. Like the
failed Soviet economy, however, the evident failings of
constructivist ideology are prompting traditionalists,
buttressed by the proven findings of behaviorism, to
begin striving for more control in the decision-making
and policy setting of our educational institutions.
http://bakeramitchell.com/2011/05/20/behaviorism-vs-constructivism/
On two metaphors of learning and
the dangers of choosing just one
• Acquisition
• Participation
Sfard, A. (1998)
End