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Cognitivisme en constructivisme Hoorcollege Didactiek 1 De -ismen • Behaviorisme (1924 – Pavlov, Watson, Thorndyke, Skinner) • Cognitivisme (1956 – Bruner e.a.) • Constructivisme (Piaget, 1923; Dewey, ) • Sociaal Constructivisme (Activity Theory, Vygotsky) • Nieuwe ontwikkelingen en terugblik De -ismen • Onderwijsvisie • • • • Onderzoeksbevindingen Visie op het kind/de mens Wetenschapsfilosofische visie Maatschappijvisie • Historie • Geen opeenvolging • Wel ‘modes’ • Debat/conflict Behaviorisme: de mechanica van het gedrag Give me a dozen Wat vooraf ging: Mentalism • Psychology is the Science of Mental Life, both of its phenomena and their conditions. The phenomena are such things as we call feelings, desires, cognitions, reasonings, and the like. (James, 1890). • Depends upon being able to identify and classify “feelings, desires, cognitions, reasonings, and the like” • Dependence on introspection and verbal reports Skinner on operant conditioning Behaviorisme • Rejection of mentalism: • appeal to thoughts and desires to explain behavior • use of introspection to study conscious mental experience • dependence upon verbal reports • Aim: A complete explanation of all behavior in terms of conditioned responses - e.g. • Language as a complex set of conditioned responses – words produced in response to particular objects or situations • Analyzing a sentence as a chain of elements, each serving as a conditional stimulus for the succeeding element • Literatuur • Pavlov (1904) Discovery of stimulus-response bond • Watson (1913) ‘Psychology as the Behaviorist Views It’ • Skinner (1971) ‘Beyond Freedom and Dignity’ Behaviorisme - Trainingsschema's variable interval/ratio, consistent and precise, reinforcement stronger than punishment Behaviorisme - transfer • Generalisatie Voorbeeld 1 rechthoek Voorbeeld 2 Voorbeeld 3 Non Voorb eeld 2 Nonvoorbeeld 1 Behaviorisme - Taakanalyse • subgoaling – isolate components of behaviour – to create opportunities for positive reinforcement. Behaviorisme - wereldbeeld "Give me a dozen healthy infants, well-formed, and my own specified world to bring them up in and I'll guarantee to take any one at random and train him to become any type of specialist I might select doctor, lawyer, artist, merchantchief, and yes, even beggarman and thief, regardless of his penchants, tendencies, abilities, vocations, and race of his ancestors” (Watson, 1924). Behaviorisme - Beperkingen The majority of the rats ended up choosing Path 6 in the sunburst maze. Path 6 ended up just in front of where the entrance to the food box had been - as marked by the light Cognitivisme: structuur, brein informatie Cognitivisme – kennisstructuren GEEL PAARS ORANJE BLAUW GROEN BLAUW GEEL GROEN ROOD BLAUW ORANJE ROOD ZWART PAARS ORANJE Cognitivisme – Structuur • Kennis stuurt waarneming • We zoeken regelmaat II I • Achter een woord zit een concept • Leerparadox • Creëer structuur • Li, K, Ca, Na, Mg, Al, Zn, Fe, Sn, Pb, Cu, Ag, Hg, Au • mit, nach, bei, seit, von, zu, entgegen, außer, aus, gegenüber, an Cognitivisme – geheugen en chunking - betekenisvolle eenheden De Groot, 1946 Newell & Simon, 1972 Cognitivisme – Novice -Expert Problems that have something rotating Inclined plane problems Physics Novices Card sorting (Chi, 1981) Cognitivisme – Novice -Expert Conservation of energy problems Newton’s second law, F = m a Cognitivisme – Transfer • Using knowledge in a new context • Deep vs. Surface similarity • Rote vs. insightful Bepaal de oppervlakte Judd, 1908 Wertheimer, 1959 Expert behaviour – a model to teach? – medical reasoning • A 38-year-old, unemployed man with a history of neurotic depressions and alcohol abuse. One year earlier, this patient had had an attack of pancreatitis, and now called the family physician with a complaint of severe, boring pain in the upper part of the abdomen. He suffers from a chronic relapsing alcohol-induced pancreatitis with minor pancreatic insufficiency. • Novice (2nd year), intermediate (5th year), expert • Elements of the case presented on cards • Think aloud while reading cards, differential diagnosis at the end. Sessions were tape recorded and transcribed Analysis: rewrite in propositions – argument given? - classify biomedical or clinical Geheugen • TEACHER: What number Equals 2 + 4 + 3? • CHILD: 2 + 4 = 6, now, what was the other number? • TEACHER: What number Equals 2 + 4 + 3? • CHILD: Now, 2 plus, uh, what are the other numbers? • 6-and-7-year-olds, M-space 3 on average • Adult: 7±2 (limited evidence) (Romberg & Collis, 1987) Geheugen Input Sensorische buffer Werkgeheugen Langetermijngeheugen Response Sensorisch geheugen (buffer) Werkgeheugen (STM) Lange-termijngeheugen (LTM) Grootte groot klein (7 ± 2?) groot Inhoud sensorische input verbaal/visueel episodisch/semantisch Duur 0,5 s 20-30 s permanent Bron omgeving omgeving en LTM vanuit STM Verlies verval overschrijven/verval onvindbaarheid Redundante informatie Experiment compared reading materials consisting solely of simple prose passages with materials consisting of the same passages plus informative illustrations depicting the content of each passage. Reading proficiency improved more under the no illustrations condition (children aged 6-7). “Uninformative” illustrations had no such effect. It was concluded that informative illustrations are redundant and so impose an extraneous working memory load that interferes with learning to read. Torcasio, S., & Sweller, J. (2010). The use of illustrations when learning to read: A cognitive load theory approach. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 24(5), 659-672. Cognitive load • Focus on working memory load • Germane load (growing insight) • Intrinsic load (nessecary for the learning task) • Extrinsic load • Highly critical of: • ‘Interesting’ illustrations and examples • Inquiry and discovery learning • Advocates • Multi-channel information (diagram + auditory) • Direct instruction • Component skills first, then build more complex Meta-cognition – planning and control force pict math writt read anal expl plan impl verif Time (minutes) Time (minutes) Meta-cognitie – te onderwijzen? Instructietheorieën • Gagne • Van Merrienboer - Ten steps to complex learning http://web.mit.edu/xtalks/TenStepsToComplexLearning-Kirschner-VanMerrienboer.pdf Direct Instruction Constructivisme: mens zoekt betekenis Beyond Cold Conceptual Change • The article highlights the difficulties of a cold, or overly rational, model of conceptual change that focuses only on student cognition without considering the ways in which students' motivational beliefs about themselves as learners and the roles of individuals in a classroom learning community can facilitate or hinder conceptual change • If students did not see themselves as intentional learners with some control over their learning, they might be less willing to try actively to resolve discrepancies between their prior knowledge and the new information. Instead, they might regard the discrepancies as something beyond their understanding, something that takes place in the classroom but not under their control. Pintrich, P. R., Marx, R. W., & Boyle, R. A. (1993). Beyond cold conceptual change: The role of motivational beliefs and classroom contextual factors in the process of conceptual change. Review of Educational research, 63(2), 167-199. Evolutionair/ Bildung • Non scholæ sed vitæ discimus • Betekenis zoeken in dienst van (over)leven • Genesis • Rousseau (Emile) • Goethe (Wilhelm Meister) Context – Wason selection problem R 7 2 Q If there is an R on one side of the card, then there is a 2 on the other (Wason, 1966). Which cards need to be turned over to verify wether the rule is correct? Context Manche ster Train Leeds Car Every time I go to Manchester I travel by car (Wason, Shapiro 1971). Bus No tickect Bike Ticket Deontic: if I go by bus, I should buy a ticket (Cosmides1989) Veel kennis is context-gebonden (situated) • Biodiversiteit • Van ’Transfer’ naar ’Recontextualiseren’ Als je wiskunde nodig hebt… • Mensen zonder formele kennis ontwikkelen effectieve strategiën (Ethnomathematics) • Braziliaanse straatverkopers • wisselgeld • Klanten in de supermarkt (Lave, 1988) • Goedkoopste aanbieding • Weight watchers • 3/4 van een 2/3 OZ bakje kwark Genetisch-Socratisch-Exemplarisch • Verstehen ist ein Menschenrecht • Genetisch • Beginnen vanuit leerlingdenken • Dragende vragen ontwikkelen met de leerlingen zonder ze zelf te stellen • Socratisch • Waarnemen en redeneren, autoriteit is geen argument • Proberen de ander te begrijpen • Je weet niet precies waar je uitkomt • Exemplarisch • Selecteer ”dragende” voorbeelden voor diepgaande behandeling • Mut zur Lücke Wagenschein, 1968 Wagenschein - Socratisch • Verdunklendes Wissen • • • • Water kookt bij 100 graden (Genseberger) De aarde draait om zijn as Met C14 methode kunnen we weten hoe oud iets is Democratie is goed • Wie aber kann man einwenden, wenn dass Kind schon weiß dass die Erde rotiert? In diesem heute kaum vermeidlichen Fall bewährt sich der Frontalangriff auf das Scheinwissen: ”Wie, ihr glaubt das, wo doch kein ständiger Ostenwind weht, und die Apfel niet, wie sie dan doch müßten, in des übernächsten westlichen Nachbars Garten schwirren!” Mehr Studenten als zu hoffen wäre, sind gegen diesen Einwand Wehrlos. - Es setzt dann ebenfalls ein Staunen ein, ein echt Sokratisches. The Beautiful Risk of Education “(..) the experience of being taught, the experience of receiving the gift of teaching, is not an experience that can be produced by the teacher – which means that the teacher’s power to teach is a weak, existential power, a power that relies on interaction and encounter and not a strong, metaphysical power.” “Yet taking the risk out of education is exactly what teachers are increasingly being asked to do. […] Policy makers, politicians, the popular press, “the public,” and organizations such as the OECD and the World Bank […] want education to be strong, secure, and predictable, and want it to be risk-free at all levels.” ‘the language of learning’ replaces ‘the language of education’ Onderzoekend leren in een authentieke praktijk • Klimaatmodelleren ”Voorspellen is moeilijk” • VWO 5/6 • Motief: wat is de toekomst van ons klimaat, hoe krijgen we zekerheid? • Open opzet, veel tijd voor formuleren vragen • Uiteindelijk wel min of meer vast eindpunt • Leraar geeft eigen draai (”Chris” en ”Dirk”) • Verwachtingen “de goede leraar” • Legt duidelijk uit • Verdeelt moeilijke problemen in subvragen • Need for closure Ormel (2009). Constructive alignment Susan likes to get to the bottom of things, to reach understanding. She often reflects on possibilities, implications, applications. Robert is a different type of student, his goal is to get a piece of paper, … and a decent job https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6Ngc9ihb35g Self Determination Theory • Psychologische basisbehoeften • Autonomie, Relatie, Competentie. • Motivatie (drive) tot gedrag dat bijdraagt aan behoeftenvervulling • Kwaliteit van motivatie: Educational reconstruction • Analyse van vakinhoud, ook vanuit historisch en maatschappelijk perspectief • Geschiedenis niet als keurslijf maar als inspiratie • Onderzoek van leerling- en docentperspectieven (oa. voorkennis, en –vaardigheden, interesse, houding, self-efficacy) • Ontwerp en evaluatie van onderwijs (teaching and learning sequences) Duit, R., Gropengießer, H., Kattmann, U., Komorek, M., & Parchmann, I. (2012). The Model of Educational Reconstruction–a Framework for Improving Teaching and Learning Science1. In Science education research and practice in Europe (pp. 13-37). SensePublishers. Sociaal constructivisme Deelname aan cultuur, gemedieerd door taal • Vygotsky, Dewey – inwijding in de cultuur, • de leraar als vertegenwoordiger van die cultuur (More Knowledgeable Other) • Mediating tools • Zone of Proximal Development Tools & Signs Subject Object Sociomathematical norms Yackel & Cobb, 1996 Kennis bestaat in sociale gemeenschap • Lave ea. Community of Practice • Woorden verwijzen naar sociale constructen • Taal (sociale conventie) bepaalt wat je kunt zeggen • Legitimate peripheral participation • Maar ook postmodernisme • Kuhn - Paradigmashift • Latour & Woolgar (1979) ”In the process of communicating the results of their work, facts harden as scientists construct arguments to convince their peers • Macht/de Leitkultur wordt geproblematiseerd Historisch besef • de samenhang tussen interpretatie van het verleden, het begrijpen van het heden en het perspectief op de toekomst.’ • moet leiden tot ‘competent gedrag’ op basis van kennis van de geschiedenis. • Gedeeld verleden? Projecten, authentieke praktijken, leraar als cultuurdrager maar ook Anti oppressive pedagogies (Freire) en ook Nieuw leren, 21st century skills, leraar als facilitator Reflectie Woorden en betekenissen Behaviorisme Cognitivisme Construct. Motivatie Beloning ? Zingeving Kennis S -> R Structuur Betekenis Feedback Beloning Informatie School Handige organisatievor m Leraar Reinforcer Soc. Construct Lerende Cultuur/ Consensus Curriculum Community Informatiebron More Knowledgable Other? Cultuurdrager? Facilitator? Aan de activiteit kent men het paradigma? • Memoriseren, dús behavioristisch? • Samenwerkend leren, dús constructivistisch? • Nee, zie bijv. Ebbens – nadruk op procesvaardigheden. Epistemologie en cultures of curriculum • Wat is kennis, wat is waarheid? • Pre-reflective reasoning • "When there is evidence that people can give to convince everybody one way or another, then it will be knowledge, until then, it's just a guess."Quasi-reflective reasoning • Quasi-reflective reasoning • "People think differently and so they attack the problem differently. Other theories could be as true as my own, but based on different evidence.” • Reflective reasoning • "One can judge an argument by how well thought-out the positions are, what kinds of reasoning and evidence are used to support it, and how consistent the way one argues on this topic is as compared with other topics." King & Kitchener, 1994 Alles komt terug/Nog relevant? USA: culture wars • Skinner’s 1953 book “Science and Human Behavior” lent solid experimental backing to the more traditional methods of education that had been practiced for thousands of years until their overthrow by Dewey. But Dewey’s die had been firmly cast and constructivism continued to gain momentum until it now completely dominates education in the United States. Like the failed Soviet economy, however, the evident failings of constructivist ideology are prompting traditionalists, buttressed by the proven findings of behaviorism, to begin striving for more control in the decision-making and policy setting of our educational institutions. http://bakeramitchell.com/2011/05/20/behaviorism-vs-constructivism/ On two metaphors of learning and the dangers of choosing just one • Acquisition • Participation Sfard, A. (1998) End