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Germany 1919–1945
GCSE AQA A e-textbook
Teacher’s Introduction ............................................................................................................................................. 2
Part One: The Nazi Rise to Power ......................................................................................................................... 3
1.1 Overview of: The Nazi Rise to Power .................................................................................................................. 3
1.2 What were the weaknesses and strengths of Weimar democracy? .................................................................. 5
Key Question One............................................................................................................................................................... 8
Key Question Two ............................................................................................................................................................ 13
Key Question Three .......................................................................................................................................................... 19
Key Question Four............................................................................................................................................................ 23
1.3 Key Issue: How was Hitler able to come to power? ......................................................................................... 28
Key Question One............................................................................................................................................................. 29
Key Question Two ............................................................................................................................................................ 30
Key Question Three .......................................................................................................................................................... 36
Part Two: Control and Opposition ...................................................................................................................... 41
2.1 Overview of: Control and Opposition................................................................................................................ 41
2.2 How did Hitler create a dictatorship? ................................................................................................................ 42
Key Question One............................................................................................................................................................. 43
2.3 How effectively did the Nazis control Germany in the years 1933–1945? .................................................... 48
Key Question One............................................................................................................................................................. 49
Key Question Two ............................................................................................................................................................ 56
Key Question Three .......................................................................................................................................................... 58
Part Three: German Economy and Society ........................................................................................................ 67
3.1 Overview of: German Economy and Society ..................................................................................................... 67
3.2 How much change did the Nazis bring about in German society? ................................................................. 68
Key Question One............................................................................................................................................................. 68
Key Question Two ............................................................................................................................................................ 71
3.3 How successful were the Nazis in rebuilding the German economy? ............................................................ 74
Key Question One............................................................................................................................................................. 75
Key Question Two ............................................................................................................................................................ 78
Part Four: Race and Youth ..................................................................................................................................... 84
4.1 Overview of: Race and Youth .............................................................................................................................. 84
4.2 How successful were the Nazis in influencing young people? ........................................................................ 85
Key Question One............................................................................................................................................................. 86
Key Question Two ............................................................................................................................................................ 91
4.3 How important in Germany were Nazis’ ideas on race? ................................................................................. 93
Key Question One............................................................................................................................................................. 94
Key Question Two ............................................................................................................................................................ 99
Part Five: Culture and Propaganda.................................................................................................................... 107
5.1 How did the Nazis change the cultural climate of Weimar Germany? ....................................................... 107
Key Question One........................................................................................................................................................... 108
Key Question Two .......................................................................................................................................................... 113
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Student’s Introduction
This e-textbook is divided into five parts in line with specification requirements:
1. The Nazis’ Rise to Power
2. Control and Opposition
3. German Economy and Society
4. Race and Youth
5. Culture and Propaganda
These resources have been designed primarily to focus teaching and learning towards specific
examination-based criteria. Their aim is to improve pupils’ key content knowledge and provide a wider
understanding of a key historical period in depth – Germany, 1919–1945. They also intend to provide
pupils with the historical skills and confidence to undertake more detailed and precise examination
answers. Resources have been developed around key ‘examination-style’ questions, which in turn have
been broken down into ‘bite-sized’ chunks, for easy access. To this end, the resource has been strongly
structured. Each section begins with an ‘Overview’ page, which highlights the key points you will need
to know. This provides a framework for you to organise your learning, and is also useful as a revision
tool. Each subsection/chapter has a further summary page, which outlines the key aspects from the
specification and the student learning objectives which are covered by the subsection. These allow you
to see in a visual format what is covered by the subsection/chapter and highlight key developments and
trends, which you must grasp to succeed in the exam. Each subsection has been styled around key
‘examination-style’ questions, which in turn have been broken down into ‘bite-sized’ chunks, for easy
access.
These questions are initially presented under the heading ‘Key Question’, providing all the
information you need to be able to tackle the question. The notes on each key question are followed by
activities, which help you really get to grips with what you have learnt and develop your empathetic
abilities. Armed with all the information and skills you need, you can then try the question, developing
your exam skills throughout the course.
I hope that they prove useful to all.
A McLeod, February 2015
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Section 1: The Nazi Rise to Power
1.1 Overview of: The Nazi Rise to Power
The Early Years: The
Weimar Republic between
1919 and 1923
Previously the German Reich
(1871–1918) until Germany lost
WW1 and the Kaiser
abdicated.
The early Weimar Republic
was formed out of the chaos of
post-war Germany and
experiences many problems...
Problem 1: Left-wing ‘Spartacist
Uprising’ (1919) was crushed
by right-wing Freikorps.
Problem 2: Weak coalition
government struggled to
govern, whilst the President
could overrule parliament.
Problem 3: Treaty of Versailles
conditions were very harsh on
Germany.
Problem 4: The right-wing
Kapp Putsch (1920) lost
support after the left-wing
general strike.
Stresemann as Foreign Minister
(1924–1929): agreed fairer
reparations, joined the League
of Nations and improved the
economy.
Stresemann as Chancellor in
1923: called off Ruhr passive
resistance, repaid reparations
and introduced new currency.
Recovery between 1924 and
1929
Increasing Support for the
Nazi Party
Support for Nazism from
different social groups in the
years to 1929
Strengths: received notoriety
after ‘Munich Beer Hall Putsch’,
Mein Kampf and party
reorganised.
Weaknesses: performed badly in
elections, whilst economic
conditions and living standards
improved, so many ignored
extreme political parties.
Key Event 3: Hitler’s
unsuccessful Munich Putsch
Key Event 2: German
government printed more
currency to pay strikers’
wages, causing hyperinflation
and contributing to...
Key Event 1: French troops
invaded and occupied the
Ruhr, demanding reparations
payments. German
government organised passive
resistance, leading to...
In the mid-1920s, Hitler’s Nazi
Party was still a small political
party. However, by 1932 they had
gained the most votes in parliament.
This was due to...
...the Wall Street Crash of 1929
(the Great Depression). Hitler
argued that Germany had over
relied on other countries and
that the government was weak.
Nazism appealed to many
Germans afraid of job losses and
pay cuts.
Key Events of 1923...
Origins of the Nazi Party
(NSDAP): 1919 Hitler joined
Nationalist Party (DAP). 1920
became Nazi Party. ‘TwentyFive Point Programme’ –
future policies.
Challenges and Recovery:
The Impact of Economic
Problems 1923–1929
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...a well-structured Nazi Party,
using propaganda, huge rallies
and the SA/SS to intimidate
opponents.
© ZigZag Education, 2015
Overview of: The Nazi Rise to Power
Origins of the Nazi Party (NSDAP)
 1919 – Hitler met and was impressed by Drexler, leader of the DAP.
 Early members included nationalistic ex-soldiers and Freikorps and Germans
angry with the conditions of the Versailles Treaty.
 1920 – Hitler played major role in changing the party to NSDAP (National
A young soldier called
Adolf Hitler was
surprised and angered
by Germany’s surrender
in the First World War.
Socialist German Workers’ Party / Nazi Party).
 ‘Twenty-Five Point Programme’ – this outlined nationalistic and racist Nazi
policies that they intended to advance in the future.
 Nazi Party strengthened by mid-1920s – SA and SS (private armies) formed.
By 1932, the Nazi Party
had the highest amount of
votes, but Hindenburg
refused to make Hitler
Chancellor...
 Nazi seats in 1932 Elections: June=37% / Nov=33%.
 No Nazi majority (i.e. 51%) meant Nazis could be
outvoted.
 Losing 4 seats meant people were voting against Nazis.
 Nazi Party nearly bankrupt; urgently needed more
money. Hindenburg made Hitler Chancellor in January.
1933.
The Importance of Hitler and Other Leaders in the Success of the Nazis
Goebbels’ Role
 Keen and trusted
Hitler supporter.
 Became Nazi
Propaganda
Minister.
 Effective writing
and speaking
skills.
Hitler’s Role
Strengths:
 Successfully used democratic process to dismantle it.
 Leadership, decision-making and oratory skills.
Weaknesses:
 Never gained full support of all Germans.
 Opposition to Hitler never completely ceased.
 More involved in foreign policy and rearmament
than in domestic affairs.
 Often short-tempered, which made delivering bad
Röhm’s Role
 Ex-Freikorps
supporter of
Munich Beer Hall
Putsch.
 Built up SA in
early 1920s.
 Executed in 1934
after internal
power struggle.
news a difficult task.
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1.2 What were the weaknesses and strengths of Weimar democracy?

LEARNING OBJECTIVES –
YOU WILL NEED TO:
SPECIFICATION FOCUS
 Understand the changes that occurred in
Germany following the First World War
 Demonstrate the reasons why the Treaty of
Versailles was so unpopular in Germany
 Explain why the Weimar Republic experienced
so many problems between 1919 and 1923
 Understand the ideas behind the formation of
the Nazi Party and what they set out to achieve
 Explain what Hitler set out to achieve during
the Munich Putsch and the consequences on
the future of the Nazi Party
 Describe Stresemann’s role in Weimar
Republic successes between 1923 and 1929
 The nature of Weimar
democracy
 Post-war economic conditions
as a cause of discontent
 Revolts, rebellions and
opposition to Weimar, 1919–
1923
 The origins and history of
National Socialism, 1919–
1925
 The Munich Putsch, 1923
 Stresemann and Weimar
successes, 1923–1929

KEY TERMS
Germany (The German Reich) – This name was given to the states that collectively formed the
country in 1871 and the name Germany is still used today. The following will also be used to
highlight the different periods of political rule between 1871 and 1945:
1 The German Reich
(German Empire),
1871–1918
2 The Weimar Republic,
1919–1933
3 The Third Reich or Nazi
Germany,
1933–1945
Armistice – When countries involved in a particular war agree to stop fighting and to negotiate
peace settlements.
Chancellor – In Germany, this title refers to the Head of Government (known as Prime Minister in
the UK or President in the USA). The German Chancellor is not to be confused with the UK
Government’s Chancellor of the Exchequer, who is responsible for monetary/economic issues.
Coalition Governments – This is when the country is run by elected members of more than one
political party. This happens when one political party cannot gain enough votes to receive a
majority in parliament (e.g. 51%). Germany was run by a series of coalition governments from 1919
to the time of the Third Reich / Nazi Germany in 1933.
The Treaty of Versailles – This agreement between the Triple Entente / Allies (those countries that
won the war) punished Germany for its involvement in the First World War. Many harsh
conditions were placed on Germany, which contributed to further political, economic and social
instability.
NSDAP – Also known as the Nazi Party and the National Socialist German Workers’ Party
(National Socialism), the NSDAP was led by Hitler from 1920 and ruled Germany from 1933 until
the end of the Second World War in 1945.
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Background: Key German Events before 1919
Germany Unites
Before 1871, Germany was not a country as it is
FOR YOUR INFORMATION
today, but rather different states. After a short war
Although this topic begins in 1919, shortly after
with France called the Franco-Prussian War (1870–
the end of the First World War, it is important
1871), these German states united to form one
to know about the key events and trends that
country known as the German Reich, or Germany. By
occurred in Germany before this period. This is
uniting, Germany not only became larger but also
because these resulted in a clash of ideas and
became a very powerful country within Europe with
events that shaped Germany for the next
a strong industrial base and military. Germany had a
quarter of a century.
parliament called the Reichstag, which was led by the
Chancellor (the chief parliamentary minister). Parliament was ruled by the Kaiser (similar to a king or
emperor), who was related to Queen Victoria and was descended from the kings of Prussia (the most
powerful German state).
The Kaiser:
• Was responsible for overseeing how the country was run
• Had the power to appoint the Chancellor and dismiss ministers as he saw fit
Map of the German Reich/Empire (1871–1918)
There were many differences amongst the German people. These included religious beliefs, cultural and
social practices and the types of work they did (e.g. industry and farming). However, many Germans
were united in their beliefs in duty and authority. Many also believed that a strong country was
important, both at home and abroad. By the early twentieth century, Germany’s economic success and
the support of many German people contributed to the country having one of the best standards of
living in the world. This included good housing and diet, widespread education and help for the
unemployed. Germany soon started building an overseas empire, as several other European countries
(such as Great Britain) had done in previous centuries.
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The German Reich’s Involvement in the First World War
Between 1914 and 1918, many European countries fought against each other in the First World War.
Germany, Bulgaria, the Austro-Hungarian and Ottoman Empires (known as the Central Powers and also
as the Triple Alliance) battled against the Triple Entente (countries such as Britain, France and Russia – also
known as the Allies). Germany was well prepared for war, both militarily and financially. Most people
believed that the war would be short, but it dragged on for four brutal years with terrible human cost.
By the beginning of 1918, Germany continued to
believe that it could win the war. The war fought
against Russia on the Eastern Front had been won due
to the Russian Revolution of 1917 and in March 1918
Russia had suffered a humiliating peace treaty (the
Treaty of Brest-Litovsk) at the hands of Germany. At
the same time there had been a major German
offensive on the Western Front.
However, providing food for Germans and the
military was increasingly difficult. Shortage of food
supplies resulted from farmers being drafted in to the
Trench warfare resulted in millions of deaths
armed forces and Germany having to import much of
the food needed to feed its people. However, the
powerful British navy successfully blockaded German sea ports. Other problems included US soldiers
arriving in France (after America entered the war to fight alongside the Allies) to fight against Germany
on the Western Front. This resulted in the German Army – already weakened by four years of fighting –
retreating closer to the German borders. Although many German soldiers and Germans believed that
Germany could still win the war and should fight on, others demonstrated for peace. Protests and
revolts against the war further highlighted the confusion and anger over Germany’s fate.
1918 – The War Lost and an Opportunity Gained
By September 1918, Germany faced starvation whilst the army faced defeat. The Allies offered peace on
the condition that the Kaiser (who many blamed for starting the war) was to stand down. By early
November 1918, Berlin was in chaos. Soldiers and workers (many armed) demonstrated on the streets,
whilst a general strike crippled Berlin. A left-wing political organisation called the Spartacus League
argued for the removal of the Kaiser and for a social revolution, inspired by the taking of power in
Russia in 1917 by Communists. On the 9th November, the leaders of the largest political party (a mainly
left-wing moderate party called the Social Democrats led by Friedrich Ebert) announced that Germany
was now a Republic. The Kaiser went in to exile the following day and the Social Democrats took control
of a now unstable country.
An armistice between Germany and the Allies was agreed for all fighting to stop on the 11th hour of the
11th day of the 11th month (November) 1918. Germany had lost the First World War. Many Germans
agreed with the armistice, but not everyone did. One of those who disagreed was a young Austrian
soldier who had fought on Germany’s side in the war. His name was Adolf Hitler. Hitler and many
others later referred to the German politicians that had signed the armistice as the ‘November
Criminals’.
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
KEY QUESTION ONE
What were the key features of the Weimar Republic?
The Nature of Weimar Democracy
From the outset, Ebert’s Social Democrats faced many problems:
Year
1919–1933
1919
Some Problems Experienced by the Weimar Government
The coalition government lacked real power and support
The Treaty of Versailles
The Weimar Constitution/Republic (1919–1933)
The German Reich was replaced with what became known as the Weimar Republic. Against a
background of violence and confusion, politicians set up the new Weimar Constitution.
Main features of the Weimar Constitution were:
 Elected Leaders
All men and women over the age of 20 could vote for MPs (ministers) from a variety of political
parties to represent them in parliament.

Chancellor (Prime Minister)
Led the government with the support of the majority of MPs in the German Parliament (called the
Reichstag after the building it is housed in).
The main political parties during the Weimar Republic are outlined in the table below:
Political Party
Shortened
Name
What Party Stood For
Who Supported Them
(this is general)
German Workers’ Party
(Later became Nazi Party)
DAP/
NSDAP
Anti-democratic
Some working-class support
/ middle-class support later
National Party
DNVP
Anti-democratic
Wealthy industrialists and
businessmen
People’s Party
DVP
Nationalist but supported
the Weimar Republic
Middle-class support
Centre
Z
Brought together practical
elements of left-wing and
right-wing political thinking
Catholics of all social class
Democratic Party
DDP
Formed by lawyers and
intellectuals
Middle-class support
Social Democrats
SPD
Believed in a democratic
system
Working-class support
Independent
Socialists/Communists
USPD/
KPD
Wanted a workers’ state like
in Bolshevik Russia
Working-class support
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Some Problems with the Weimar Constitution
 Voting System
This was based on proportional representation (when
political parties are represented according to the number of
people who have voted for them). However, this encouraged
the formation of large numbers of political parties (for
example, 1% of the vote would get 1% of the seats in the
Reichstag). Having so many political parties made it very
difficult to get more than 50% of the vote. This led to
coalition governments (groups of political parties joining
together who often found it hard to agree and therefore to
pass important laws).
 Presidential Decree
In theory, the role of president was intended to oversee the
German Parliament. However, Presidential Decree
(Article 48) meant that when parties couldn’t agree the
president could overrule it.
The Weimar Constitution
Other Issues Challenging the Weimar Republic
The new Weimar Constitution experienced many other issues, including:
• The army, civil service, legal system (judiciary) and universities still employed many who were still
loyal to the previous German Reich.
• Major industries (such as coal, steel and engineering) were under the control of owners who were
not sympathetic to trade unions.
• Few political parties supported the democracy of the Weimar Republic (Hitler’s Nazi Party later
used the constitution to first gain power and then to dismantle it).
• Many Germans blamed the negative effects of the Treaty of Versailles on the Weimar Constitution.
Post-War Economic Conditions as a Cause of Discontent
In June 1919 the government of the new Weimar Republic – with Ebert as President and Scheidemann as
Chancellor – signed the Versailles Peace Treaty.
The main aspects of the treaty were as follows:
War Guilt
Reparations
Disarmament
• Article 231 stated that Germany and her allies (the Central Powers) were
responsible for the war and the damage caused.
Germany was to pay for this damage in different ways. For example:
• The coal mines of the Saar were to be run by the French for 15 years and Germany
was to supply free coal to France, Belgium and Italy. This resulted in a shortage of
goods in Germany.
• Germany was to pay reparations for war damage (£6,600 million). By 1922
Germany was behind with these payments.
• To prevent future wars, the German army had to be reduced to 100,000 men.
• The German Navy was reduced to only small ships and no submarines were
allowed.
• No military air force was allowed.
• No German forces were allowed to the west of the Rhine river (called the
Rhineland) in order to protect France, whilst the area was to be occupied for 15
years.
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Loss of
Territory
League of
Nations
Much had been said about the American President Wilson’s ‘Fourteen Points’ where
it was stated that frontiers should be drawn along lines of nationality. This created
new nation states such as Yugoslavia, Czechoslovakia and Poland. However, this
principle did not apply equally to Germany and land was lost as follows:
• Eupen and Malmedy to Belgium, Alsace-Lorraine to France, North Schleswig to
Denmark and Upper Silesia to Poland.
• West Prussia to Poland to give Polish access to the Baltic Sea. This meant that East
Prussia was detached from Germany.
• Danzig became a free port under the League of Nation’s control.
• Austria wanted to join Germany, but was not permitted to and became a separate
Austrian state.
• Germany lost all her overseas colonies (empire).
These conditions meant a total loss of 13% of German territory, but 48% of its iron
production, 15% of its agricultural land and 6 million of its population.
• Germany was not initially permitted to join the League of Nations (an
intergovernmental organisation set up between the First and Second World Wars to
settle international disputes and prevent war. It was replaced by the United Nations).
The terms imposed on Germany were far worse than many Germans
expected. The three main countries involved in creating the treaty,
France, Britain and the USA, had very different views about how
Germany should be treated. Britain took a more neutral stance in the
negotiations, whilst America wanted a fair treaty. However, France
(which had suffered the most in the war) negotiated successfully for
Germany to be treated harshly. The German Government was angry
with the terms, especially as they had not been allowed to negotiate
the terms of the peace conference. Scheidemann resigned as
Germany’s Chancellor. However, the government felt that they had
no option but to sign the treaty, as they were not prepared to fight
another war with the Allies.
World leaders at Versailles in 1919
The German Government became very unpopular by signing of the Versailles Peace Treaty. It became
referred to as the ‘Diktat’ or the ‘Dictated Peace’, whilst many Germans later referred to those who
signed the treaty as the ‘November Criminals’.
A 1919 demonstration against the Treaty of Versailles outside the Reichstag (Parliament) building in Berlin
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?
a.
KEY QUESTION ONE – ACTIVITIES
Read through the section and underline key points and words.
Germany: 1871–1918
b. In chronological order, list five key facts about Germany between 1871 and 1918 (I have included key facts
from the beginning and the end of the period):
Number of Fact
1
Key Fact (in chronological order)
Germany was also known as the German Reich after uniting following the FrancoPrussian War of 1870–171.
2
3
4
5
6
7
c.
Germany and the Allies signed an armistice agreeing for all fighting to stop on the 11th
hour of the 11th day of the 11th month (November) 1918.
Explain how both of the factors below contributed to Germany losing the First World War:
Factor
How this contributed to Germany’s surrender
Shortage of
food
supplies
The USA
entered the
war in 1917
d. Give two reasons why it would have been difficult to form a new government in November 1918.
e.
Why do you think that Hitler referred to the politicians as the ‘November Criminals’?
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Problems with the Weimar Constitution
f. Complete the following sentences:
 The Kaiser was…
 In Germany, the Chancellor is…
 Coalition Government is when…
 In 1919, the German Reich became known as the…
 The German Parliament is held in a building called the…
g.
Cross out the two incorrect statements below:
 All men over the age of 20 could vote for ministers to represent them in parliament.
 All men and women over the age of 18 could vote for ministers to represent them in parliament.
 All men and women over the age of 20 could vote for ministers to represent them in parliament.
h. Do you think that having so many political parties would have had a positive, negative or both positive and
negative effect on the Weimar Republic? Give a reason for your answer.
i.
What problems could arise from the Weimar Republic’s voting system?
j.
What other issues arose from the Weimar Constitution?
Treaty of Versailles
k. Outline the key conditions of the Treaty of Versailles on Germany below:
 War Guilt
 Reparations
 Disarmament
 Loss of Territory
 League of Nations
l.
Why did France demand that Germany be treated harshly in the Treaty of Versailles?
m. Why did many Germans refer to the treaty as the ‘Dictated Peace’ and those who signed it as the
‘November Criminals’?
n. What problems might this have caused the government of the Weimar Republic?
Well done! Now you have all the information you need to answer the Key Question. You could
use the answers you gave above to help, and then try it again without your answers to help you.
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
KEY QUESTION TWO
Why did the Weimar Republic face so many problems in the years 1919 to 1923?
Revolts, Rebellions and Opposition to Weimar, 1919–1923
From the outset, Ebert’s Social Democrats faced many problems:
Number and Year of Problem
Some Problems Experienced by the Weimar Government
1919
The Spartacist uprising
1920
The Kapp Putsch
1923
Invasion and occupation of the Ruhr, leading to...
1923
...hyperinflation
The Spartacist Uprising
After the First World War, regular clashes occurred between the
government and members of revolutionary groups who saw the
confusion of late 1918 as an opportunity to seize power. These included
the communist Spartacus League, led by Karl Liebknecht and Rosa
Luxemburg. They believed that although many of the Social Democrats
were left wing, they were not left wing enough. In contrast to members of
the Spartacus League, most Social Democrats viewed the removal of the
Kaiser as the end of any kind of left-wing revolution. For the
Communists, it was viewed as merely the beginning of a much larger and
radical revolution.
Ebert tried to reach agreement with the Spartacus League, but they tried to
take control of Berlin. Although the Spartacus revolutionaries managed to
take control of the telegraph bureau and the offices of the government’s
Rosa Luxemburg (1908)
newspaper in January 1919, they had not prepared well. They lacked the
support of other left-wing revolutionaries and even members of their own leadership. However, Ebert’s
government had to rely on right-wing ex-soldiers called the Freikorps to crush the revolutionaries. Both
Liebknecht and Luxemburg were murdered whilst imprisoned by the Freikorps and the Spartacus
League did not recover. By relying on the Freikorps in an attempt to stabilise Germany, Ebert’s
government had created new problems:
• Reluctantly relying on ex-soldiers to crush revolutionaries – showing that the new government
lacked the ability to crush revolts itself.
• Turning to the right wing to crush the left wing, even though the Social Democrats also had many
left-wing beliefs themselves. In fact, the government had to turn to the left wing to crush right-wing
Freikorps resistance in the following year.
• Providing the legitimacy for the right wing to have their own military presence alienated the Social
Democrats from many of their supporters.
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Problem Four – The Kapp Putsch
Events such as the Spartacist uprising and the signing of the Treaty of Versailles demonstrated how
fragile the newly formed Social Democrat government was in 1919. Whilst the treaty was very
unpopular amongst most Germans, the government’s reliance on the Freikorps to put down left-wing
uprisings (such as the Spartacist uprising) created more problems. Over the next year, the Freikorps
grew from strength to strength, becoming a powerful unofficial army. Because the German Army had
been forcibly reduced to 100,000 men, many demobbed soldiers simply joined the Freikorps. Most were
angry with the government for accepting the treaty and believed them to be a weak government. They
were right wing and nationalistic, wanting the return of the Kaiser.
When the Allies put pressure on the German Government to disband the Freikorps, the Freikorps
reacted by joining other right-wing groups. In March 1920, when the government attempted to disband
them, they revolted by marching on Berlin. Led by Wolfgang Kapp, 5,000 Freikorps soon seized power
and declared a new government. The army had stood by and not interfered in the Kapp Putsch. This
showed that many supported the revolt and disliked the Social Democrat Government. Realising that
they did not have the support of the army to protect them, the government were forced to flee Berlin.
They appealed to the German workforce to go on strike, so that Kapp’s government could not function
properly. This ‘general strike’ (when everything shuts down) was successful and within a few days the
Kapp Putsch and their new government had collapsed. However, none of the members involved in the
putsch were ever brought to trial for their actions. This showed once again how limited the
government’s power was. After all, if they had convicted those involved, the government might have
further alienated other Germans.

KEY TERMS
Passive Resistance – When people refuse to co-operate with those in control by using non-violent
methods (e.g. peaceful protests, fasting and in the case of the Ruhr in 1923, by refusing to work).
Inflation – When prices go up and the value of money goes down (therefore leaving many people
poorer).
Hyperinflation – When inflation becomes a very serious problem and is out of control. In Germany in
1923, hyperinflation was caused by the government printing more and more money. This made the
money worthless.
Great Inflation – Another term used to describe the hyperinflation of 1923.
Key Events/Challenges of 1923 – The Invasion and Occupation of the Ruhr
The Allies became increasingly concerned that Germany was struggling with its reparations payments.
Reparations were a key aspect of the Treaty of Versailles and the German Government had already
defaulted (when you don’t pay what you have agreed to pay in the agreement) on some payments. As a
consequence, French and Belgian troops marched into the Ruhr (Germany’s main industrial area) in
January 1923. They argued that if Germany would not pay reparations as agreed in the treaty, then they
must be paid in the form of coal, steel and manufactured goods. Although the occupation of the Ruhr
was legal, many Germans were angry with this outcome. This was because now any money made from
the Ruhr would be taken directly by the occupying forces. Critics argued that this could only make
Germany even poorer and Germans suffer even more.
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The German government asked the
inhabitants of the Ruhr to protest
against the occupation with a policy of
passive resistance (when people refuse
to work). Strikes were also organised,
leading to confrontation between Ruhr
workers (who were Germans) and
occupying soldiers (who were not). The
idea was that the occupying forces
would leave as they would not be able
to take the reparation payments if there
was no production. Hitler’s NSDAP
(Nazi) Party opposed the policy of
passive resistance, arguing that
this was further humiliation to
Germany and showed their
politicians to be weak. They
believed that the German Army
should have been used to evict
the occupying soldiers instead.
However, the French and Belgian
soldiers continued to occupy the
Ruhr and the German
Government decided not to use
military force. This led to a
stalemate (with neither side
budging), which lasted for most
of 1923 and further affected
Germany’s already struggling
economy.
FOR YOUR INFORMATION
REPARATIONS REMINDER
Germany had to pay reparations in different ways:
The coal mines of the Saar were to be run by the French
for 15 years and Germany was to supply free coal to
France, Belgium and Italy. This resulted in a shortage
of goods in Germany.
Germany was to pay reparations for war damage (6,600
million pounds). By 1922 Germany was behind with
these payments.
This later map of the Ruhr region shows how close it is to countries to the
west of Germany
Key Events/Challenges of 1923 – Hyperinflation
A major result of the occupation of the Ruhr was the collapse of the German economy and a sharp fall in
the value of Germany’s currency, the Mark. Germany suffered hyperinflation, which was made worse
by the government authorising the printing of more and more bank notes to pay the striking workers in
the Ruhr. By printing more bank notes, the government was basically circulating money the country did
not have. By May 1923 (four months into the occupation), the rate of inflation had risen to 25,000%. This
increased to a staggeringly high 600,000% in August. Prices often went up several times a day and old
notes became useless.
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This 50 million Mark note was practically worthless in 1923
Hyperinflation was so bad in 1923, that
children played with bundles of now
worthless bank notes and some were even
used as wallpaper. One famous example
was when somebody left a wheelbarrow
full of old bank notes outside a shop to
try and exchange them for goods. Whilst
inside the shop, the wheelbarrow had
been stolen but the bank notes remained.
This was because items were still of use to
people, whereas old bank notes were
practically useless. Many people
(including Adolf Hitler) blamed the
hyperinflation on the government of the
Weimar Republic.
However, although hyperinflation was a big problem for Germany, it affected different people in
different ways:
The effects on those who suffered the most from
hyperinflation included:
The effects on those who suffered the least from
hyperinflation included:
• Savings and pensions became worthless – many
elderly people living on these struggled to make
ends meet
• Many businesses collapsed – resulting in many
Germans losing their jobs
• Poverty increased – many poorer Germans
suffered from malnutrition, whilst some even
died of hunger
• The middle classes also suffered – as many saw
their businesses collapse, whilst others had
savings and pensions which had become
worthless
• Debts could be wiped out easily – those who
had taken out loans or who had large debts
could pay them back at a fraction of the real
value of what they owed
• Wages and welfare benefits increased as
inflation increased – those in work or on
unemployment benefits usually saw their
earnings/benefits increase alongside inflation
• Property, foreign currency and many goods
were protected – many rich people simply held
on to these until the economy stabilised
As hyperinflation increased and the problems caused by the French and Belgian occupation of the Ruhr
remained unresolved, drastic action was taken by the government. The failed attempt of passive
resistance had harmed Germany
as much as it had harmed France
and Belgium. Printing more
FOR YOUR INFORMATION
money that Germany did not
Be careful not to confuse the causes and effects of German
have also proved useless.
hyperinflation of 1923 (which only affected Germany) with the
Passive resistance, however,
Wall Street Crash (also known as the Great Depression) of 1929.
had helped the political
The events of 1929 had started as an American recession and
campaigns of others such as
affected not just Germany, but the whole world.
Hitler. Nationalist political
Also, be careful not to confuse the economic problems created by
parties gained the support
the French reoccupation of the Ruhr and passive resistance
of many Germans by arguing
directly with Hitler and the Nazi Party’s rise to power. The Nazis
that the government’s response
made far more immediate political gains due to the effect of the
had showed weak government.
Wall Street Crash (1929) on Germany.
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?
a.
KEY QUESTION TWO– ACTIVITIES
Read through the section and underline key points and words.
The Spartacus Uprising
b. Both the Spartacus League and the Social Democrats believed that the removal of the Kaiser had been a
positive outcome for Germany but disagreed on what this meant for the future. How did their views differ?
c.
Describe the key events of the Spartacist uprising, using the key words below:
Luxemburg and Liebknecht | revolutionaries | left-wing | Ebert’s government could not deal with the uprising
| right-wing Freikorps | murdered
d.
What impression do you have of the powers of the Social Democrat Coalition Government from the way they
dealt with the Spartacist uprising?
The Kapp Putsch
e. How did the Treaty of Versailles’ condition of limiting the size of the German Army contribute to the size and
popularity of the Freikorps?
f.
Which three from the list below describes best the politics of the Freikorps?
Right-wing | Republicans | Recruited ex-soldiers | Recruited Communists | Nationalistic | Left-wing
g.
Why did the Freikorps attempt to take over Germany in the Kapp Putsch?
h.
Do you think that calling a general strike showed the Weimar Government to be strong, weak or both strong
and weak? Give a reason for your answer.
Strong / Weak / Strong and Weak (cross out the two you disagree with) because…
Invasion and occupation of the Ruhr:
i. Which one of the following statements do you most agree with?
 By 1923 the Weimar Republic was struggling with its reparations payments.
 By 1923 the Weimar Republic had no problem paying its reparations.
 By 1923 the Weimar Republic no longer had to pay reparations.
j.
What was the intention of France and Belgium in invading and occupying the Ruhr?
k.
Why did the occupation of the Ruhr anger most Germans?
l.
Describe the following:
 Passive resistance is when…
 Strikes are when…
m. What did the government of the Weimar Republic hope would happen by passive resistance?
n.
Which two of the following actually happened?
 The French and Belgium armies left the Ruhr
 This led to a stalemate between Germany and the occupying forces
 The French and Belgium armies remained in the Ruhr
 This lead to an agreement between Germany and the occupying forces
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Hyperinflation:
o. How did the German Government manage to pay the German workers in the Ruhr?
p.
What problems did this cause for the German economy?
q.
Describe what is meant by inflation and hyperinflation.
r.
Which groups of Germans would have suffered the most from hyperinflation?
s.
Which groups of Germans would have suffered the least from hyperinflation?
t.
In what ways might the German Government’s failed policies of passive resistance and printing more
currency have boosted the popularity of extremist political parties?
u.
How far do you agree with the statement below? Make sure you give full reasons for your answer.
The Weimar Republic was doomed to failure from its very beginning.
Well done! Now you have all the information you need to answer the Key Question. You could
use the answers you gave above to help, and then try it again without your answers to help you.
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
KEY QUESTION THREE
What were the origins and history of National Socialism in Germany between
1919 and 1925?
The Origins and Formation of the National Socialist Party
When the First World War ended in 1918, Adolf Hitler was in a military hospital. He believed that
Germany had not really lost the war but had been stabbed in the back by the German politicians who
had made peace and set up the new Weimar Republic.
In 1919 he attended a meeting of the DAP (German Workers’ Party). He was impressed with their
nationalistic views and the leader (Drexler) and joined the party. In 1920 Hitler played a major part in
changing it into the NSDAP (National Socialist German Workers’ Party, or Nazi Party). Together,
Drexler and Hitler created the ‘Twenty-Five Point Programme’.
The ‘Twenty-Five Point Programme’ included policies intended to:
• Create a strong, central government
• Unite together all of Germany in to a greater Germany (union with Austria)
• Increase and provide land and colonies in order to provide more food and places for Germans
to settle
• Allow only fellow Germans to have the right to be German citizens
• Stop further immigration by non-Germans
• Nationalise (when government takes control) all publicly owned companies
• Improve old age pensions
• Control the press completely
• Teach national ideals in schools from an early age

KEY PERSON: ADOLF HITLER (1889–1945)
Hitler was born to poor parents in Austria. During the First World War
(1914–1918), Hitler volunteered for military service in the German Army.
Undertaking various front-line roles throughout the war, Hitler reached
the rank of corporal and received the Iron Cross for bravery. Hitler was
anti-Semitic (hatred of Jews) and nationalistic (very particular views
about how the country should be organised). He developed his ideas into
A young Adolf
policies throughout the 1920s and put them into practice once reaching
Hitler
power in 1933. Elected Chancellor in 1933, he changed the name
of Chancellor to Führer (meaning leader, but usually referring to Hitler as a dictator) as he
quickly, successfully and ruthlessly turned Germany from a democracy into a Nazi
dictatorship between 1933 and 1934. Hitler is often remembered for his crowd-rousing
speeches and for the Hitler/Nazi salute and the ‘Heil Hitler’ / ‘Sieg Heil’ greetings. His legacy
of power includes the invasion of European countries, Nazi Germany’s involvement in the
Second World War and the Holocaust. Hitler committed suicide in his bunker in 1945 as
Germany and Berlin lay in ruins around him.
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Adolf Hitler
Hitler soon grew from strength to strength in the party by developing skills in
speech making and propaganda. In 1921 he became leader and took the title
‘Führer’. Other key individuals who joined the Nazi Party at this time included
Göring, Himmler, Hess and Röhm. They formed their own private army called the
SA (also known as Stormtroopers and Brownshirts) to keep order at meetings and to
hold pro-Nazi street demonstrations and parades. Many members of the SA had
been in the Freikorps or were ex-soldiers. By the end of 1922, the NSDAP had 20,000
members. This increased to 55,000 in 1923 (the year that hyperinflation hit
Germany). At this time the NSDAP also started to receive some financial backing
from wealthy individuals and industrialists. Later, in 1925, the SS (also known as
the Blackshirts) was formed. This was an elite group of the SA private army which
swore loyalty to Hitler.
FOR YOUR INFORMATION
Make sure when studying this whole topic that you understand the very different role
of the SA and SS. This is vital to your understanding of events after the Nazi Party
came to power from 1933 onwards: 1923–1934 – the SA (Stormtroopers/Brownshirts)
1934–1945 – the SS (although the SS developed in large part out of the SA throughout
the 1920s). Their roles will be discussed in depth throughout this resource.
Key Events/Challenges of 1923 – The Munich ‘Beer Hall’ Putsch
On the evening of the 8th and the 9th November 1923, Hitler tried to take over the State Government of
Bavaria by leading a putsch. This was meant to be followed by a march on Berlin and the establishment
of a Nazi regime in Germany. The intended putsch started at a beer hall in Munich and Hitler was
accompanied by armed members of the SA. Kahr, the Bavarian Prime Minister, was making a speech to
a large crowd in the beer hall. Hitler’s big idea was to convince Kahr, his followers and the army to
support the Nazi putsch. Hitler also gave a speech to the crowd, arguing that Stresemann’s government
was not fit to govern Germany after the failed responses to the invasion and occupation of the Ruhr.
Although Kahr and others pledged support for the putsch under pressure by Hitler, they soon went
back on this.
Confident that the army would support the putsch, Hitler and thousands of Nazis marched to the centre
of Munich on the following day. However, they were soon surrounded by the army and police. A tense
stand-off followed, which was broken by shots. In the event, 16 of Hitler’s supporters were killed (those
killed were later celebrated as martyrs for the Nazi cause). Hitler escaped, but was later arrested and
tried along with other Nazis involved in the putsch.
In many ways, Hitler’s intended putsch was a copy of Mussolini’s March on Rome in the previous year
(this event had led to Mussolini establishing a fascist government in Italy).
Hitler had attempted the putsch in Bavaria because of the following:
• The Nazi Party had much support in Bavaria in 1923.
• Many Bavarian politicians had similar right-wing views to Hitler. Hitler understood that their
support was vital to taking power in Germany.
• By gaining their support, Hitler believed that the German Army would also support the putsch.
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Hitler and other members of the Nazi Party were tried on charges of high treason (crimes viewed as
causing a serious threat to your country). Hitler cleverly used the trial to promote his ideas, by making a
long speech. He also accepted full responsibility for what had happened in the putsch. He declared that
by attempting a putsch he had been acting in Germany’s national interests. The judge and jury were
sympathetic to Hitler’s right-wing views, suggesting that much of the legal establishment had little
faith in the Weimar Government. This arguably resulted in light punishment for those involved,
including Hitler.
Hitler (along with other organisers) was sentenced to a minimum of five years in prison, but in fact only
served nine months in the reasonable comfort of Landsberg Castle. He used the time to develop his ideas
and wrote a book called Mein Kampf (My Struggle). He also decided that he would no longer attempt to
take power by force but rather by gaining greater electoral support politically. The Munich Beer Hall
Putsch had taught Hitler that violence was unlikely to succeed. However, this did not mean that he
believed in democracy. Rather, that parliamentary power would be a means to an end. The Nazi
revolution would be achieved after coming to power rather than as a means of obtaining power.
Hitler came out of prison in a stronger position. His impressive trial had gained him national publicity
and the time spent in prison had been used effectively to finalise his programme of bringing the Nazi
Party to power.
Munch Putsch – Short-Term Failure
•
•
Hitler and the Nazis had failed to take
power by force in 1923
The putsch showed that the Nazis could not
necessarily rely on the support of the army
to take power
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Munich Putsch – Long-Term Success
•
•
Hitler became better known amongst Germans as
a consequence of the putsch and the following
trial
Because of the failure of the putsch, Hitler
decided to gain power by using the democratic
system, rather than by using force
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?
KEY QUESTION THREE– ACTIVITIES
a.
Read through the section and underline key points and words.
b.
What did Hitler think of Germany’s surrender in the First World War?
c.
Drexler and Hitler changed their political party’s name:
From: German Worker’s Party (DAP)
To: __________________ also known as the_____________
d.
List nine key points of Drexler’s and Hitler’s ‘Twenty-Five Point Programme’. Two are done for you.
• Create a strong, central government
• Teach national ideals in schools from an early age
e.
What purpose did the SA serve?
f.
What aspects of the Nazi Party might have appealed to its members in the early 1920s?
g.
What aspects of the Nazi Party might have put many Germans off becoming members in the early 1920s?
The Munich Beer Hall Putsch:
h. Describe the key features of the Munich Beer Hall Putsch.
i.
Give three reasons why Hitler had attempted to take power by force in Bavaria first and then in Berlin?
j.
What does Hitler’s light prison sentence tell you about the German legal establishment?
k.
What was the German name and English translation of the book Hitler wrote in Landsberg Castle/Prison?
 Hitler’s book outlining the beliefs of the Nazi Party was called…
 The English translation of the book was called…
l.
List the negative and positive outcomes of the Munich Beer Hall Putsch on the Nazi Party and Hitler.
m. Do you think that the failure of the putsch placed Hitler in a stronger or weaker position overall?
Give a reason.
Well done! Now you have all the information you need to answer the Key Question. You could
use the answers you gave above to help, and then try it again without your answers to help you.
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
KEY QUESTION FOUR
Why was the Weimar Republic more stable between late 1923 and 1929 than it
had been in previous years?
Stresemann and Weimar Successes, 1923–1929
Recovery – The Introduction of a New Currency

KEY PERSON: GUSTAV STRESEMANN (1878–1929)
A very bright student, Stresemann excelled in the arts, humanities and politics.
His early career as a politician (he entered the Reichstag as a politician in 1907)
was shaped by the events of the German Reich (including the First World War –
which he supported). He was involved with different political parties until his
time as Chancellor. He campaigned for some left-wing and some right-wing
policies throughout his career.
Stresemann was Chancellor of the coalition government in the Weimar Republic between August
and November 1923. As such, he had to deal with several extreme events. These included tackling
the country’s hyperinflation and ending the policy of passive resistance against foreign occupation
in the Ruhr. He also had to deal with the Munich Putsch and the subsequent trial of Hitler and
other leaders involved. For this he received much criticism and revolt within parliament.
Stresemann then became the Foreign Minister (under the new Chancellor Wilhelm Marx) until his
death in 1929. Gaining much confidence from other countries, he campaigned successfully for the
reforms outlined below. During the period, Stresemann became increasingly accepting of the
Weimar Republic. He won the Nobel Peace Prize in 1926, in recognition of his attempts at
stabilising Germany during the crises of the early 1920s.
A new government (led by Gustav Stresemann) was formed in August 1923. They called off the policy of
passive resistance in the Ruhr and agreed to start paying reparations to the Allies again. They also
introduced a new currency, called the Rentenmark. In response to Germany’s effort to solve the Ruhr
problem and the hyperinflation that followed, the Allies called off the occupation of the Ruhr.
However, support for Stresemann’s coalition government was weakened by the crises of 1923. The
Weimar Republic had not had a very promising beginning. The government simply did not have the
support of many Germans. Throughout the 1920s, although the Social Democrats won the most votes,
they never gained enough to rule on their own. This often led to weak governments that found it
difficult to make important decisions. There had been uprisings by extreme left-wing and right-wing
groups, anger at the terms of the Treaty of Versailles and then the hyperinflation of 1923. Whilst many
Germans with left-wing sympathies (including many within his own party) argued that Stresemann’s
reforms were too right wing, those with right-wing and nationalist views claimed the opposite.
Stresemann only remained Chancellor for a few months (from August until November 1923) and the
coalition government collapsed. Many Social Democrats had left the government, believing that their
own party had been too lenient with those involved in the Munich Putsch. He remained an influential
politician, taking on the role of Foreign Minister until his death in 1929.
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The Impact of Stresemann’s Foreign Policy on the Domestic Situation in Germany
Stresemann is often viewed as a key figure in the stabilisation of Weimar Germany and in improving
Germany’s relationships with other powers (especially in his role as Foreign Minister between 1924
and 1929).
Below are some of his policies during this period:
• He introduced the Rentenmark as a new currency to replace the now worthless Mark.
• Loans from US businesses were used to build new factories and produce jobs. Exports rose and the
economic performance of Germany became much more favourable than it had been in the aftermath
of the First World War. Industrial output actually rose to the levels of pre-1914, despite the
territorial losses Germany suffered after the First World War.
• He negotiated the Dawes Plan (1924).
• He led a skilful foreign policy, which helped to re-establish Germany’s international position. With
the Locarno Pact (1925), Germany accepted her losses in the West and this encouraged FrenchGerman cooperation. In return, some Allied soldiers immediately left the Rhineland (a German area
on the western border). Eventually, in 1930, all Allied soldiers left the Rhineland. This was five years
earlier than had been stated in the Treaty of Versailles.
• In 1926, Germany was admitted to the League of Nations. It now had influence in world affairs.
• Also in 1928 Germany signed the Kellogg–Briand Pact, where 60 countries denounced the use of war.
• In 1929 the Young Plan was accepted by Stresemann.
• Stresemann’s policies were so successful he received the Nobel Peace Prize.

KEY TERMS
The Dawes Plan (1924) – This helped Germany to meet the required reparation payments to other
countries for a period of five years (therefore leaving Germany with more control of its own
finances). Aided by loans from America, this stimulated economic growth following the
hyperinflation and was therefore widely considered to be beneficial to Germany in the short term.
However, in the latter half of the 1920s, Germany continued to struggle to meet the ever
increasing demands of reparation payments.
The Locarno Pact (1925) – This agreement helped to secure the positions of European borders and
make European nations feel safer. In the following year, Germany was accepted into the League
of Nations (a post WW1 agreement between many countries that attempted to avoid future wars
through diplomacy).
The Young Plan (1929) – This meant a further reduction in reparation payments by extending
Germany’s payment deadline by another 58 years. Whereas the Dawes Plan had previously
helped to solve Germany’s short-term economic problems, the Young Plan was viewed as aiding
Germany in the long term (the Wall Street Crash / Great Depression happened shortly after the
Young Plan was agreed).
As a consequence of these actions and agreements, the political and economic situation in Germany
became far more stable in the latter half of the 1920s than it had been in the first half. This in turn
contributed to a fall in the number of people voting for extreme left-wing and right-wing political
parties. In the 1928 Reichstag elections, political parties which supported the Weimar Republic gained
over half the vote. This was important as before this the Social Democrats had been working with many
politicians who wanted a return to a Kaiser and the German Reich. However, Hindenburg had been
elected President (a position that oversees the German Government) in 1925 until his death in 1934. He
heavily criticised the Weimar Republic, showing that strong divisions in German politics still existed.
Other problems included high unemployment and high taxes. Also, although standards of living rose
for some people, others remained poor.
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?
KEY QUESTION THREE– ACTIVITIES
a.
Read through the section and underline key points and words.
b.
What two actions did the new government take immediately after coming to power in 1923?
c.
Why do you think the government introduced the new Rentenmark currency?
d.
What was Stresemann’s political role between August and November 1923?
e.
Describe the immediate problems facing Germany that Stresemann had to tackle.
f.
Below are two factors stressing why Stresemann’s coalition government collapsed after only three months.
Think about why both of these would have angered many politicians and the German public and give
reasons why.
 Hyperinflation
 The lenient prison sentences given to those involved in the Munich Beer Hall Putsch – including Hitler
g.
What political position did Stresemann then take until his death in 1929?
h.
Describe each of the actions taken by the Weimar Government, including whether the action had resulted in
mainly political or economic effects for Germany:
 The Dawes Plan (1924) – Mainly Political or Economic / This was…
 The Locarno Pact (1925) – Mainly Political or Economic / This was…
 The Young Plan (1929) – Mainly Political or Economic / This was…
i.
What positive effect did Stresemann achieve by building up excellent political and economic relations with
the USA?
j.
Why was Germany’s entry into the League of Nations so important for the country?
k.
Write two sentences explaining what you think Stresemann’s main achievements were.
l.
What effect did these reforms have on voting patterns in the latter half of the 1920s?
m. What problems still needed to be overcome by the late 1920s?
n.
Some historians have described the period 1924–1929 as Weimar’s honeymoon period. What do you think is
meant by this?
o.
Look back at your answers for the Treaty of Versailles. Does the fact that the economy and the political
situation were improving change your opinion on whether or not you think ‘the Weimar Republic was
doomed from its very beginning’?
Well done! Now you have all the information you need to answer the Key Question. You could
use the answers you gave above to help, and then try it again without your answers to help you.
?
Now try answering the following question.
Why was the Weimar Republic more stable between late 1923 and 1929 than it had been in
previous years?
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SUMMARY – WHAT WERE THE WEAKNESSES AND STRENGTHS OF
WEIMAR DEMOCRACY?
Germany Unites:
 After Franco-Prussian War (1870–1871)
became the German Reich.
 Empire (1871–1918): Germany fought and
lost a prolonged war (WW1: 1914–1918).
 In 1918 the Kaiser stood down and a much
weakened Germany surrendered. Germany
became a republic.
A young soldier called Adolf Hitler and
many others were surprised and angered by
Germany’s surrender.
The Weimar Republic (1919–1933) was formed
out of the chaos of post-war Germany and
becomes a juggling act.
Problems between 1919 and 1923:
 The left-wing Spartacist Uprising occurred
in 1919.
 The conditions of the Treaty of Versailles
were harsh.
 Holding the coalition government together
was difficult.
 A powerful ‘unofficial’ army called the
Freikorps almost succeeded in seizing
power in the Kapp Putsch of 1920.
 Ruhr invasion and occupation of 1923 –
hyperinflation followed, crippling the
German economy.
Whilst these events occurred, Hitler and the Nazi
Party were organising...





Origins of the National Socialism (Nazi
Party: NSDAP)
1919: Hitler met and was impressed by
Drexler, leader of DAP.
Early members included nationalistic exsoldiers and Freikorps.
1920: Hitler played a major role in
changing the party to NSDAP (National
Socialist German Workers’ Party / Nazi
Party).
‘Twenty-Five Point Programme’ outlined
nationalistic future Nazi policies.
Nazi Party strengthened by mid-1920s;
SA and SS (private armies) formed.
The Munich Putsch
 Short-Term Failure: Taking advantage of
the weak government, Hitler
unsuccessfully attempted to take power
by force in a Munich Beer Hall. Hitler was
imprisoned for nine months.
 Long-Term Success: Hitler wrote Mein
Kampf in prison and decided to use
democracy to win power in parliament.
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SUMMARY – STRESEMANN AND WEIMAR SUCCESSES: 1923–1929
Recovery of the Weimar Republic between 1924 and 1929
The Dawes Plan (1924) – helped Germany meet reparation payments for five years
The Locarno Pact (1925) – secured European borders and made nations feel safer
The Young Plan (1929) – extended payback deal and further lowered Germany’s reparations
...securing
American loans to
build new
factories and
produce jobs.
Exports rose and
the economy
improved.
In August 1923, Gustav Stresemann:
 formed a new government
 became Chancellor
 called off passive resistance in the Ruhr
 agreed to repay reparations to the Allies again
 introduced the new Rentenmark currency
However, the government collapsed after three
months. He became Foreign Minister between
1924 and 1929 and achieved...
...Germany signing the Kellogg–Briand Pact in
1928, where 60 countries denounced the use of
war.
AQA A Unit 2D: Germany 19191945 Definitive e-textbook
...Germany being
accepted into the
League of Nations
in 1926.
Stresemann’s policies were so successful he
received the Nobel Peace Prize.
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1.3 Key Issue: How was Hitler able to come to power?

LEARNING OBJECTIVES –
YOU WILL NEED TO:
SPECIFICATION FOCUS
 Explain the economic and political
effects of the Wall Street Crash on
Germany
 Understand the significance of
political instability in 1929–1933 to
the Nazi Party’s rise to power
 Describe the key features of the Nazi
Party between the late 1920s and the
early 1930s, including the role of Nazi
leaders
 The depression, its impact on
Germany and contribution to the rise
of National Socialism
 Political instability, 1929–1933
 The emergence of the Nazis as a mass
party, 1928–1930
 The role of Hitler in the development
of the Nazi Party; the leadership of the
Nazis
 The struggle for power, 1930–1933

KEY TERMS
‘Roaring Twenties’ – Before the Wall Street Crash of 1929, the 1920s experienced a flourishing of
the arts and culture. After the upheaval of the First World War and the political, economic and
social problems that followed in Germany in the early 1920s, many flocked to cities such as Berlin
to enjoy themselves.
Propaganda – The deliberate spread of ideas and information to influence peoples’ beliefs and way
of life. Under Joseph Goebbels, the Nazi Party used propaganda very effectively; first to win the
democratic support needed to win seats in the Reichstag, then to control all walks of life in Nazi
Germany.
Wall Street Crash / Great Depression – A severe economic downturn from 1929 that originated in
America and affected all Western industrialised countries over the following decade. Germany
was hit particularly badly due to its reliance on American loans to fuel its economy. The Great
Depression brought a sudden end to the ‘Roaring Twenties’.
Rearmament – Re-strengthening all aspects of a country’s military (e.g. new weapons and
soldiers). During the 1920s, Hitler, the Nazi Party and many others argued that Germany needed
to be rearmed to be strong again. However, the Treaty of Versailles stated that Germany must not
achieve this.
SA – These were Hitler’s private army from the early 1920s until 1934. Also known as
Stormtroopers (to show that they were effective soldiers organised on military lines) and
Brownshirts (because they wore brown uniforms), their role was to protect Nazi Party members
and intimidate those that opposed them.
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
KEY QUESTION ONE
How did Hitler and the Nazi Party change their tactics after the failed 1923
Munich Beer Hall Putsch?
Introduction – The Nazi Party in the Wilderness Years (1923–1929)
The years leading up to 1929 were not very successful for the
Nazi Party. Although they had decided to gain power through
the democratic process, they did not do well in elections at
first. A temporary ban had been placed on the Nazi Party
whilst Hitler was still in prison. They won some electoral seats
using another name, but soon lost many of them again.
However, by early 1925 Hitler reorganised and relaunched the
Nazi Party. Members were trained as skilful speakers in an
attempt to appeal to as many people as possible at public
rallies and meetings. Many working-class Germans became
interested in his ideas from Mein Kampf and viewed the Nazis
A contemporary photograph of Landsberg
Prison/Castle, where Hitler and other Nazi
as potential strong leaders of the country.
Party members were temporarily imprisoned
This did little to raise their vote in the Reichstag though. This lack of
support was because the German political system and the economy
had become far more stable since the crises of 1923. Standards of
living had risen for many and Germany’s relationship with foreign
countries had improved. The ‘Roaring Twenties’ (which brought
about a flourishing of arts and ideas) had also gripped German cities
such as Berlin. Many Germans were enjoying themselves for the first
time in years and simply did not want their country to be run by an
extreme political party such as the Nazis. By 1928, the Social
Democrats and the Communist Party continued to have many more
seats than them. Many Germans simply did not foresee that Hitler
would become Chancellor within five years. Hitler increasingly
Hitler and SA members at a 1928 rally
turned to agricultural workers and the middle classes to gain popular
support. As with the working classes, the Nazi Party directed their speeches to issues that mattered to
them. Their use of propaganda was developed in this period (and will be discussed in more depth
throughout this resource).
?
KEY QUESTION ONE – ACTIVITIES
a.
Read through the section and underline key points and words.
b.
Give two reasons why the Nazi Party were not very successful from 1924 to 1929.
c.
What purpose did the Nazi Party serve by training speakers?
d.
Cross out the two incorrect statements:
 The Nazi Party gained the support of all Germans from the mid-1920s.
 The Nazi Party first gained the support of agricultural workers and the middle classes, and then working classes.
 The Nazi Party first gained the support of some working-class Germans, and then agricultural workers and the
middle classes.
e.
Which two political parties had many more seats than the Nazi Party in 1928?
Well done! Now you have all the information you need to answer the Key Question. You could use
the answers you gave above to help, and then try it again without your answers to help you.
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
KEY QUESTION TWO
Why did the Nazi Party become more popular with voters in the years 1929
to 1932?
The Role of Hitler in the Development of the Nazi Party
Whilst imprisoned for his involvement in the Munich Beer Hall Putsch, Hitler formulated many of the
ideas and beliefs that were to become so well known in later years. The main set of beliefs were not new
ideas of Hitler’s at all, but rather a combination of existing political beliefs into a new ideology of
Nazism (also known as National Socialism). These were published in his book Mein Kampf (translated as
‘My Struggle’) in 1925. Key points of these beliefs were:
Belief
Description of Belief
Race
Hitler argued that the German (Aryan) race was superior to other races and that it was
supposedly being weakened by the Jews.
Social
Darwinism
This is the view that the world is a struggle for survival with the strongest species
surviving and the weakest being made extinct. Hitler applied this view to relations
between peoples and nations. He argued that strong nations would survive, whilst
weak nations would decline and eventually disappear.
Anti-Semitism
This prejudice against the Jews had been common in Europe for centuries. The
prejudice took new forms in twentieth-century Germany. Jews became associated with
big business, left-wing political parties and communism. Hitler and others felt that
these groups had ‘stabbed Germany in the back’ by signing the Treaty of Versailles.
These views were based on prejudice, ignorance and a very selective use of facts. It
suited some Germans to view the Jews as problems and as scapegoats for Germany’s
problems after the First World War. Hitler believed in existing propaganda that
presented Jews as conspiring against other races and, in particular, as a threat to
Germany. By 1922, Hitler had also come to the conclusion that the communist
revolution in Russia was a Jewish conspiracy.
Lebensraum
Hitler argued that both Bolsheviks (Russian Communists) and Jews should and could
be defeated by a strong German army in eastern Europe. This would provide extra
land and living space (Lebensraum) for Germans.
The Depression, its Impact on Germany and Contribution
to the Rise of National Socialism
In 1929, the Wall Street Crash brought about a
worldwide recession known as the Great Depression.
Germany was affected badly, as America could not
continue to support Germany economically with
loans as it had done previously. Over the following
years, German unemployment rose by millions and
many businesses went bankrupt (these were similar
effects to those caused by hyperinflation in 1923). This
created an opportunity for Hitler and the Nazi Party.
They had always argued that post-war German
coalition governments had been weak and that
Germany would suffer for relying financially on other
countries.
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Panicked bank customers queue to withdraw
their savings from an American bank
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To many Germans, the effects of the Great Depression had seemed to prove Hitler right. The next three
years were difficult for Germany economically, whilst reminding Germans of the problems they had
experienced following the First World War and the hyperinflation of 1923.
Political Instability and the Emergence of the Nazis as a Mass Party, 1928–1930
After the Great Depression, the Nazi Party started gaining mass support as shown below.
Year
Nazi Seats in the Reichstag
Causes of Nazi Seats Linked to the German Economy
1928
13 Seats – Just over 2% of the vote
and far less than they had in 1924.
This was at a time when the German economy had been
growing for some years. Many opted to vote for what
they considered to be a safe government which had
brought in several reforms.
1930
107 Seats – Risen to 18% of the vote
and the second largest party in the
Reichstag.
This was one year after the Great Depression had hit
Germany. Lack of confidence in the German
Government led many who had previously not voted to
vote for extremist left-wing and right-wing political
parties.
July
1932
230 Seats – Risen to 37% of the vote.
At this time, Germany was still suffering from the Great
The Nazis became the largest party in
Depression. Many increasingly turned to extremist
the Reichstag, but did not have a
political parties to solve Germany’s problems.
majority.
Nov
1932
196 Seats – Dropped slightly to 33%
of the vote. The Nazis remained the
largest single party in the Reichstag,
but without a majority.
The worst effects of the Great Depression were passing
and there were signs of the German economy improving.
This led to less support for extremist political parties.
Below are some trends that contributed to the Nazi successes of the early 1930s:
• The middle classes were often divided between supporting big capitalists and Communists. The
collapse of other political parties’ share of the vote (such as the DDP and DVP, which tended to be
supported by middle-class voters) meant that there were many more undecided voters. The Great
Depression contributed to many of these voters turning to more extreme solutions to Germany’s
problems.
• The Nazi Party appealed to many Germans who were afraid of losing their jobs or having their pay
cut.
• There was some working-class support due to the Nazis arguing that they could tackle
unemployment.
• A fear of communism amongst the very wealthy and aristocrats led some to vote for right-wing
political parties.
• Nazi support and votes were highest in small towns and rural areas. There was also support from
the working class outside of cities. They were less likely to be in a trade union and tended to work
for smaller firms. The Nazis promised them better working conditions and greater job security.
• They performed better in wealthier suburbs of cities.
• They gained a lot of support from young people.
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FOR YOUR INFORMATION
Do not make the mistake of stressing Hitler’s anti-Semitism as a major reason for electoral support.
This was very much understated during the election campaigns in the period 1930–1932. The Nazis
had found that many Germans (especially the middle classes) did not have the same views of Jews
as them and so scaled down anti-Jewish messages at this time.
Also, the onset of high unemployment and economic depression did not mean that most of the votes
for the Nazi Party came from the unemployed. This is a common misunderstanding. Many of the
working class remained loyal to other political parties such as the Social Democrats and the KPD
(Communists) in industrial, urban areas. The KPD actually increased their share of the vote at this
time, which would have come from former Social Democrat voters after the party collapsed.
Catholics tended to remain loyal to another significant political party (the Centre Party).
The insignia of the SA

The Work of the SA
Shortly after becoming leader of the Nazi Party in the early 1920s, Hitler created a
private army called the SA. Their leader was a tough ex-soldier called Ernst
Röhm. The SA recruited many ex-soldiers (including the Freikorps), angry at
having been demobilised as a condition of the Treaty of Versailles. Many young
working-class men also joined, disillusioned with the political instability and lack
of opportunities given to them by the Weimar Republic. The SA offered a
structure, an opportunity to prove oneself physically and also a cause which
many felt worth fighting for; a strong government in the form of national socialism.
KEY PERSON: ERNST RÖHM (1887–1934)
From a working-class background, Röhm had been a highly experienced and decorated army officer
and a veteran of the First World War. Like Hitler, he had won the Iron Cross (for bravery on the
battlefield). After the war, Röhm became a member of the right-wing Freikorps and was involved in
tackling the left-wing Spartacus uprising (1919). Röhm had supported Hitler as leader of the Nazi
Party, they had become close friends and Hitler knew he could be relied on. Röhm was involved in
the Munich Beer Hall Putsch of 1923 and was sentenced by the courts, but without actually serving
time in prison. After building up the SA in the early 1920s he moved to South America, where he
trained military personnel. Returning to Germany in the early 1930s, he resumed his position as
leader of the SA. He was executed in 1934 (shortly after the Nazi Party had secured power) along
with the entire leadership of the SA under Hitler’s orders. A power struggle between the SA and the
SS had taken place and Hitler believed Röhm to be plotting to take power from the Nazi leadership.
Hitler’s fear that Röhm might take power and his subsequent execution shows that even within the
Nazi Party, power struggles existed.
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Organised on military lines (including the wearing of brown
uniforms and strict lines of command), the SA acted as bodyguards
to Nazi officials and they also policed Nazi demonstrations and
rallies against left-wing opponents. Many conflicts emerged between
the SA and left-wing opponents of the Nazis. However, the SA often
promoted strikes and strikers before the Nazis took power. This was
because strikes helped to disrupt Germany and therefore the
government (who the Nazis wanted to replace). SA tactics were very
effective in terrorising opposition. These included starting fights,
vandalism, intimidation and even murder. Intimidation of Jews was
also common and they were also involved in Hitler’s failed attempt
at power in the 1923 Munich Beer Hall Putsch. The SA grew from
An SA Stormtrooper wearing the
strength to strength and by the early 1930s its membership had
distinctive ‘brown shirt’ uniform
increased to over a million. The SS developed as a branch of the SA
and waving the Nazi Swastika flag
and increasingly took over their roles once the Nazi Party had
secured power in the early 1930s. The SS actually organised and carried out many of the assassinations
of the SA leadership on the Night of the Long Knives in 1934 (to be discussed elsewhere in this
resource).
Success of the SA in Increasing Support for the
Nazi Party (early 1920s to early 1930s)
Lack of Success in Increasing Support for the
Nazi Party (early 1920s to early 1930s)
They used various methods to help get rid of other
political parties (especially the left wing) and make
others unpopular with voters. Also, many
Germans viewed the German Government to be
weak and the SA as a strong and efficient branch of
the Nazi Party and therefore good for policing
Germany.
Their use of violence and intimidation made many
Germans distrustful and fearful of them and
therefore the Nazi Party in general. Also, many
members displayed drunken behaviour both
inside and outside of their distinctive brown
uniforms. This tarnished their reputation as
orderly and efficient ‘soldiers’.
The Role of Nazi Propaganda
The Nazi Party gained more respectability during this period. For
example, in July 1929 they joined other right-wing parties to campaign
against the Young Plan. They also made an uneasy alliance with a
right-wing conservative party called the DNVP. The leader of the
DNVP, Hugenberg, owned several newspapers and gave the Nazi lots
of positive publicity in return for their cooperation. Hitler campaigned
tirelessly across the length and breadth of Germany by aeroplane,
whilst his propaganda minister – Joseph Goebbels – became election
campaign manager. Goebbels skilfully sent pro-Nazi messages to
Germans, whilst denouncing opponents as being weak and
incompetent or dangerous threats to Germany. In addition, there was
also increasing support from industrialists for Hitler’s determination
for a rearmament programme.
Soldiers wearing the distinctive
brown uniforms of the SA
boycotting a Jewish shop in 1933
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
KEY PERSON: JOSEPH GOEBBELS (1897–1945)
Goebbels had wished to fight in the First World War, but was refused by the army due to a bad
limp he had since childhood. As an intelligent young man he was interested in literature and the
arts (obtaining a PhD), but wasn’t successful as a novelist. Joining the Nazi Party in the early 1920s,
Goebbels soon became a keen and trusted supporter of Hitler. He was elected to the Reichstag in
the 1928 election and became Propaganda Minister (Reich Minister of Public Enlightenment and
Propaganda) once the Nazi Party took power. His writing and speaking skills were used very
effectively in creating Nazi propaganda during their rise to power and later in controlling all
aspects of German life under the Nazi rule. This included denouncing German Jews and
advocating ‘total war’. Remaining loyal to Hitler and the Nazi Party until the end of the Second
World War, he and his wife killed themselves in Hitler’s bunker (they killed their six children
beforehand) as Berlin and the Nazi regime fell to the Russians.
But despite the Nazis becoming the largest single political party in the elections of 1932, President
Hindenburg did not agree to Hitler becoming Chancellor. Hitler had demanded that he would only
enter government as Chancellor and not in any other role. The political intrigue that followed was to
determine the course of Germany’s history until 1945.
?
KEY QUESTION TWO– ACTIVITIES
a.
Read through the section and underline key points and words.
b.
Describe each of Hitler’s beliefs as outlined in his book Mein Kampf.
Race
Hitler argued that the German (Aryan) race was superior to other races and that it was
supposedly being weakened by the Jews. This was a historical view already held by some
people worldwide.
Social
Darwinism
AntiSemitism
Lebensraum
c.
What was the name of the worldwide recession following the Wall Street Crash?
d.
Although the Wall Street Crash had occurred in the USA, it affected many countries worldwide. Why was
Germany affected so badly?
e.
List two effects of the Wall Street Crash on Germany.
f.
Hitler gained the confidence of many voters following the crash because he had argued what in the
previous years?
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g.
List the number of seats and percentage of vote the Nazi Party gained in these four elections.
Year
Nazi Seats in the Reichstag
Nazi Vote as Percentage in the Reichstag
1928
1930
July 1932
Nov 1932
h.
Look carefully at the three Nazi Party election results from 1928 to July 1932. What does this trend tell
you about:
 How Germans felt about the Nazi Party before the Wall Street Crash?
 Voter confidence in the Nazi Party in the three years following the Wall Street Crash?
i.
Now compare these results with the November 1932 election result. Why might less Germans have voted for
the Nazi Party in November 1932?
j.
Which political party had the most seats in the Reichstag in July and November 1932?
k.
Explain why many people in the different groups below voted for the Nazi Party in 1932.
 Wealthier Germans
 The middle classes
 The working classes
 Those fearful of communism
 The young
l.
Although anti-Semitism was at the heart of Hitler’s belief in racial ‘purity’, the Nazi Party emphasised it far
less in these elections than they had done before. Why do you think this was?
m. Was the Nazi Party the only political party to do well in these elections?
n.
Name two groups of Germans who tended not to vote for the Nazi Party.
o.
Identify whether each of these aspects of the SA would have contributed to either increasing support or less
support for the Nazi Party and give a reason why.
 Making other parties unpopular with voters
 Often drunk and disorderly
 Use of violence and intimidation
 Strong and effective branch of the Nazi Party
p.
Who built up a reputation as an expert in Nazi propaganda and later became Propaganda Minister?
q.
In what ways did the Nazi Party use propaganda to gain votes in the late 1920s and early 1930s?
r.
How important do you think the economic depression was in helping the Nazi Party become the single
largest party in the Reichstag by 1932?
Well done! Now you have all the information you need to answer the Key Question. You could
use the answers you gave above to help, and then try it again without your answers to help you.
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
KEY QUESTION THREE
How did political instability in 1932 and 1933 contribute to Hitler becoming
Chancellor of Germany?
In the two Reichstag elections of 1932, the Nazi Party became the largest political party in the German
parliament (37% of seats in June, 33% of seats in November).
However, this was far from perfect for the Nazi Party:
• Without an overall majority of 51%, they
would find it difficult to pass laws.
Theoretically, if other parties all opposed a
proposed new law in parliament from
November 1932, their 67% combined votes
would block the Nazis’ proposed law and
therefore it would not be passed. This is a
problem for any political party holding the
largest percentage of seats but without an
overall majority.
• Losing seats in the Reichstag showed that
many Germans were voting against
extremist political parties like the Nazis.
The Reichstag experienced much political intrigue between
1932 and 1933
• The Nazi Party needed a huge amount of financial
support to bankroll their expensive demonstrations,
rallies and propaganda machine. Their money was running out fast.
• Under the Weimar Constitution, President Hindenburg decided who was to be Chancellor.
Hindenburg did not approve of Hitler and instead appointed von Papen firstly (between the two 1932
elections of June and December) and then von Schleicher (between December 1932 and January 1933).
Hitler had been temporarily sidelined as Chancellor, further reducing the Nazis’ grip on power.
• Hitler had made it clear to President Hindenburg that he would not consider any Reichstag position
other than Chancellor.
• Political uncertainty hung over the Reichstag during 1932–1933
with von Papen, von Schleicher and Hitler all wrangling for
power. President Hindenburg was stuck in the middle in the
knowledge that any decisions he made could be catastrophic.
President Hindenburg in military uniform and
Hitler in civilian clothes, shortly before Hitler
became Führer
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
KEY PEOPLE
President Hindenburg (right) had been a highly experienced, decorated
and respected General Field Marshal during the First World War. He was
elected as the second President of the Weimar Constitution in 1925 (after
Ebert), a position he held until his death in 1934. Hindenburg neither
liked nor trusted Hitler. However, caught between the power struggles of
von Papen and von Schleicher in 1932 and early 1933, he eventually
agreed to von Papen’s proposal that Hitler should become Chancellor.
Elderly and frail, Hindenburg increasingly withdrew from politics during
his final year, whilst Hitler secured power and turned Germany into a
Nazi state.
Von Schleicher (right) with
von Papen (left)
Von Papen (1879–1969) had been a military adviser and statesman
during the First World War. He entered politics in the early 1920s as a
member of the right-wing Catholic Centre Party, but many dismissed
his old-fashioned views. However, with considerable backing from
wealthy Germans, he eventually became Chancellor in 1932. He
lacked support as Chancellor and struggled to keep the coalition
government together. A prominent member of his coalition, von
Schleicher, persuaded President Hindenburg to appoint himself as
Chancellor instead. After supporting Hitler’s appointment as
Chancellor, von Papen soon became disillusioned. Many of his close
political allies were killed during the Night of the Long Knives, whilst
he was brought to trial but acquitted after the collapse of the Nazi
Party for his role in bringing the Nazis to power.
Von Schleicher (1882–1934) had been a general during the First World War and then a leader of the
Freikorps. He had been a political adviser to Hindenburg after he became President of the Weimar
Republic. His short-lived appointment as Chancellor (less than two months) was Hindenburg’s
second attempt at creating ‘centrist’ alliances to keep the Nazis and Hitler from power. This was
unsuccessful and von Schleicher was replaced by Hitler. Von Papen actually supported Hitler in
taking over the role of Chancellor with himself as Vice-Chancellor (this was a misguided attempt to
reduce Hitler’s power from within). Von Schleicher was murdered by Nazi assassins the following
year during the Night of the Long Knives.
Note – Hindenburg, von Papen and von Schleicher had worked together in various military capacities during
the First World War, they had been political allies and were personal friends. The problems that existed
between them during 1932–1933 therefore show how problematic such relationships can become when faced
with threats such as political instability and the rise of Nazism.
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?
KEY QUESTION THREE– ACTIVITIES
a.
Read through the section and underline key points and words.
b.
Why was it a problem that the Nazi Party did not have at least 51% of the seats in the Reichstag?
c.
Explain why each of these factors were a problem for the Nazi Party in November 1932.
Factor
Why this was a problem for the Nazi Party
Losing 4% of
their seats in
the
Reichstag
Financial
support
President
Hindenburg’s
choice of
Chancellor
d.
Describe the political roles of each of the following in 1932:
 Hindenburg
 Von Papen
 Von Schleicher
e.
Which of the following statements do you most agree with?
 The reason why Hitler was denied the right to be Chancellor even after winning two elections in 1932
was because of the skill of von Papen and von Schleicher.
 The reason why Hitler was denied the right to be Chancellor even after winning two elections in 1932
was because Hindenburg feared the direction Hitler might take Germany in.
f.
Who do you think was most responsible for Hitler becoming Chancellor in 1933 – Hindenburg, von Papen,
von Schleicher or a combination of each? Give a reason for your choice.
Well done! Now you have all the information you need to answer the Key Question. You could
use the answers you gave above to help, and then try it again without your answers to help you.
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SUMMARY – HOW WAS HITLER ABLE TO COME TO POWER?
The Emergence of the Nazis as a Mass Party / Hitler’s Leadership
Strengths:
 The Nazi Party had become infamous following the failed Munich Beer Hall Putsch.
 Hitler’s book Mein Kampf (‘My Struggle’) became popular when published in 1925.
 Hitler reorganised the Nazi Party for participation in the democratic process.
 Most support came from the working classes. Many saw the Nazis as potential strong leaders.
Weaknesses:
 They did not perform well in elections until the Great Depression in the late 1920s.
 Economic conditions and living standards improved, so many ignored extreme political parties.
 By 1929, the Nazis had some seats in the Reichstag. However, they did not have enough.
In the mid-1920s, Hitler’s Nazi Party were still a small political party.
However, by 1932 they had gained the most votes in Parliament.
The Reasons for the Dramatic Increase of Support for Nazism after 1929
 Germany was affected badly by the Wall Street Crash of 1929, leading to the Great Depression.
 American loans were withdrawn and millions became unemployed.
 Hitler seized the opportunity and argued that Germany had over relied on other countries and that the
government was weak.
 Many undecided voters increasingly looked to extreme parties to solve Germany’s problems.
 Nazism appealed to many Germans afraid of losing their jobs or having their pay cut.
 Wealthier Germans feared Communism, so many voted for right-wing political parties.
However, President Hindenburg did not agree to Hitler being Chancellor. in 1932.
Problem: Nazis did not have a Grip on Power
 Nazi seats in 1932 elections: June=37% / Nov=33%. No Nazi majority (i.e. 51%) meant other parties could
outvote Nazis.
 Losing 4 seats meant many Germans were voting against Nazis.
 Nazi Party nearly bankrupt; urgently needed financial support.
 President Hindenburg elected von Papen, then von Schleicher as Chancellors, instead of Hitler.
Result: A Political ‘tug of war’ emerged by late 1932. Finally, after months of political wrangling, in January 1933,
Hindenburg agreed to make Hitler Chancellor.
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SUMMARY – HOW WAS HITLER ABLE TO COME TO POWER?
Nazi Leaders played Various Roles in the Success of the Nazi Party between 1929 and 1933
Goebbels’ Role:
He became a keen and trusted supporter of Hitler
from the early days onwards. Elected to the
Reichstag in 1928, he became Nazi Propaganda
Minister. His writing and speaking skills were
used very effectively in creating pro-Nazi and
anti-opposition propaganda.
Röhm’s Role:
After membership in the right-wing Freikorps, he
joined the Nazi Party. He supported the Munich
Beer Hall Putsch of 1923. He built up the SA from
the early 1920s. He was killed in 1934 on Nazi
orders, after a power struggle between the SS and
the SA.
The role of propaganda in increasing the Nazi
vote:
 Nazi Party members were trained as skilful
speakers.
 Hitler campaigned tirelessly across Germany
at huge rallies.
 Goebbels became a highly effective election
campaign manager.
 Pro-Nazi publicity appeared in many
newspapers. Industrialists increasingly
supported Hitler and his views on
rearmament.
The role of the SA in increasing the Nazi vote:
Strengths:
 Stormtroopers terrorised left-wing opponents.
 SA organised strikes to disrupt the Weimar
Government and make them look weak.
 The million members by the early 1930s swelled
the Nazi vote.
Weaknesses:
 Many Germans were afraid of the SA, which put
them off Nazism.
 Many SA members were often drunk or got in
to fights.
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Section 2: Control and Opposition
2.1 Overview of: Control and Opposition
Opposition and Resistance to the
Nazi Government
Nazi Methods of Control: 1933–1945
How Hitler created a
dictatorship 1933–1934
Between 1933 and 1945, Hitler’s Nazi Party effectively controlled one of the most powerful
countries in history. This is how they achieved it.

Jan 1933
Feb 1933
Feb 1933
Mar 1933
Mar 1933
July 1933
Jan 1934
Aug 1934

Within a year and a half, Hitler had:
 Used democracy to dismantle it
 Made himself ‘Führer’ (President, Chancellor and Head of Armed Forces)
 Ruthlessly wiped out his own SA

1: National and Local Groups and Systems
 Secret Police: SS/Gestapo
 Concentration camps: used from 1933 for political opponents, disabled and many not
considered racially pure
 Local wardens spied on colleagues, neighbours and friends

2: Laws Restricting Civil Liberties
 Political parties, churches, opposition groups and individuals were monitored and
suppressed by Gestapo
 Climate of fear minimised open opposition to Nazism
 Press were controlled and heavily censored under Nazis

3: Effective Use of Propaganda
 Goebbels ran highly effective Propaganda Ministry
 All media outlets under Nazi control
 Racist and anti-Semitic messages everywhere
 Mass rallies were filmed and transmitted on radio

Most effective opposition collapsed because of:
 Repressive laws banning opposition such as the Enabling Act
 The secret police such as the Gestapo/SS
 A highly effective propaganda machine run by Goebbels

However, some opposition to Nazi rule existed. This included:
 Passive resistance such as Edelweiss Pirates and many Germans refusing to join the
Nazi Party or give the Hitler salute
 Groups such as Communists, Jews, the Kreisau Circle and the White Rose Group
 Religious Opposition: Pastors Bonhoeffer and Niemöller and Archbishop Galen
 July Bomb Plotters (1944): Hitler narrowly escaped death and serious injury

Hitler elected Chancellor
Article 48 (emergency laws)
Reichstag Fire
Nazis win 45% vote
Enabling Act (emergency laws)
Germany becomes one-party state
‘Night of the Long Knives’
Hindenburg dies / Hitler becomes ‘Führer’
Hitler died by his own hand in 1945. Resistance had not been effective enough.
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2.2 How did Hitler create a dictatorship?

LEARNING OBJECTIVES –
YOU WILL NEED TO:
SPECIFICATION FOCUS
 Explain how the Nazi Party used the
democratic process in the Weimar
Republic to dismantle it between 1933
and 1934

 The creation of the one-party state: the
Reichstag Fire, the Enabling Law, the
Night of the Long Knives
 The removal of military and political
opposition
KEY TERMS
‘Centrist’ – Political parties and opinions placed towards the centre of politics. Most ‘centrist’
parties also had members that were either more right-wing or left-wing. Many modern political
parties in Europe are ‘centrist’ parties or coalitions.
Führer – Hitler appointed himself with this title as absolute ruler of Germany (thus becoming the
President, Chancellor and Head of the Armed Forces combined).
Dictator – The absolute ruler of a country where no opposition is allowed.
Cabinet – A small, select group of politicians who oversee different ministries (i.e. with
responsibilities for areas such the economy, military, transport, education and foreign relations,
etc.) and who meet to make important decisions about the running of the country.
Article 48 (Emergency Decree) – Under the Weimar Constitution, the President could issue
emergency decrees (official statements allowing extreme measures to protect the country). By using
these to his advantage (i.e. the Enabling Act of 1933), Hitler was able to dismantle the Weimar
Republic and turn Germany into a dictatorship.
A mass rally in support of the Third Reich
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
KEY QUESTION ONE
How were the Nazi Party able to gain complete power in Germany between 1933
and 1934?
The Key Events of 1933–1934
The Nazis understood all too well that these problems needed overcoming and they acted quickly.
However, in a little over a year and a half, between early 1933 and late 1934, the Nazis managed to
completely secure power in the Reichstag. In doing so, they fulfilled their ambition of destroying the
Weimar Constitution and replacing it with a dictatorship, in the form of a one-party totalitarian Nazi
state. After campaigning so hard and so long to gain the position of Chancellor for himself, Hitler had
dismissed the position in order to become Führer. The events below will provide an insight into how
Hitler and the Nazi Party achieved this.
Date
30th Jan
1933
4th Feb
1933
27 Feb
1933
th
Event
Details
Significance
Hitler
appointed
Chancellor
Von Papen suggested to President
Hindenburg to make Hitler Chancellor
and himself Vice-Chancellor. Hitler
agreed to have only three Nazis in the
Cabinet of 12 government ministers.
Almost immediately, Hitler asked
President Hindenburg to call an
election (the date was set for 5th March
1933). Hitler hoped to get an overall
majority of parliamentary seats.
Hindenburg was persuaded to
declare a ‘State of Emergency’
under Article 48, which enabled
Hitler to become Chancellor.
Historians still disagree about the
motives of the key politicians
involved. One main theory is that
they thought they could control
Hitler (especially as the Nazi Party
only had roughly a quarter of
Cabinet seats).
Initial
emergency
decrees
passed
Hitler convinced Hindenburg to pass a
decree under Article 48 stating that the
police were informed of all political
demonstrations two days in advance,
so as to adequately police them and
avoid violence. Individuals perceived
to be a threat could also be held by the
police without trial for short periods.
Prior to the March election, many
political demonstrations were
broken up by the Nazis. Hitler had
pushed for these measures to
reduce political opponents. Nazi
Party demonstrations were not
disrupted.
Reichstag
Fire / more
emergency
decrees
passed
The Reichstag Fire mysteriously
occurred one week before the election.
Hitler claimed that this showed the
threat of a communist uprising by
blaming the fire on the Communists.
Hindenburg used Article 48 again, by
issuing the ‘Presidential Decree for the
Protection of the People and State’.
This meant that prisoners could be
held without being brought before a
court. This remained a foundation of
the Nazi dictatorship until their
collapse in 1945.
The full truth about the Reichstag
Fire has never been uncovered.
At the time, many believed it was a
communist plot to destabilise the
Nazi Party and the political
process. However, many later
believed it was caused by the Nazis
themselves. Thousands of
Communists and Social Democrats
were arrested after the fire and
restricted all political opposition.
Hitler referred to the fire as a ‘Godgiven signal’.
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Date
Event
Details
Significance
Election
(Final one
until the fall
of the Nazi
Party 12 years
later)
The Nazi Party got 45% of the vote.
However, Hitler needed a two-thirds
majority of parliamentary seats to
change the Weimar Constitution.
Hitler used the emergency powers
under Article 48 to stop the
Communists (KPD) taking up seats
they had gained in the Reichstag.
Hitler also got Centre Party support
by promising to defend Catholic
Church interests.
Enabling Act
The Nazis had already got support
from the Centre Party, whilst the
hated KPD (Communist) party were
banned from attending. Only the SPD
(Social Democrat) politicians voted
against the Enabling Act. The SPD was
banned shortly afterwards.
The ‘Enabling Act’ made it possible
for the government to introduce its
own laws. This basically did away
with the Reichstag and the
democratic process in Germany for
another 12 years.
Germany
becomes a
one-party
state
The Nazis became the only legal
political party in Germany. The
Weimar Republic was now Nazi
Germany (also known as the ‘Third
Reich’).
Having been democratically elected
to the Reichstag with Hitler as
Chancellor, the Nazi Party had now
got rid of all opposition. They were
now free to run the country how
they wanted.
30th
June
1934
Night of the
Long Knives
Amongst the German public, this in
some ways gave the Nazis more
The SA (Stormtroopers/Brownshirts)
respectability. Also, by getting rid
under Röhm were beginning to
of their own powerful private army
threaten the authority of Hitler and the (the SA were actually larger than
German army (the Reichswehr). Many the 100,000, as they remained
SA leaders and members (about 400)
restricted by the Treaty of
were murdered in one night by the SS. Versailles), the regular army
became more trusting of Hitler and
the Nazis.
2 Aug
1934
President
Hindenburg
died
Hitler appointed himself President
and in doing so became the Führer.
By appointing himself as Führer,
Hitler had overall control of all
aspects of German politics, society
and the military.
21st May
1935
Armed forces
reorganised
The army (Reichswehr) was
reorganised to become the
Wehrmacht.
The army was now directly under
Hitler’s control (as Commander in
Chief).
5 Mar
1933
th
23rd Mar
1933
14th July
1933
nd
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The Enabling Act of 1933 gave the Nazi leadership ‘emergency powers’ to...
...search the
homes and
offices of
suspected
opponents.
...ban trade unions.
...imprison
opposition leaders.
...pass laws without the consent of parliament
(unnecessary after Hitler became Führer).
...execute
enemies
of the
Nazis.
The Nazi Party never dismantled the Enabling Act. Its powers only ceased after the fall of
Nazism at the end of the Second World War.
FOR YOUR INFORMATION
Note – When we undertake historical depth studies, we often mistakenly compress / squeeze many
years together. One example of this is when pupils compress the events leading up to, and including,
the Holocaust. For example, whilst the Nazi Party spread anti-Semitic propaganda from the early
1920s onwards, actual persecution of Jews by the Nazis didn’t begin until the 1930s and the
Holocaust didn’t actually occur until the 1940s (a gradual development over a quarter of a century).
Therefore, be careful not to compress history. Consider the following points:
Ten years passed between Hitler’s failed ‘Munich Beer Hall Putsch’ and being appointed Chancellor
of Germany. Another six years would pass before Nazi Germany’s expansion of military might
would kick-start the Second World War and the same again until the collapse of Nazi Germany and
the death of Hitler. Throughout this period Hitler efficiently, ruthlessly and relentlessly devised
political and military tactics and strategies to ensure absolute power.
• Angry with the ‘weakness’ of the Weimar Republic, his failed putsch had made him consider
using the democratic system to take power. This had required him to ‘bite his lip’ and be patient.
This he did, whilst building his party and power base from strength to strength.
• The strategy of democratic participation had worked! Ten years later and he became Chancellor.
His Nazi Party became the largest in the Reichstag.
• He then used the same democratic process that had brought him to power to dismantle it. Even
though the Nazis did not have an overall majority in the Reichstag, within less than two years this
had been achieved.
• By the outbreak of the Second World War (1939–1945), Nazi Germany had rebuilt a powerful
army and invaded several European countries.
• Another six years later and Hitler was dead in his bunker, his beloved Nazi State in ruins
around him.
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?
KEY QUESTION ONE – ACTIVITIES
a.
Read through the section and underline key points and words.
b.
What key events in 1933 and 1934 led to Hitler’s securing of power?
• 30th Jan 1933
• 4th Feb 1933
• 27th Feb 1933
• 5th Mar 1933
• 23rd Mar 1933
• 14th July 1933
• 30th June 1934
• 2nd Aug 1934
c.
What action did opposition parties and President Hindenburg take in January 1933 to try to ensure Hitler
would not have too much power as Chancellor?
d.
How did Hitler’s use of emergency decrees from February 1933 help the Nazi Party in the March 1933
elections?
e.
What do you think Hitler meant when he referred to the Reichstag Fire as a ‘God-given signal’?
f.
How did Hitler increase the amount of Nazi Party seats following the March 1933 election?
g.
List the key powers that the Enabling Act gave the Nazi Party from 1933 onwards.
...
...ban trade unions.
...
The Enabling Act gave the
Nazi Party power to...
...
...
h.
To what extent were the events of 30th June 1934 different to those above?
i.
How did Hitler use President Hindenburg’s death to his advantage?
j.
Which date exactly would you use to describe Hitler as being ‘in power’? Was it in January 1933 as
Chancellor, in July 1933 as the only political party, August 1934 when Hindenburg dies, or another date?
k.
Many factors enabled Hitler to change his role from Chancellor in January 1933 to Führer by August 1934.
Which two of the following possible reasons do you think played the most important part in this change?
Violence | Political Skill | Luck | Weak Opponents | Power of the State | Fear
Now write one sentence explaining why you chose each.
Well done! Now you have all the information you need to answer the Key Question. You could
use the answers you gave above to help, and then try it again without your answers to help you.
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SUMMARY – HOW DID HITLER CREATE A DICTATORSHIP?
By 1932, Hitler’s Nazi Party
was the largest political party
in Germany, but without a
majority. The President
refused to make him
Chancellor. The future of
Nazism and the Weimar
Republic was uncertain, so...
...Hitler used skilful
political
manoeuvring over
the next two years to
obtain power…
30th Jan
1933
4th Feb
1933
27th Feb
1933
5th Mar
1933
23rd Mar
1933
14th July
1933
30th Jan
1934
2nd Aug
1934
...and by 1934 Hitler
had gained total power
in Germany and
become the Führer of a
Nazi dictatorship.
Problem: Nazis did not have a grip on power
 Nazi seats in 1932 elections: June=37% / Nov=33%
 No Nazi majority (i.e. 51%) meant other parties could outvote
Nazis
 Losing four seats meant many Germans were voting against
Nazis
 Nazi Party nearly bankrupt urgently needed financial support
 President Hindenburg elected von Papen, then von
Schleicher as Chancellors, instead of Hitler
Result: A political ‘tug of war’ emerged by late 1932
Wrongly thinking they could control Hitler, they elected him
Chancellor.
Hitler convinced Hindenburg to pass emergency laws (Article
48), using extreme powers to break up opposition rallies before
the March election.
Using the Reichstag Fire as an excuse, the Nazis further
restricted political opposition before the election.
Nazis gain 45% seats in election. Although not a majority,
Nazis used Article 48 to remove more Reichstag opposition.
The Enabling Act basically removed the democratic process
from German politics.
Germany becomes a one-party state (dictatorship).
Nazis eliminate leadership of their own SA on the Night of the
Long Knives.
President Hindenburg dies and Hitler becomes Führer.
By eliminating all opposition and aided by Hindenburg’s death, Hitler
had effectively taken on the roles of President, Chancellor and the Head of
the Armed Forces all in one. He had successfully used the democratic
system for over a decade to dismantle the very same system that had put
him in power. Throughout the following decade, it seemed as if nothing
could stop Hitler and the Nazi Party.
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2.3 How effectively did the Nazis control Germany in the years 1933–1945?


LEARNING OBJECTIVES –
YOU WILL NEED TO:
SPECIFICATION FOCUS
 Describe the different methods of control
used to maintain power in the Nazi state
 Understand the effect that laws restricting
civil liberties had on reducing opposition to
Nazi rule
 Describe the different types of opposition to
Nazi rule between 1933 and 1945
 Explain why there was little effective
opposition to Nazi rule
 Demonstrate that groups such as the White
Rose Group, religious opponents and the
July Bomb Plotters opposed different aspects
of Nazi rule
 The nature of the totalitarian
state; the abolition of freedom,
individual liberties and trade
unions; the SS organisation’s
role in the Nazi state
 The nature of continuing
opposition and resistance within
the Third Reich
 The White Rose movement; the
work of individuals such as
Cardinal Gallen, Niemöller and
Bonhoeffer
 The opposition of the military;
the Kreisau Circle; the
Stauffenberg bomb plot
KEY TERMS
Subversive – When an individual or group try to disrupt or destroy a political system. In Nazi
Germany, anyone criticising the Nazi regime were labelled subversives.
Passive Resistance – When opposition is peaceful rather than violent. One example is by doing little of
what you’re instructed to do. Often used by religious leaders, in Nazi Germany it was one of the only
types of effective resistance.
Concordat – An agreement made between the Catholic Church and a particular country (usually to do
with protecting the rights of that country’s Catholic citizens).
Euthanasia – The act of killing people because they are elderly or very ill. In Nazi Germany, euthanasia
was used systematically to kill at least 200,000 thousand people (many of them mentally ill or physically
handicapped).
Human rights – basic rights that all people are considered to have (e.g. freedom of speech and legal
representation)
Pastor – A Protestant Church minister (usually with a church and congregation).
Pacifism – The belief that violence, and in particular war, is wrong on moral grounds.
Aryans – The Nazis believed that Aryans (those considered to be Germanic – fair features and blue eyes)
were racially superior to other people.
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
KEY QUESTION ONE
Describe the different methods of control used by the Nazi Party.
The Nature of the Totalitarian State; The Abolition of Freedom, Individual Liberties and Trade
Unions; The SS Organisation’s Role in the Nazi State
FOR YOUR INFORMATION
Totalitarianism
In popular language, the term ‘totalitarianism’ usually refers to a system of government whereby a
form of government has absolute (or total) power over the whole political system. As such, totalitarian
governments command absolute control over politics, society and economics within their countries.
This means that they are not democratic, as citizens in totalitarian countries do not have the same
voting rights as citizens in democratic countries. Totalitarian leaders are often referred to as ‘dictators’
– i.e. people who dictate instructions rather than asking and seeking consensus.
However, as with other ‘ism’s’, understanding totalitarianism is not easy. Whilst today Russia, Italy
and Germany all practice democracy and capitalism, they were all arguably totalitarian at different
periods in the twentieth century. In this respect, it could be argued that under Stalin and other
Communist leaders, Russia had experienced both Communism and totalitarianism. Likewise, under
Mussolini, Italy arguably experienced fascism and totalitarianism, and under Hitler, Germany had
experienced Nazism and totalitarianism.
The Abolition of Freedom and Individual Liberties
The Nazi Party followed totalitarianism to the letter. All forms of opposition were removed and control
was sought over all aspects of life. There were many changes regarding liberty.
 The formation of opposing political parties was banned
 Courts were brought into line with party views; the People’s Court was set up to try those opposed
to the regime (who were unlikely to receive a fair trial) and judges had to swear loyalty to the Nazis
in order to be given their post to ensure they always gave the verdict that suited the Nazis
 The media was censored; it had to follow party lines
 Local government, education and even youth clubs were all controlled to ensure the new generation
were loyal Nazis
 Freedom of speech became almost non-existent as the Nazis kept a watch on any and all forms of
opposition down to merely speaking out against the party
Many people were arrested by the regime which created a feeling of fear among the populace. Some
were even executed and this marked a huge rise since before the Nazis had come to power: in the years
1930–1932 there were eight executions, while between 1934 and 1939, 534 people were killed.
Trade Unions
These are organisations of different workers split up by trade that work together for common goals – for
example, better working conditions, pay and other benefits. They were banned in Nazi Germany in May
1933. As well as losing the right to form trade unions, workers lost the right to strike. SS and SA guards
were sent to trade union offices, where they intimidated trade unionists and sent many of their leaders
to concentration camps. The trade unions were then taken over by the Nazi Party and were eventually
replaced with the Nazis’ German Labour Movement (which is discussed more in Part 3.3).
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Methods of Control of National and Local Groups and Systems – Local Wardens
Normal police officers were responsible for preventing crime and catching criminals, in much the same
way as the police do across the world today. However, the Nazi Party demanded nothing less than total
support from all Germans and this was difficult (if not impossible) to achieve. While branches of the SS
such as the Gestapo acted as secret police across Nazi Germany and later on throughout Nazi-occupied
Europe, they simply could not monitor all Germans at all times. In an attempt to achieve this at the local
level, they employed local wardens (also known as Block Wardens / Ortsgruppe). These were local
groups who were responsible for monitoring small areas of cities, towns and villages. Wardens spied on
neighbours, colleagues and even family members to ensure they were supportive of Hitler and the Nazi
Party. They would report any ‘subversive’ behaviour or actions to district wardens, who in turn would
report to the police or Gestapo. Informers were also used effectively.
Listening to foreign radio broadcasts and not hanging Hitler’s portrait in your property could result in
imprisonment or worse. Personal freedoms people take for granted in modern-day Britain or Germany
simply did not exist under Nazi rule. A law was even passed in 1934, called the Law against Malicious
Gossip, which made it illegal to tell jokes against the government. Jokes and criticism about the Nazi
Party and Hitler would have occurred in private among many people (in some cases these were actually
punishable by death). However, the thought of a teacher reporting on a student (or vice versa) or a
colleague reporting an anti-Hitler joke would have acted as a powerful deterrent. This fear ultimately
prevented most people from criticising the Nazi regime.
The Role of the SS
Short for ‘Schutzstaffel’ and also known as the
‘Black Order’ the SS emerged as a small elite and
loyal branch of the SA in 1925 and had several
hundred members. They initially provided
protection to Hitler and leaders of the Nazi Party.
In the early days, the SS wore similar brownshirted uniforms to the SA, but with black caps to
differentiate them. This was later changed to black
uniforms. The ‘SS’ symbol was designed to
resemble lightning and soon became a dreaded
symbol of Nazism in general.
FOR YOUR INFORMATION
Be careful not to confuse the SS with the SA.
Remember that the SS played a major part in
the elimination of the SA during the Night of
the Long Knives of 1934. The SS were also a
significant factor during the events of
Kristallnacht (the Night of Broken Glass, 1938).
Rivalries had always existed between Hitler’s original private
army (the SA) and the SS. Tensions continued as the SS grew
from strength to strength under Himmler’s effective leadership
and expansion of membership from the late 1920s onwards. In
this period they effectively took on the role of political police. By
the time of Hitler’s election as Chancellor in 1933, the SS had
swollen to over 50,000 members. All members had sworn loyalty
to Himmler and Hitler. Power struggles between the SS and SA
contributed to the liquidation of the entire SA leadership in the
The distinctive double lettered ‘SS’
blood purges of the Night of the Long Knives in 1934 (as Hitler
symbolised lightning in Nazi ideology
moved ever closer to becoming Führer). The Nazis had
been concerned that the SA were becoming too big, too powerful and too ruthless to control. The regular
army did not trust them, partially due to their view that the SA were a bunch of thugs. The SA’s wish for
the army to be merged with them and be under the SA’s leadership was also a cause for concern for the
army and met with hostility. Hitler was beginning to feel he needed to make a choice, and knew that he
had to keep the army on his side as they were likely to prove vital to him. Hitler was also fearful that,
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although once completely loyal and very useful to the Nazis, the SA leadership were plotting to
overthrow him. In deploying the SS to round up, interrogate and assassinate hundreds of SA leaders,
Hitler had acted quickly and decisively. In doing so he had ‘killed two birds with one stone’. The SA
leadership were eliminated, their members merged with the regular army and the loyal SS took over the
role of all special police duties.
Over the course of Nazi rule, the SS emerged as a very powerful instrument of Nazi terror, answerable
only to Hitler himself. In 1938, the SS played a prominent role in the persecution of Jews known as
‘Kristallnacht’ (the Night of Broken Glass), discussed elsewhere in this resource. During the war years,
the various branches of the SS comprised almost approximately 800,000 members. Many non-Germans
were also allowed to join newly formed branches from the occupied countries in this period.

KEY PERSON: HEINRICH HIMMLER (1900–1945)
The son of a Catholic school master, Himmler had trained as officer
cadet in the First World War. Following the war he trained in
farming and joined the Freikorps, participating in the 1923 Munich
Beer Hall Putsch alongside leading Nazis such as Hitler and Röhm.
His growing anti-Semitic and nationalistic beliefs led him to take on
various party roles from the mid-1920s onwards. Recognising the
importance of the still small but effective SS, Hitler promoted
Himmler to lead them from 1929. His organisational skills in
expanding the SS and insight into the growing threat of the SA
gained him Hitler’s respect. By purging the SA leadership in 1934
(along with other potential threats to Hitler) and restructuring the
Heinrich Himmler –
police forces into a vast organisation of state oppression, Himmler
mastermind of the SS
secured his position as one of Hitler’s right-hand men. As head of the
SS, Himmler authorised concentration camps and later on extermination camps and the use of
forced labour from Nazi-occupied territories. As such, he was directly responsible for millions of
deaths. Interestingly, people who knew Himmler have claimed that he did not like the sight of
blood. Himmler fell out of Hitler’s favour after undertaking secret peace negotiations at the end of
the war, an act Hitler considered traitorous. Himmler killed himself by swallowing poison after his
capture at the end of the Second World War.
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Organisational Structure of the Main Branches of the SS
Hitler – Führer and Nazi Party Leader
Himmler – Head of the SS (also Hitler’s trusted right-hand man)
By 1934, the
Gestapo had
emerged as
Germany’s dreaded
secret police. Under
the control of
Heydrich and with
almost limitless
powers, they
became a branch of
the SS and were
answerable to
Himmler.
The Waffen SS
developed as fierce
and ruthless military
units during the
Second World War.
They were under the
control of Himmler
and the military high
command. Hitler
intended them to act
as the secret police in
Nazi-occupied
countries.
The SS Death’s
Head Units ran
labour camps,
concentration
camps from the
1930s and the later
extermination/
death camps. They
were heavily
involved in war
atrocities, both in
the camps and on
the battlefields.
The
Einsatzgruppen
were mobile SS
units who followed
fighting units into
conquered
territories to help
administer Nazi
affairs. Brutally
efficient, they were
increasingly used to
exterminate Jews
in the east.
Following WW2, all SS organisations were condemned as criminal organisations
by the Allies. Many of their leaders were subsequently executed for war crimes.
Waffen SS
troops were
organised into
highly effective
fighting units
Gestapo ‘secret police’ agents in 1945
An Einsatzgruppen officer about to kill a
Ukrainian Jew during WW2
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
KEY PERSON: REINHARD HEYDRICH (1904–1942)
After serving as an officer in the German Navy, Heydrich joined the SS in the early 1930s. His skills
and ruthless determination to succeed were soon recognised by Himmler and Hitler and several
promotions followed. Heydrich played a large role in the purging of the SA leadership (the Night of
the Long Knives) in 1934. Further promotions included the Head of the Gestapo in 1936 and Deputy
Reich Protector for Nazi-occupied Bohemia and Moravia (Czechoslovakia) in 1941. Also playing a
key role in the deportation, internment and execution of Jews throughout Nazi-occupied Europe,
Heydrich became chairman of the now infamous 1942 Wannsee Conference. He was assassinated in
Prague by Czech resistance fighters in retaliation to his brutal
methods of control. The German response was typically brutal –
thousands of Czechs were imprisoned, deported or interrogated.
Many more were executed. Some Nazis even viewed Heydrich
as a possible successor to Hitler. However, unverified claims
have suggested that he may have had some Jewish ancestry and
that Hitler and Himmler had ‘turned a blind eye’ to this because
of his importance to the Nazi Party.
This Nazi era stamp commemorates
Heydrich as a martyr of the Nazi cause
Concentration Camps
FOR YOUR INFORMATION
Concentration camps were first used to
In exams, many GCSE candidates confuse concentration
imprison political opponents in Nazi
camps with extermination/death camps in Nazi
Germany. The first concentration camps
Germany. Although there were notable exceptions,
were built following Hitler’s rise to
concentration camps tended to be used for large-scale
power from 1933 onwards. On the
imprisonment and/or for forced labour of prisoners.
orders of Hitler and Himmler,
These had been developed by the American
thousands of Communists were
Government to intern Native American Indians in the
imprisoned in Dachau, Buchenwald and
nineteenth century and by the British in South Africa’s
Sachsenhausen. Using the emergency
Boer War in the early twentieth century. Extermination/
powers granted under Article 48
death camps, on the other hand, were used for the
following the Reichstag Fire, the Nazis
large-scale murder of various groups of prisoners
successfully removed political
during the latter part of WW2 (to be discussed
opponents from society and concentrate
elsewhere in this resource). Conditions varied in the
them in one area so as to re-educate
camps, although all would have been appalling.
them. The Nazis form of re-education –
Whereas the principal purpose of most wartime
or reform – meant that to be released
concentration camps was for forced labour, countless
back into society, political opponents
prisoners died as a result of the terrible conditions or by
would have to show that they had
the brutal treatment by SS guards.
renounced their views and that they
now supported Nazism. In the absence
of personal freedoms / civil rights (prisoners usually still have these), brutal methods were used. Hard
labour, interrogations and torture were a feature of life in the camps from the outset. Needless to say
that some political opponents were either never released or died in the camps. Most received no trial and
proper legal representation. Many Germans accepted the need for concentration camps to keep public
order and ward off the threat of revolution. Dachau (near Munich in the south of Germany) was the first
concentration camp and one which many later camps were modelled on.
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During the 1930s, the camps were increasingly used to
imprison those who spoke out against Nazism, including
trade unionists and Christians. They were also used for
those considered inferior or who didn’t conform to the
Nazi’s ‘Aryan’ idea of racial purity, such as Jews and
gypsies. They were also used for those living on the edge
of society, such as alcoholics and homeless people. Most
prisoners who had been interned (imprisoned) in
concentration camps prior to the Second World War were
eventually released.
Jewish slave labourers’ sleeping quarters in a concentration
camp in 1945. Although conditions varied from camp to camp,
these were typical of conditions elsewhere.
By the time of the outbreak of the Second World War in 1939, approximately a quarter of a million
Germans had been interned in concentration camps. More concentration camps emerged in Nazioccupied Europe to house prisoners of war and forced labourers to provide Germany with essential
materials needed for the war effort. Thousands of smaller camps were built near to factories, whilst
transit camps dispersed prisoners to other camps. Different categories of prisoners were systematically
recorded and labelled with marks or colours for easy identification. For example, Jews wore yellow
stars, Jehovah’s Witnesses wore a purple badge, political prisoners wore a red badge and those
imprisoned for anti-social behaviour wore a black triangle. The Nazi Party considered those they
believed to be a threat to the pure Aryan race as social outcasts. Jews were the main target and other
groups included Jehovah’s Witnesses, the mentally and physically ill, homeless people, gypsies,
alcoholics and homosexuals. They were dealt with severely through a combination of sterilisation,
euthanasia and forced labour. As the war progressed, some concentration camps became extermination
camps where Nazi ideology on racial purity could be exercised, most notably Auschwitz-Birkenau.
?
a.
KEY QUESTION ONE – ACTIVITIES
Read through the section and underline key points and words.
The Abolition of Liberties
b. What main liberties were removed under the Nazi regime?
c.
What did judges of the new People’s Court have to do?
d.
What loss did workers face?
The Role of the SS:
e. What role did the SS have in 1925?
f.
Why do you think the SS symbol resembled lightning?
g.
Why did tensions emerge between the SS and the SA in the following years?
h.
Complete the following sentence:
The SS originally only had several hundred members, but by 1933 this had increased to…
i.
The SS were involved in what bloody action in 1934?
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j.
Make notes on the four main branches of the SS during the Second World War in a table like the one below:
Branch of SS
Duties/Responsibilities
Gestapo
Waffen SS
Death’s Head Units
Einsatzgruppen
Concentration Camps:
k. Describe concentration camps.
l.
Give two examples of the use of concentration camps in other countries.
m. Which is the correct statement?
 Concentration camps were first used in 1933 to imprison political opponents.
 Concentration camps were first used in 1933 as transit camps before opponents were sent to
extermination camps.
 Concentration camps were first used in 1933 to imprison Germany’s Jews.
n.
What other groups of people were imprisoned in concentration camps in 1930s Nazi Germany?
o.
Approximately how many Germans had been imprisoned in concentration camps by 1939?
p.
How were different categories of prisoners easily identified by concentration camp guards?
q.
What purposes were those imprisoned in concentration camps expected to serve in the Second World War?
Local Wardens:
r. What role did local wardens play in Nazi Germany?
s.
What other methods did the Nazis use to limit criticism of their regime?
t.
Why did the Nazis create a vast network of informers?
Well done! Now you have all the information you need to answer the Key Question. You could
use the answers you gave above to help, and then try it again without your answers to help you.
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
KEY QUESTION TWO
Describe the types of opposition and resistance to Nazi rule in the years 1933
to 1945.
The Nature of Continuing Opposition and Resistance within the Third Reich
As with most people in most countries and at most times, there would have been much private
grumbling about the Nazi policies that affected people’s lives negatively. However, the majority of
Germans would have been preoccupied with maintaining a decent standard of living for themselves and
their families. This was due to a combination of fear and intimidation, together with a sense that many
ordinary people were doing well during the economic progress and peacetime years between 1933 and
1939. Whilst many Germans certainly did not agree with certain aspects of Nazism, most people did not
become involved in open opposition to Nazi rule.
The Nazi government created an atmosphere of intimidation and the Gestapo relied heavily on
informers to arrest political opponents and other prisoners. It was this climate of fear that intimidated
many ordinary Germans and led them to accept and support Hitler and the Nazi Party. Some
individuals and groups used various methods to oppose Nazism. However, open opposition to Nazism
was rare and ‘underground’ resistance was usually unsuccessful. (These areas are discussed in detail
elsewhere in this resource.)
The opposition that did occur in Nazi Germany took many forms. Prior to the Second World War, there
was no serious attempt to take power from the Nazi government. Opposition, resistance and full-scale
attacks on Hitler himself only became more common during the second part of World War Two (a
decade after gaining power). Systematic political resistance to Nazism never fully recovered from the
aftermath of the Enabling Act of 1933 and open revolt would have been pointless (as the Nazis
controlled all positions of power).
There was also some opposition from the army, which lead to Hitler sacking or retiring large numbers of
army officers in 1938. He subsequently took over full responsibility for military decisions himself. There
were also some attacks on factories, railways, and army barracks, whilst spies passed on information to
other governments. This type of opposition was often led by secretive ‘underground’ anti-Nazi groups.
However, most opposition took the form of passive resistance (as it had done before Nazi rule in the
Weimar Republic, when passive resistance ended the Kapp Putsch and was also used in the occupation
of the Ruhr). In Nazi Germany, some working-class groups distributed anti-Nazi leaflets. There was also
the working-class Edelweiss Pirates group, which refused to join the Hitler Youth (to be discussed
elsewhere in this resource). Many Germans refused to join the Nazi Party or have their children join
Nazi youth movements. Others refused to give the Hitler salute (some people were imprisoned for this,
whilst a small minority were even executed). There was also some public outrage at the events of
Kristallnacht (The Night of Broken Glass, 1938 / large-scale anti-Jewish violence).
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Below are some examples of opposition/resistance to the Nazi regime:
Opposition/
Resistance
Description of Opposition/Resistance
Communists
Communists had links with the Soviet Union (Russia) during the war and they
collected information that would help the Soviet Union through spy rings. Rote Kapelle
(also known as the Red Orchestra), were one such group. They were discovered by the
Gestapo and many of the approximately 100 members were brutally executed.
Social
Democrats
(SPD)
They encouraged resistance amongst factory workers through the distribution of antiNazi newspapers, leaflets and discussions. However, they did not manage any really
effective resistance.
Jewish
Resistance
A long struggle took place throughout Nazi-occupied Europe. Over 15,000 Jews with
makeshift weapons fought against the Nazis in Warsaw, Poland during April 1943
(when the Nazis cleared the ghetto to send Jews to concentration/extermination camps).
They were eventually overpowered and killed after fierce fighting.
Kreisau Circle
These were a small group of German intellectuals, officers, professional people and
Christians who were alarmed at the violence of Nazism and Hitler’s war plans.
Members of the group were arrested and executed in 1944–1945.
?
KEY QUESTION TWO– ACTIVITIES
a.
Read through the section and underline key points and words.
b.
What action did Hitler take against army officers who opposed aspects of Nazi rule in 1938?
c.
Give two examples of passive resistance encouraged by the Weimar Government in the early 1920s.
d.
Now give three examples of passive resistance used by ordinary Germans against the Nazi regime from 1933
onwards.
e.
Describe each of the following four different groups that opposed Nazism in different ways in a diagram like
the one below.
Social Democrats (SPD)
Communists
Different groups opposed different
aspects of Nazism. These included...
Kreisau Circle
Jewish Resistance
f.
Why did the Enabling Act of 1933 make political opposition to the Nazis difficult? Use your own knowledge.
g.
In what ways would the Nazis effective and systematic use of propaganda have limited opposition? Use your
own knowledge.
Well done! Now you have all the information you need to answer the Key Question. You could
use the answers you gave above to help, and then try it again without your answers to help you.
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
KEY QUESTION THREE
How effective was opposition and resistance in Nazi Germany?
The White Rose Movement
The German Youth Movement was a wide ‘umbrella’ movement of organisations providing activities
and the education of young Germans. In Nazi Germany, these organisations came under the control of
the Nazis, who used them to promote pro-Nazi views. However, not all youth movements openly
supported Hitler and the Nazis.
The White Rose group were a non-violent student resistance
organisation that opposed the Nazi regime. Based in the
University of Munich (which had a large ‘underground’ resistance
movement), the White Rose aimed to encourage university
students and German youth in general to resist Nazism. Most of
the members were religiously motivated, believing Nazism to be
morally wrong. It has been argued that they were originally
influenced by Cardinal Galen’s outspoken attack of the Nazi use of
euthanasia in 1941. They produced and anonymously distributed
anti-Nazi leaflets, calling the regime a ‘dictatorship of evil’,
between 1942 and 1943. Members included a Munich professor
called Kurt Huber and Sophie and Hans Scholl (sister and brother
students at the university). Along with other students, they
organised a protest in Munich in February 1943. This was followed
by dropping leaflets into the university courtyard. They were
captured, interrogated and executed shortly afterwards. Other
members were also executed or imprisoned.
A memorial outside Munich University
commemorating the White Rose group
The actions of the White Rose group are viewed as important as the Scholls and Huber must have
known that their bravery and defiance would have led ultimately to their deaths. Also important is that
several members had previously been in Nazi youth movements and some had been enlisted in the
German Army and fought in the Second World War. Rather than confirming the Nazi view of racial
purity and rightful military expansion, these experiences opened their eyes to prejudice, the abandoning
of civil rights and the extreme horrors of warfare. This is significant as it shows how some people
involved in building the Third Reich not only turned their back on it, but in some cases even rebelled
against it, at the cost of their lives.
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Religious Opposition – The Work of Individuals such as Niemöller, Bonhoeffer and Galen
The Nazis’ attempts to combine the Protestant Church with their
beliefs brought about much Protestant opposition. One prominent
example of Church opposition to Nazism was led by a Protestant
pastor called Martin Niemöller. Initially a supporter of the Nazis and
Hitler and an opponent of communism, Niemoller had supported the
Nazi Party and their beliefs on nationalism and race in the 1920s and
early 1930s. He even gave sermons and wrote a book combining
Nazism with fundamental Christian beliefs and practices. By the mid1930s though, Niemöller and other German pastors became fearful of
increasing Nazi influence over Christianity and set up their own
church, called the Confessional Church. Although he gained the
support of thousands of pastors, many were persecuted by the Nazis.
Speaking about the importance of religious people following God
rather than man, he gained popular support from Protestants and even
Catholics. This angered Hitler, who ordered his trial in a special court.
First imprisoned for eight months in 1937–1938, Niemöller was then
Religion played an important
confined in concentration camps until his release at the end of the
part in German life, even
Second World War.
under Nazism

KEY PERSON: PASTOR MARTIN NIEMÖLLER (1892–1982)
Niemöller was the son of a pastor and had been a highly respected and
decorated U-Boat (German submarine) commander in the First World War.
After the war he trained as a pastor and practised in Berlin. Niemöller had
strong nationalistic and anti-communist views. He even spoke out against Jews
in Germany and the need for racial purity. All of these were similar to Nazi
ideology. This led him to initially support the Nazis in the 1920s and early
1930s. He had even joined the Freikorps in the post-war years and been
involved in the unsuccessful Kapp Putsch of 1920. However, his views changed
as the Nazi state merged the Protestant churches into one, under the name the
German Christians. Believing that Christianity and the state should remain
separate and that religious allegiance should be to God and not the Führer, he became leader of the
Confessional Church. His arrest in 1937 and subsequent imprisonment in concentration camps
throughout the war years were largely due to his refusal to accept that Nazism and religion should be
combined. However, he remained a nationalist and had even offered to fight in the Second World
War. After his release by the allies, Niemöller became a pacifist and campaigned against the use of
atomic weapons (recently used by America on Japanese cities) and for world peace.
He is perhaps best remembered for his poem ‘First they came...’, which demonstrated well the dangers
involved in ‘turning a blind eye’ to the persecution of different groups in a regime such as Nazi
Germany. He later accepted that the Protestant Church had not done enough to prevent the rise of
Nazism in Germany and that his earlier anti-Jewish views were changed during his long
imprisonment. Niemöller’s opposition to some aspects of Nazism and not others has meant that he
remains a controversial figure.
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Other prominent Protestant critics of the Nazis included the pastor Paul
Schneider, Heinrich Grueber and Dietrich Bonhoeffer. Each gave their support to
the breakaway Confessional Church (along with Martin Niemöller) and opposed
the Nazis on moral grounds. Schneider served two years in a concentration
camp. He was executed in 1939 after continually preaching against Hitler and the
Nazis’ treatment of prisoners. Grueber was imprisoned in 1940 for his role in
helping Jews to flee Germany. Bonhoeffer was executed before the end of the war
in 1945.
Paul Schneider as a
young student

Many other pastors and religious Germans became involved with opposing the
Nazi regime in various ways and with varied success. Many sheltered Jews and
political opponents and helped them to escape from Germany. Others simply
gave hope to those fearful of the growing tide of fanaticism and dictatorship.
KEY PERSON: DIETRICH BONHOEFFER (1906–1945)
Bonhoeffer was a gifted intellectual who gained a PhD in theology and became a Protestant pastor
in the 1920s. His beliefs in pacifism and equality were shaped by his participation with Protestant
churches in the Americas and Europe in the late 1920s and early 1930s. He served as a pastor in
London and became involved with African-American Protestantism in the USA. Bonhoeffer
became a prominent member of the Confessional Church in the mid-1930s (along with Niemöller).
He remained an outspoken critic of the Nazi practice of combining the church and state and their
racist ideology. However, unlike Niemöller, Bonhoeffer disagreed with the Nazi view of racial
purity and championed the rights of Jews in very difficult circumstances. He used his influence at
home and abroad to attempt to end the Second World War and was directly involved with helping
Jews escape from Nazi-occupied Europe. In 1943 he was imprisoned for his role in an anti-Hitler
conspiracy, and later found guilty of being involved in a plot to assassinate Hitler. He was executed
by hanging in 1945. Whilst Bonhoeffer was influenced by the peaceful resistance methods adopted
by Gandhi, he has also inspired others in the latter part of the twentieth century, including Martin
Luther King and Archbishop Desmond Tutu.

KEY PERSON: CARDINAL GALEN (1878–1946)
As a German Catholic Archbishop, Galen had opposed the Nazi
rise to power in 1933. During the war, he campaigned against
their human rights abuses, most notably their euthanasia and
sterilisation programmes and their use of concentration camps.
Although he was an open and prominent critic of Nazism from
within Germany, he actually survived the war. This was
because the Nazis were afraid to turn him into a martyr. This
could have possibly led to a rebellion of German Catholics at a
time when the Nazis were preoccupied with fighting a world
war. In recognition of his bravery in taking a stand against Nazi
Germany, the pope ordained Galen a Cardinal. Galen used this
position to secure the release of German soldiers imprisoned in
allied POW camps and in consoling the families of German
soldiers killed in the war.
Cardinal Galen
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Other religious groups such as Jehovah’s Witnesses were persecuted for refusing to accept Hitler’s rule
over their religious beliefs. Whole families were sent to concentration camps, where many died. The
Jewish communities in Nazi Germany and later across Nazi-occupied Europe also suffered terribly (as
will be discussed elsewhere in this resource).
FOR YOUR INFORMATION
It is important to remember that religious opposition to Nazism took many forms. Whereas
Schneider and Bonhoeffer disagreed with the Nazi regime on religious and moral grounds
(and were executed as a result), Niemöller’s main objection was with the combining of
church and state. Whilst many Protestant pastors had supported Nazism, some changed
their views throughout the 1930s and 1940s. The fact that the Catholic Cardinal Galen was
never imprisoned for his outspoken attacks on Nazi ideology and practices shows just how
difficult it was for the Nazi Party to control religions in Nazi Germany:
• If they banned religions they would lose much popular support and possibly spark off
anti-Nazi rebellions.
• If they allowed complete religious freedom they would struggle to contain views that
might threaten the Nazi Party itself.
The Opposition of the Military
By 1944, it was clear that Germany was losing the Second World
War. The war in the east (against Communist Russia) had been lost,
whilst it was only a matter of time before the Allies would launch
an invasion into Nazi-occupied Europe from Britain. This was
perhaps the first time that many Germans started to doubt Hitler’s
ability to lead Germany. Some even questioned their beliefs in the
Nazi Party. Many more secretly believed that the Third Reich had
seen its greatest hour and that continuing the war would lead to
countless suffering and an end to Germany. To some, getting rid of
Hitler would at least provide a chance for Germany to negotiate
peace with the Allies and soften the blow.
Historical records show that some members of the military and
other groups had seriously thought about removing or
assassinating Hitler from the late 1930s onwards. However, any
Hitler had several high-ranking
opponents,
especially towards the
attempt to do this and establish a fully functioning government
end
of the war
afterwards would prove too difficult. Those plotting against Hitler
were all too aware that his popularity was growing from strength
to strength during the early war years. Several attempts by senior military personnel had been made to
assassinate Hitler in 1943, including a failed bomb plot on Hitler’s plane. Bonhoeffer had also been
involved with plotters, as had other religious leaders. These attempts and the later failed bomb plot in
1944 show that a network of otherwise loyal Germans (both military and civilian) existed.
The Kreisau Circle
Following military defeats in 1942–1943, more resistance arose. The Kreisau Circle was a small group of
German intellectuals, officers, professional people and Christians who were alarmed at the violence of
Nazism and Hitler’s war plans. They met at an estate in Kreisau, Silesia (hence their name) to discuss
plans for a Germany after Hitler. They even drew up a programme in 1943 based on conservative and
Christian values. They were against staging a coup, however.
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After the leader of the group, Helmut von Moltke, was arrested in January 1944, the group started to fall
apart. Following this, some individuals participated in the Bomb Plot of July 1944 (see below) and after
its failure many of the Circle’s members were arrested and executed, even some who had not been part
of the plot, as Hitler sought to remove any and all opposition.
The Stauffenberg Bomb Plot (July Bomb Plot, 1944)
The closest plotters came to assassinating Hitler was with the July Bomb Plot on 20th July 1944 (code
named ‘Operation Valkyrie’ by the plotters). The plot was organised and led by von Stauffenberg (a
German Count and veteran of the war) with the help of a network of high-ranking military officers.
Amongst these was General Beck, who had become disillusioned with Hitler and who was to become
the provisional leader of Germany if the plot had succeeded. As a respected Chief of Staff, Stauffenberg
had limited access to Hitler and various headquarters used by him. He had previously attempted to
assassinate him, with a briefcase bomb in December of the previous year and again in early July.
However, the first attempt failed as Hitler had changed his plans, whilst he was ordered to abort the
second attempt due to Hitler’s right-hand man (and possible successor), Himmler not being present.
On the 20th July, Stauffenberg was admitted to the conference room
of Hitler’s ‘Wolf’s Lair’ headquarters at Rastenburg, in the east of
Nazi-occupied Europe. Hitler had scheduled a military meeting
with a large gathering of senior officers. Placing a briefcase bomb
under a table close to Hitler, he made his excuses and left the room,
returning to Berlin. The big idea was that, once Hitler had been
killed, army sympathisers would take control of Berlin. The bomb
exploded shortly afterwards, killing and wounding many of those
present. Hitler was himself wounded, although not seriously. His
life had been saved by the briefcase being moved further away from
him (unintentionally) minutes before the blast.
Awards such as this were personally presented to survivors of
the plot. Other awards were presented to family members of
those who were killed.
After assassinating Hitler, the plotters’ big idea
was to gather the support of leading politicians
and soldiers and quickly establish a new
government. But the plot had failed and the
plotters were soon rounded up, tortured and
executed. In the aftermath, Hitler ordered the
imprisonment of anyone his SS perceived to be a
threat. Thousands of relatives were also
imprisoned. With typical ruthlessness and
efficiency, Hitler had once again wiped out
opposition to his rule.
The prison courtyard where Stauffenberg and other
members of the July Bomb Plot were executed
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?
a.
KEY QUESTION THREE– ACTIVITIES
Read through the section and underline key points and words.
The White Rose Group
b. Did all youth movements support the Nazis?
c.
What were the aims of the White Rose Group?
d.
What type of opposition did they participate in?
e.
Give two reasons why you think their opposition was significant in Nazi Germany.
f.
What does the execution of the leaders of the White Rose Group tell you about the problems of mounting
effective and coordinated opposition to Nazi rule?
Religious Opposition
g. What was the name of the breakaway Protestant Church in Nazi Germany?
h.
Which of the following sentences do you most agree with?
 Bonhoeffer and Niemöller both campaigned against all aspects of Nazism.
 Bonhoeffer and Niemöller both campaigned against certain aspects of Nazism, but disagreed about
others.
 Bonhoeffer and Niemöller both campaigned for the Nazi Party.
i.
To what extent did Bonhoeffer and Niemöller disagree about Jews?
j.
Which Protestant pastor do you think made the most difference as an opponent of Nazism?
k.
To what extent did divisions within the Protestant Church limit effective opposition to Nazism?
l.
What types of issue did Archbishop Galen campaign against?
m. The Nazi Party could have easily imprisoned or even executed Galen for his outspoken attacks on Nazism.
Why do you think he avoided both of these possible outcomes?
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The July Bomb Plot, 1944
n. There had always been people in powerful places (military, political and civilian) who wanted Hitler to be
assassinated. However, why did these plotters...
 …fail to gain enough support in the late 1930s?
 ...succeed in gaining enough support from 1943?
o.
In a previous attempt, Stauffenberg had been instructed to abort the mission because Hitler’s right-hand
man (Himmler) was not there. Why do you think Himmler also being present was of so much importance to
the plotters?
p.
Describe Stauffenberg’s role in ‘Operation Valkyrie’.
q.
Why did the plot fail?
r.
How do you think Stauffenberg should be remembered?
s.
In what ways did the ruthless actions taken by Hitler following the July Bomb Plot demonstrate just how
difficult it was for effective opposition to exist in Nazi Germany?
t.
Do you agree or disagree with the following statement? Give a reason for your choice.
There was no effective opposition to Hitler because opposition consisted of different groups who had very
different aims.
Well done! Now you have all the information you need to answer the Key Question. You could
use the answers you gave above to help, and then try it again without your answers to help you.
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SUMMARY – HOW EFFECTIVELY DID THE NAZIS
CONTROL GERMANY IN THE YEARS 1933–1945?
By using methods of control
The Nazi Party controlled Germany through a number of highly effective approaches...

The SS (‘Schutzstaffel’ / ‘Black Order’):
 1925: created as a small, elite and loyal branch of SA bodyguards
 SS In Nazi Germany: much larger powerful political police under Himmler
 Won power from SA following 1934 Night of the Long Knives
 Different SS Groups: Waffen SS / Gestapo / Death Head / Einsatzgruppen

Concentration Camps:
 From 1933 first used for political opponents of Nazism (i.e. Communists)
 Main camps in the 1930s: Dachau, Buchenwald and Sachsenhausen
 Most prisoners received no trial or proper legal representation
 Many Germans accepted them out of fear of revolution and to keep public order
 Also used for those considered racially inferior (i.e. Jews, gypsies and disabled)

Local Wardens (Ortsgruppe / Block Wardens), People’s Courts and the German
Labour Movement:
 Local groups responsible for monitoring small areas of cities, towns and villages
and spying on neighbours, colleagues and even family members
 Judges had to be loyal Nazis, meaning they would be more likely to rule in the
party’s favour
 Trade unions abolished and reorganised into the Nazis’ German Labour
Movement which they could control

Media was censored to follow party lines, other political parties banned and local
government, education and youth clubs all controlled by Nazis
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SUMMARY – HOW EFFECTIVELY DID THE NAZIS
CONTROL GERMANY IN THE YEARS 1933–1945?
 Repressive laws banning opposition such as
The Nazi Party had effectively removed
and outlawed most forms of effective
opposition from 1933 onwards by use of…

the Enabling Act
 The secret police such as the Gestapo/SS
 A highly effective propaganda machine run
by Goebbels

Opposition included:
However:
Some opposition to Nazi rule existed. This included ‘passive resistance’ by various groups for various
reasons. Some resistance was small scale, whilst some attempted to strike at the heart of Nazism itself.
This included plots to assassinate Hitler.

Passive Resistance:
 Edelweiss Pirates refused to join the Hitler Youth.
 Many Germans refused to join the Nazi Party or give the Hitler salute.

Group Opposition Against Different Aspects of Nazism:
 Communists created anti-Nazi spy rings, including the ‘Red Orchestra’.
 Social Democrats encouraged anti-Nazi resistance amongst workers through
newspapers, leaflets and meetings.
 Jewish Ghetto Resistance fought back in Warsaw, Poland in 1943.
 Kreisau Circle: small group of anti-Nazi intellectuals, officers and professionals.
 White Rose Group: non-violent student resistance organisation distributed antiNazi leaflets in wartime. Some members were interrogated & executed.

Religious Opposition:
 Bonhoeffer was an outspoken critic of the Nazi racism & Nazi ideas about
combining church and state (executed).
 Niemöller initially supported Nazi views of racial purity and anti-Semitism. He
became an outspoken critic and spent years in concentration camps. Famous for
the ‘First they came...’ poem, but remains a controversial figure (survived).
 Galen campaigned against Nazis’ human rights abuses. Nazis were afraid of
Catholic reaction if they killed him (survived).
 Many other prominent ‘Confessional Church’ Protestant critics of the Nazis
included pastors Paul Schneider and Heinrich Grueber.

July Bomb Plot (1944) – Attempt by Officers to Assassinate Hitler:
 From late 1930s onwards some military officers had thought about
assassinating Hitler.
 1943: several attempts made on Hitler’s life (including failed bomb plot on
Hitler’s plane).
 20th July 1944: Officer von Stauffenberg places briefcase bomb near Hitler in his
‘Wolf’s Lair’ headquarters. Hitler narrowly escaped death or serious injury.

Hitler died by his own hand in 1945 – resistance had not been effective enough.
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Section 3: German Economy and Society
3.1 Overview of: German Economy and Society
The Nazis considered German women and the family to be vital for the future of the Third Reich.
Nazi policies towards women included...
The Role of Women: Family, Society and
Employment
Nazis believed:
 Men and women had different roles
 Women should be mothers of ‘racially pure’
children
 As a result many professional women lost
their jobs and many considered racially
impure were sterilised
Changes to Women’s Role:
 Female workers – increasing demand.
 1942: just over half the labour force was
female.
 1943: 3 million women conscripted for
work.
 Hitler was concerned about the effect
working women would have on morale and
on family life.
The Impact of the Nazi Regime on Religion and Different Social Classes
Religion:
 Protestant Church under more
direct control of pro-Nazi
Reichsbishop.
 Nazis encouraged Church
support for nationalism and
the Nazis.
 Many Protestant Churches
became propaganda machines
promoting the Nazi state.
Social Classes:
Life for different groups of people in Nazi Germany varied
greatly, depending on:
 Religion, economic conditions, political views, the armed
forces / WW2.
 Other groups, such as class, ethnicity and age.
 Many Germans from different social classes continued to
live in much the same way as they had done before Nazi
rule. Others (e.g. ethnic minorities / political opponents)
experienced discrimination and persecution.
 WW2 affected all Germans and aspects of German society
(e.g. war economy / conscription / the Holocaust / Allied
bombing and invasion).
Economic Changes in Nazi Germany
The New Plan (1933) – economy stimulated and unemployment reduced by importing raw materials and
producing industrial goods.
Labour Service – many unemployed built vital public works, including autobahns.
Four Year Plan (1936) – Autarky (self-sufficiency) and rearmament created more jobs. Göring
spearheaded conscription of unemployed men and increased emphasis on creating military weapons.
Trade unions banned and German Labour Front created to oversee work (1933).
Beauty of Labour – made factories safer and cleaner and encouraged better working conditions and
relations between workers, managers and owners.
Strength Through Joy – provided access to leisure activities for workers.
Negative Outcomes: Workers could not strike, many were directed to certain jobs, and many Germans’
wages did not increase whilst working hours did.
Positive Outcomes: Solid economic growth, more job security, fixed wages and high levels of
employment (unemployment = 25% in 1932 to 1% in 1939).
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3.2 How much change did the Nazis bring about in German society?

LEARNING OBJECTIVES –
YOU WILL NEED TO:
SPECIFICATION FOCUS
 Understand the importance of women
to the Nazi state before and during the
war
 Explain Nazi policies towards religion
and the responses to these within
Germany
 Describe the impact of the regime on
different social classes

 Changes in policies and attitudes to
the role of women in German society,
1933–1945, the education of women,
women’s organisations, changing roles
as workers and mothers
 Nazi policies and attitudes towards
religion and responses to this within
Germany
 Nazism as social revolution and the
impact of the regime on different
social classes
KEY TERMS
‘Law for the Prevention of Genetically Diseased Offspring’ – this became law in 1933 (shortly after
Hitler became Chancellor) and was also known as the ‘Sterilisation Law’. It made the sterilisation of
anyone deemed genetically unfit (either physically or mentally) compulsory. Special genetic health
courts were set up and hundreds of thousands of Germans were sterilised in Nazi Germany. The law
can be seen as putting Hitler’s idea of creating a ‘master race’ into practice.

KEY QUESTION ONE
How much change was there to the role of women in Nazi Germany between
1933 and 1945?
Changes in Policies and Attitudes to the Role of Women in German society, 1933–1945
Women’s Roles Between 1933 and 1939
During the Weimar Republic, women had made gains in professions such as teaching and medicine,
whilst 10% of members of the Reichstag parliament were women. However, the Nazis believed that men
and women had different roles. The Nazis believed that a woman’s place was in the home, as a wife and
as a mother. Many female doctors and civil servants lost their jobs when Hitler came to power. The
number of female teachers declined and no more women could teach in universities.
The Nazis had also been worried about the falling birth rate in Germany in the early twentieth century.
This was a result of smaller families, more widespread use of contraception and more women in
employment. Nazi campaigns encouraged more births so that Germany could become a world power.
The campaign for larger families included higher maternity benefits and family allowances and loans to
married women who did not take up employment. Birth control and abortions were banned and there
were awards for mothers who had a lot of children. Whilst mothers with four children would receive the
bronze ‘Honour Cross of the German Mother’, those with eight or more received the honoured gold
cross. However, this Nazi drive to push up the birth rate was not encouraged or permitted for women
considered a risk to racial strength and purity. Almost 100,000 women were sterilised under the ‘Law for
the Prevention of Genetically Diseased Offspring’.
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Nazi policy changed towards
women changed from the late
1930s onward. Although Hitler
preferred women to remain in the
home, they were also needed for
German rearmament. Encouraged
to enter the labour market
(especially on farms and in
factories), this intensified with the
onset of the Second World War.
FOR YOUR INFORMATION
Do not make the mistake of writing lengthy answers where you
describe the Nazis treating women as second-class citizens.
Although this argument is justified, Nazis considered women as
a significant and vital contribution to Nazi Germany’s future.
However, women’s roles were very different to that of men.
Therefore, focus on women’s roles before the war, how they
changed during the war and the reasons for this.
Education for Women
To spread their ideas about a woman’s separate role in life, the Nazis sought to teach them this.
Therefore their education differed from that of boys; they had subjects tailored to the lifestyle they were
encouraged to have. There was a far greater focus on domestic science and subjects relating to
motherhood. As they got older, further educational opportunities were shown to become more limited
as fewer and fewer women were granted admission to universities.
Women’s Organisations
The Nazi policy of the different roles of men and women was further ingrained in women’s
organisations. Girls became part of different sections of the League of German Girls (also known as the
Band of German Maidens) depending on their age. It was the only female youth group and prepared
them for the lifestyle of a true woman in the eyes of the Nazis: a wife, mother and homemaker.
When they became adults, they were part of organisations such as the National Socialist Womanhood,
though these merely served to further Nazi views, giving women very limited roles and keeping them
out of politics (women couldn’t join the party) while offering some educational programmes related to
their role.
The Role of Women – Changes to their Role during the Period
The Second World War complicated Nazi policies on women, the home and the family. There was an
increasing demand for workers, and there were increasing shortages on the Home Front. The Nazi
leadership were concerned about people working longer hours. There were several ways to try and help
this problem:
• One way to solve the problem was by increasing the use of prisoners in the concentration and
extermination camps to produce goods for the German war effort.
• Using captured foreign workers and prisoners of war to work in factories.
• From quite early on some senior Nazi leaders such as Speer wanted to increase the proportion of
women working. However, Hitler was concerned about the effect this would have on German
soldiers away from home. By 1942 just over half the labour force was female.
• Eventually, in 1943 over three million women aged 17–45 were conscripted for work (this was later
raised to 50 years old in 1944). They were never allowed into the armed forces, however.
There were also concerns about the falling birth rate and some Nazi leaders considered ideas to
encourage illegitimate births. Hitler later expressed his concern that there would be less men than
women after the war, due to increasing casualties in the armed forces. Serious consideration was even
given to the possibility of men being allowed to have two wives when the war was over. Before the war,
abortion had been made illegal. However, during the war Nazis became concerned that German women
were becoming pregnant from foreign workers. Although this would increase the much needed birth
rate, it also harmed the Nazi idea of a master race. In these cases, abortion was permitted.
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?
a.
KEY QUESTION ONE – ACTIVITIES
Read through the section and underline key points and words.
Role of Women: 1933–1939
b. What roles did the Nazi Party consider important for women? What methods did they use to ensure they
upheld these roles?
c.
What happened to many female professionals – such as teachers and doctors – in Nazi Germany?
d.
Higher maternity benefits were one action taken by the Nazi Party to encourage higher birth rates.
List four more.
e.
How many children were mothers expected to have to receive the gold ‘Honour Cross of the German
Mother’?
f.
100,000 women were sterilised under what law?
g.
Why were many German women then encouraged to go back to work from the late 1930s onwards?
Role of Women: 1939–1945
h. Roughly how much of the German population was female in 1942?
i.
How many women had been conscripted into the work force by 1943?
j.
List two other actions taken to increase the workforce.
k.
In what cases would abortion have been allowed?
l.
Does the fact that Hitler changed some of the roles of women during the war mean that he had changed his
views about women’s roles? Use your own knowledge and understanding.
Well done! Now you have all the information you need to answer the Key Question. You could
use the answers you gave above to help, and then try it again without your answers to help you.
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
KEY QUESTION TWO
Describe the impact of the Nazi regime on religion and different social classes.
Nazi Policies and Attitudes towards Religion and Responses to this within Germany
One problem the Nazi Party had to face was the power of Christianity in Germany. Roughly a third of
Germans were Catholics, whilst most of the others were Protestant. To ban them from the outset could
have caused open revolt against the Nazis, especially as Nazi Germany and even Nazis themselves were
comprised of many Church members. Many Protestant pastors held strong nationalistic ideas and had
encouraged their Church members to vote for the Nazi Party in elections. However, allowing
Christianity to remain powerful did not fit easily with Hitler’s notion of a one-party state with him as
ultimate ruler and saviour of the German people. This juggling act resulted in the Nazis accepting some
aspects of the Church, devising Nazi alternatives to others and sometimes banning others, whilst
prosecuting several thousand ministers.
Impact on the Catholic Church
The Catholic Church and members of the Church opposed Nazism politically throughout the 1920s and
early 1930s. In July 1933, the Concordat agreement was made between the Nazi government and the
Roman Catholic Church. They agreed that the Church’s Centre (political) Party would be dissolved and
priests would not take part in political activities (this was significant as approximately one third of
Germans were Catholics and many supported the Centre Party). In return, bishops could communicate
freely with the Vatican in Rome. Their religious orders and Church schools could continue. However,
the Nazis later broke this agreement. Church schools were shut down, monasteries were closed down
and the Catholic Youth League was banned. In 1937, the Pope condemned Nazism and linked it to racist
beliefs and attacks on German Catholics. By 1941, most monasteries and abbeys had been dissolved.
Whilst a minority of Catholics sided with the Nazis, many continued to protest against the abuse of
human rights and the euthanasia policies. Most of the 2,500 Catholic Church ministers imprisoned in
Dachau concentration camp were killed.
Impact on the Protestant Church
The Protestant Church was more divided as it had many different factions. The Nazis placed it under
more direct control of a pro-Nazi Bishop (Reichsbishop) and they became known as the German
Christians. Only those considered to be Aryans were allowed to be pastors. These moves ensured that
the Protestant Church would encourage support for nationalism and the Nazis, rather than being a
threat to them. Many Protestant churches simply became propaganda machines promoting the Nazi
state. Religious symbols and icons often served a dual purpose in their promotion of Christianity on one
hand and Hitler on the other.
Nazism as Social Revolution and the Impact of the Regime on Different Social Classes
Life for different groups of people in Nazi Germany varied greatly. This depended on many factors and
conditions:
 Religion
 Economic conditions
 Political views
 The Armed Forces
 The Second World War
 Groups, such as class, ethnicity and age, etc.
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Hitler and the Nazi Party never received a majority vote in the Reichstag, relying instead on a series of
emergency laws to gain absolute power. However, this did not mean that many Germans did not
support the Nazi Party over the next 12 years. Some clearly did, others did not, whilst many agreed with
some aspects of Nazism and disagreed with others. Goebbels’ propaganda had invented the ‘Hitler
Myth’. This meant that Germans would be constantly reminded that they had a strong and decisive
leader. The promise of a better future for Germany would have appealed to Germans from many
backgrounds. Most Catholics (approximately one third of Germany’s population) were deeply
suspicious of Nazism and believed that Hitler was attempting to replace Christianity and the Catholic
Church with a ‘Nazi’ religion. There were more Protestant supporters of Nazism due to the fact they
made up approximately two thirds of the population. By setting up the Protestant Reich Church, the
Nazis arguably created more power amongst this majority. It is important to remember that there was
also much opposition to Nazism both within the Protestant and Catholic Churches. The appeal of Hitler
was understandably far less for Germans with left-wing socialist or communist views or sympathies.
Many would have simply ‘kept quiet’ during the Nazi years, only to cast their votes after the demise
of Nazism.
As with any society, there were winners and losers. For example, those who had good jobs, were
considered ‘pure Aryans’, obeyed Nazi laws and did not speak out against the regime were less likely to
experience problems in Nazi Germany (especially between 1933 and 1939). However, those who did not
have all of the above would have had very different experiences. For example, somebody might have
experienced prejudice and discrimination from as early as 1933 because they were not considered to be a
‘pure Aryan’ or because they disagreed with the changes made in Nazi Germany. Many of these would
have had good jobs and considered themselves to be law-abiding citizens. As the Nazi state machine
grew from strength to strength from 1933 onwards, so did strict laws governing many aspects of life and
dictating what Germans could and could not do. For example, a woman could be prevented from giving
birth due to having been forcibly sterilised under Nazi law. Also, Nazi race laws could even prevent
those considered ‘Aryans’ and ‘non-Aryans’ from marrying or from having children. This increased
greatly throughout the war years (1939–1945) with tragic consequences for many Germans (e.g. those
who came from particular ethnic minorities or who spoke out against the Nazi regime).
Therefore (and as discussed in far more depth throughout this resource), many people who considered
themselves to be decent and law-abiding Germans also suffered greatly under Nazi rule. It could be
argued that, by the end of the Second World War, as Germany lay in ruins following six years of war, all
Germans ultimately suffered. After all, conscription into the armed forces resulted in millions of deaths
and many more wounded. German civilians had also suffered terribly in the final years of the war due to
the effects of the Allied bombing campaign (especially those living in urban cities or working in
industrial areas) and the subsequent Allied invasion.
FOR YOUR INFORMATION
For further information on the impact of the Nazi social revolution and impact on different social
classes, please refer to the following:
Parts 2.3–2.4: How effectively did the Nazis control Germany in the years 1933–1945?
Parts 3.3–3.4: How successful were the Nazis in rebuilding the German economy?
Parts 4.1–4.2: How successful were the Nazis in influencing young people?
Parts 4.3–4.4: How important in Germany were Nazis’ ideas on race?
Parts 5.1–5.2: How did the Nazis change the cultural climate of Weimar Germany?
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?
KEY QUESTION TWO– ACTIVITIES
Impact on Religion
a. Why was Christianity a problem for the Nazis?
b.
Why do you think that the Nazi Party...
•
•
c.
•
•
devised Nazi alternatives to others?
imprisoned many religious ministers?
What did both of the following groups intend to gain by signing the Concordat agreement in 1933?


d.
allowed some aspects of the Church to continue?
sometimes banned others?
Catholic Church Leaders in Germany:
The Nazi Party:
What problems did the Catholic Church experience in Nazi Germany?
Impact on Different Social Groups
e. Did all social and other groups have similar experiences in Nazi Germany?
f.
Provide an example of a type of German who might not have suffered in Nazi Germany between 1933 and
1939 (using your own knowledge and understanding).
g.
Now provide two examples of Germans who probably would have suffered in Nazi Germany.
h.
In what ways would the Second World War have affected the day-to-day lives of Germans? (Aim to give
several examples.)
Well done! Now you have all the information you need to answer the Key Question. You could
use the answers you gave above to help, and then try it again without your answers to help you.
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3.3 How successful were the Nazis in rebuilding the German economy?


LEARNING OBJECTIVES –
YOU WILL NEED TO:
SPECIFICATION FOCUS
 Describe the key features of Nazi
economic policies
 Explain why so much emphasis was
placed on economic reforms and work
in Nazi Germany
 Assess whether Nazi economic policies
benefited all Germans
 Understand the impact that war had
on the German economy and society
 The development of the economy and
employment patterns in the 1930s
 Economic planning: preparation for
war, the defence economy
 The impact of Nazi economic policy
on different groups in German society
 The response of the German people to
economic changes in the 1930s
 The impact of the war upon the
German economy and society,
propaganda, rationing, labour
shortages, air raids, medical care,
refugees, defeat and occupation
KEY TERMS
Autarky – Hitler believed that Germany must pursue this policy of self-reliance both economically and
militarily to be strong again. Many Germans accepted this policy after living through the Great
Inflation of 1923 and the Great Depression after the Wall Street Crash of 1929.
Public works – Major engineering projects serving the needs of people within a country and
commissioned by the government.
Conscription – Known as the ‘draft’ in the USA, those conscripted are required to join the armed forces
by law. Nazi Germany introduced conscription for young unemployed men from the mid-1930s, whilst
Britain followed suit in the Second World War.
Depression – A period of economic decline typically where production falls, wages fall and
unemployment rises.
Trade Unions – Organisations that protect the rights of workers (i.e. pay and working conditions).
‘Strength Through Joy’ – This sub-organisation of the German Labour Front provided leisure activities
for workers.
‘Beauty of Labour’ – Another sub-organisation of the DAF, which provided services for workers
within the workplace.
Blitzkrieg – Meaning ‘lightning war’ this new type of warfare was used by invading German armies. It
involved well-coordinated and fast attacks of aircraft, tanks, artillery and soldiers.
Home Guard the ‘People’s Army’ recruited fit men to protect Germany.
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
KEY QUESTION ONE
Describe the effect of economic reforms on the Nazi state.
Introduction
When Hitler became Chancellor in 1933, Germany was struggling to overcome
the severe economic crisis of the late 1920s (the Wall Street Crash / Great
Depression). Hitler had promised voters that he and his Nazi Party alone
could save them from worsening economic conditions. Ordinary Germans,
and especially the six million unemployed, expected much from him. He acted
quickly and decisively.
The two main aims were to:
• Reduce unemployment
• Get Germany out of depression
Hitler as Chancellor in 1933
The Impact of Economic Policies
There is no doubt that Germany recovered faster from the Depression
than other major economies such as the USA, Britain and France.
Hitler immediately appointed an experienced and trusted financial
expert called Dr Hjalmar Schacht as President of the Reichsbank
(Germany’s central bank). His big idea was to stimulate the economy
and reduce unemployment through the ‘New Plan’.
The ‘New Plan’ stimulated the economy by making trade agreements
with other countries (especially less developed ones) and limiting
imports into Germany. The government’s main economic emphasis
was on producing industrial goods rather than consumer goods. Raw
materials produced in trading countries were imported and used to
produce industrial goods in Germany, which in turn were exchanged
for more raw materials. Within a few years, production had
increased, more raw materials were being produced within Germany
itself and unemployment had decreased. Hitler had argued that
Germany needed to achieve ‘Autarky’ (become self-sufficient) and that rearmament was an essential
condition of this. Schacht then masterminded Hitler’s plans for rearmament, but lost favour with Hitler
after his concerns that military expenditures might cripple the economy. The ‘Four Year Plan’ of 1936
replaced the ‘New Plan’, with a huge emphasis on rearmament. Göring was at the helm.
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Economic Planning: Preparation for War, the Defence Economy

KEY PERSON: HERMANN GÖRING (1893–1946)
The son of an official, the young Göring trained as an infantry officer and
commanded soldiers at the beginning of the First World War.
Transferring to the air combat force, he became a pilot and soon received
fame for shooting down many enemy planes. A war hero, Göring took
command of the air force before the German surrender in 1918.
He took various flying jobs following the First World War and joined the
SA in 1922. He was shot and seriously wounded whilst at Hitler’s side
during the Munich Beer Hall Putsch of 1923. He held leadership roles
within the SA during the 1920s. In 1928 he became one of the first Nazis
to be elected to the Reichstag, a position he held in the following election.
Göring held major positions of power during the early Nazi reign. These
included Reich Minister without Portfolio, Prussian Minister and Reich
Commissioner for Air. Building a political force (which later came under
the control of the Gestapo), he was involved in the purging of the SA
leadership ‘Night of the Long Knives’ in 1934. By selecting Göring to set
up the ‘Four Year Plan’ in 1936, Hitler had effectively given him complete
control of the economy. These powers were later extended to cover Nazioccupied territories.
Hermann Göring in the
1930s, wearing uniform
with various medals
showing his rank and status
During the Second World War, Göring commanded the German Air Force (the Luftwaffe). He was
involved in the Jewish ‘Final Solution’ at the highest level and was considered a possible successor to
Hitler. He gradually lost the confidence of Hitler as the Luftwaffe struggled to control the skies, but
remained in Hitler’s inner circle. Göring tried to negotiate a peace deal with the Allies in the closing
days of the war, an act Hitler saw as a personal assault on his leadership. Arrested, tried and found
guilty of Nazi war crimes at Nuremberg in 1946, Göring poisoned himself in his cell.
Interestingly, his brother Albert Göring actually detested Nazism and helped Jews to escape during the
war. Although the Nazi regime knew of some of his antics, he survived the war. This was probably due
to being the brother of one of the most powerful members of the Nazi Party.
To reduce unemployment from 1933 onwards, the ‘New Plan’ had introduced large job creation schemes
to build vital public works projects. These schemes required many labourers and therefore provided
many jobs. Motorway (autobahns) construction was one such scheme. The Nazis received a lot of
positive publicity for this. However, autobahn construction had been started by the previous
government. Nevertheless, many more were built under Nazi rule. This scheme also created jobs in
other industries such as steel and iron. The autobahns not only connected German cities and towns, but
were also to have an important military purpose later on. The economy was also boosted with rapid
rearmament, although this went against the Treaty of Versailles. Industries diversified and expanded at
alarming rates to design and build military equipment and weapons on a large scale. The reduction in
male unemployment was also aided with conscription of unemployed men into the armed forces from
the mid-1930s onwards.
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Trade Unions
In May 1933, trade unions were banned. They were
replaced with the nationally controlled German Labour
Front (DAF) as part of the ‘New Plan’. Workers no longer
had the right to go on strike, but were provided with job
security and fixed wages, though on average they had to
work more hours for less pay.
Changes in the Standard of Living for German Workers –
Strength Through Joy
Realising that high morale in the workplace would also
lead to higher production and a more settled workforce,
the DAF also provided other quality of life services.
A German autobahn in the mid-1930s
These included:
Beauty of Labour (SDA)
Strength Through Joy (KDF)
This movement encouraged better working
conditions and relations between workers,
managers and owners. Factories were cleaned up
and made safer places to work.
This movement provided access to leisure
activities for workers. Sports, holidays and even
cruises were included in the scheme.
The German Labour Front was successful in:
• maintaining very high levels of employment
• stimulating economic growth by increasing production
• keeping the majority of workers happy
This mixture of capitalism and socialism appealed to many working-class Germans, but also had its
problems:
Some Positive Effects of Economic
Policies to Reduce Unemployment
Some Negative Effects of Economic Policies to Reduce
Unemployment
Many were simply content that they were
no longer experiencing the poverty and
insecurity brought about by the Great
Inflation in the early 1920s and the more
recent Great Depression.
There was also much publicity and propaganda about the
cheap people’s car, the Volkswagen (originally known as
the KDF Wagen). However, although many workers paid
instalments and looked forward to driving them on the
autobahns, very few actually received them.
Male unemployment had reduced from
25% in 1932, to 10% in 1935 and less than
1% by 1939.
Despite the huge reduction in unemployment, overall pay
levels did not actually increase and working hours in many
areas actually increased.
The German Labour Front (DAP) flag
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Impact on Other Groups in German Society
As we have seen, industrial workers seemed to benefit from the increase in employment opportunities
created by Nazi economic policy, and this is especially important as the working class was the largest
group in German society. The poorer sections benefitted the most as they now had the steady income
that they needed. But even within the working classes there were limits, as those in consumer goods
industries did not enjoy the benefits of construction and rearmament and actually struggled to maintain
their incomes. In addition, some groups became increasingly excluded from the workplace. These
included ethnic minorities and, in particular, Jews. Various policies (e.g. the Nuremberg Laws of 1935)
and actions (e.g. boycotts of Jewish shops / Kristallnacht) made it very difficult for most to earn a living
in Nazi Germany. Women also were not extended the benefits of extra employment opportunities due to
the Nazi belief in their role as wife and mother.
The Response of the German People to Economic Changes in
the 1930s
Many middle-class Germans thought Hitler and some of his
leadership to be vulgar. This does not mean that they would not
have supported some of his policies though, so long as they
benefited from it. Nazi officials also did much to gain the confidence
of ‘big business’. The ‘New Plan’ and the continuation of the ‘Four
Year Plan’ into the Second World War meant that many owners of
business and investors were making huge profits under the Nazis.
The working classes often felt as if they were the losers of the ‘Nazi
Revolution’. This was because, although their hard work had
lowered unemployment and improved the economy, they rarely saw
many of the benefits of Nazi policies.
A poster campaign advertising the
‘People’s Car’ in the 1930s

KEY QUESTION TWO
How far did the war impact on Nazi economic reforms?
The Impact of the War upon the German Economy and Society
Many Germans felt subdued and concerned when war began
in September 1939. However, the first stages of the war and
the successful blitzkrieg strategy resulted in a rapid conquest
of Poland. By 1940 Germany had successfully invaded
Denmark, Norway, Holland and Belgium. The collapse of the
French army in the summer of 1940 and subsequent bombings
of Britain also meant a surge of national feeling in Germany.
These victories convinced Hitler that through Nazism,
Germany had not only reached a state of self-sufficiency, but
was also a powerful nation to be reckoned with. Propaganda
was used to keep the people’s spirits up and to maintain
support for the war. People were encouraged to save fuel and
German bombers caused severe damage to
Britain
work harder for example.
Rationing had started in the autumn of 1939 and there werestrict penalties for people that tried to evade
these regulations. Germany had much more rationing than Britain during the Second World War,
including food, clothes, hot water, and soap. But the blitzkrieg strategy and an ever wider economic base
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throughout Nazi-occupied Europe meant that there were no severe shortages as goods could be
imported (including luxury items such as fur coats and perfumes). As the war continued however,
rationing increased: and more and more key commodities were restricted.
Medical care was important in war and the Germans insisted that a member of the international Red
Cross was on board every ship. However, the fact that many Jewish doctors had been forced out of their
jobs undoubtedly had a negative impact on the quality of medical care within the country, as less
experienced doctors took their places.
In these early war years theatres, nightclubs and restaurants were still open, factories were still
producing consumer goods and some people could even still go on holidays. The British had started
bombing raids right from the start of war, but these initially focused primarily on military targets and
later on factories and oil refineries. The bombings did serve to reduce the capacity of arms production.
However by the summer of 1941 55% of the workforce had been mobilised for some sort of war related
work. Labour shortages occurred despite this as more and more men went to fight. The introduction of
women and foreigners into the workforce, as well as using those in concentration camps, only filled
some of the gaps that the men leaving for war made.
Hitler had put off plans to invade Britain.
However, his invasion of the Soviet
Union (Russia) in June 1941 came as a
huge shock to many Germans, Russians
and the international community. There
was some initial success, but by 1942 the
Soviet Union was rearming and fighting
back at a much faster rate than German
military commanders had anticipated.
This led to a huge change of experience
on the Home Front.
German soldiers
The Nazi Party had convinced many Germans that the invasion of the Soviet Union would lead to
another quick victory. However, the lack of a rapid victory meant that the Nazi Party encouraged the
collection of winter clothes for the Russian (Eastern) Front. The mood quickly changed after the German
army’s defeat at Stalingrad in January 1943. Heavy German troop losses and the increasing sight of
hospital trains carrying wounded troops back from the eastern front led many to question the war. In
February 1943, Goebbels spoke to an audience of 10,000 at
Berlin Sportspalast and all radio stations in his famous speech urging the need for ‘total war’.
From 1943 onwards, Allied bombing of Germany became much heavier and included major cities such
as Berlin, Hamburg, Munich, Cologne and Dresden. While the Germans had tried to greatly expand
their economy for the war, such bombings limited their ability to do this. For the first time since the Nazi
Party came to power a decade before, the tide was starting to turn.
Bombs Dropped in Tons
On Germany
On Britain
1940
10,000
40,000
1941
30,000
20,000
1942
40,000
5,000
1943
120,000
3,000
1944
650,000
10,000
1945
500,000
1,000
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These statistics reveal well how the tide of war had changed against Germany. The army had been
stretched too far, America had joined the Allies and Soviet Russia was fighting back with a vengeance.
In September 1944, the Volkssturm (Home Guard) was formed. It suffered from a combination of poor
training, a lack of equipment and low morale. By the end of 1944, almost as many German civilians had
been killed by the relentless Allied bombing campaign as in the armed forces. Food shortages were
increasingly severe and supplying civilians and the armed forces with essential goods became
increasingly difficult in many places because of transport problems. Medical care was also affected by
this and there were many deaths from disease.
Millions fled the bombs as well as the Russians and went to the safety of the countryside and the
villages. Roughly 12 million Germans fled the east after changes in the frontier as the Russians
advanced.
On 30th April, 1945 with Russian troops only a few
hundreds of meters away from Berlin, Hitler shot
himself and his body was burnt. Chaos erupted on
the streets of Berlin as Nazi Germany had been
reduced to ruins. The army had been defeated,
most of the country occupied and many of the
country’s leaders dead, captured or fleeing.
After Germany’s surrender and the breakdown of
its government, the Allies divided the country
itself into four zones, each controlled by one of the
victorious powers: Great Britain, France, the USA
and the USSR, while some land was given to
Poland as well. Berlin itself was
likewise partitioned. It was the end of
Nazi Germany.
A British Lancaster bomber flying over Hamburg, Germany
FOR YOUR INFORMATION
Historians disagree as to the
total loss of German life in the
Second World War. However,
they were significant. Estimates
range from five to eight million
deaths, most of them being
soldiers. This amounted to
approximately ten percent of
the entire population, but does
not take in to consideration
those military personnel and
civilians wounded throughout
the conflict. Millions more
Germans were made homeless
or became refugees.
Soviet (Russian) POWs after the German offensive. The Germans
actually prevented the Red Cross from coming into Russian POW camps.
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?
KEY QUESTIONS ONE & TWO – ACTIVITIES
Note: Look back over your notes on: the Treaty of Versailles (1919), Hyperinflation (1923) and the effects of the
Wall Street Crash (1923) to help you answer these questions.
a.
Read through the section and underline key points and words.
b.
What two immediate economic problems did Hitler face when he became Chancellor?
c.
What was Dr Schacht’s (President of the Reichsbank) big idea in 1933?
d.
Describe the main economic reforms outlined in the ‘New Plan’:
• Trade agreements
• German imports
• Production
• Raw materials
• Unemployment over the following years
e.
Do you agree or disagree with the following statement?
The first autobahns started to be built in 1933 by Hitler as a way to reduce unemployment.
f.
Explain your choice.
g.
In what ways did the building of large public works – such as the autobahns – help the economy and reduce
unemployment?
h.
What was the one main difference between the ‘Four Year Plan’ of 1936 and the earlier plan it replaced?
i.
What is meant by Autarky?
j.
Why did Hitler argue that reaching Autarky was vital for Germany’s future?
k.
What powers had been given to Göring by letting him lead the ‘Four Year Plan’?
l.
How did the rearming of Germany and the building up of the armed forces also lower unemployment?
m. In what ways would the achievement of Autarky and rearmament be beneficial to Hitler and the Nazi regime
from 1939 onwards?
o.
Describe one positive effect and one negative effect of the creation of the German Labour Front (DAF).
p.
Explain how both the Beauty of Labour (SDA) and the Strength Through Joy (KDF) would have contributed to
a happier workforce.
q.
Complete the following sentences by crossing out the incorrect words written in bold (and including
percentages in the first sentence):
•
Male unemployment had increased/reduced from ___% in 1932, to 10% in 1935 and ___% in 1939.
•
Despite the huge increase/reduction in unemployment, overall pay levels did / did not actually increase for
many Germans and working hours in many areas actually increased/decreased.
r.
Did ethnic minorities benefit as much as other Germans from the economic reforms?
s.
What do you think were the advantages and disadvantages to ordinary German workers from Nazi economic
policies during the 1930s?
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t.
What type of people do you think would have benefited the most from Nazi economic reforms from 1933
onwards? Who didn’t benefit?
u.
Many historians suggest that Nazi economic reforms were a combination of capitalism and socialism. Do you
agree or disagree? Give a reason for your answer.
v.
List one key point about Germany’s involvement in the Second World War for each year:
 1939 – Britain declared war on Germany in September, which became known as the Second World War
1939 –
1940 –
1941 –
1942 –
1943 –
1944 –
1945 –
 1945 – Approximately eight million Germans had been killed, another seven million made homeless and
another 16 million became refugees by the end of the war.
Well done! Now you have all the information you need to answer the Key Question. You could
use the answers you gave above to help, and then try it again without your answers to help you.
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SUMMARY – HOW SUCCESSFUL WERE THE NAZIS IN REBUILDING
THE GERMAN ECONOMY?
The Nazi Party had promised Germany a positive future.
Economic changes were at the heart of this...
When Hitler became Chancellor in 1933:
 Germany was struggling with the severe economic crisis of the late 1920s (Wall Street Crash / Great
Depression).
 Hitler had promised voters and especially the six million unemployed that his Nazi Party alone could
save them from worsening economic conditions.
 Much was expected from them. He acted quickly and decisively.

The Development of the Economy and Employment Patterns in the 1930s:
 The New Plan (from 1933 onwards): President of Reichsbank Schacht stimulated
economy and reduced unemployment by importing raw materials and producing
industrial goods.
 Labour Service: large job creation schemes employed many labourers to build vital
public works.
 Construction of Autobahns: many new motorways also created jobs in other
industries such as steel and iron. Connecting towns and cities across Germany,
they were later vital for the military.
 Rearmament: Hitler wanted ‘Autarky’ (self-sufficiency) and rearmament. The
‘Four Year Plan’ of 1936 saw further reduction of unemployment with conscription
of unemployed men and diversification and expansion of industries to build
military equipment and weapons on a large scale. Göring spearheaded this drive to
expand Germany’s military capacity, replacing Schacht.










Trade Unions banned (1933) and were replaced with nationally controlled German
Labour Front (DAF).
Negative Outcomes: workers could not strike and many were directed to certain
jobs.
Positive Outcomes: solid economic growth and many workers were kept happy
through job security, fixed wages and high levels of employment.
Limits: ethnic minorities and women did not benefit much from these reforms.
Beauty of Labour (SDA) made factories safer and cleaner and encouraged better
working conditions and relations between workers, managers and owners.
Strength Through Joy(KDF) provided access to leisure activities for workers
(sports and leisure activities and holidays)
Working and Living Standards: To increase worker morale and therefore
productivity, DAF provided quality of life services:
Some Positive Effects of Economic Policies to
Reduce Unemployment
Some Negative Effects of Economic Policies to
Reduce Unemployment
Poverty and insecurity brought about by
economic problems in the early and late 1920s had
largely disappeared
Many Germans did not receive the cheap people’s
car, the Volkswagen, after paying instalments
Male unemployment reduced from 25% in 1932,
to 10% in 1935 and less than 1% by 1939
Despite the huge reduction in unemployment,
overall pay levels did not actually increase and
working hours in many areas actually increased
From 1939 to 1945, Nazi Germany’s economy was completely geared towards war
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Section 4: Race and Youth
4.1 Overview of: Race and Youth
Propaganda in the Nazi Education System:
 The big idea was to indoctrinate youth (to
become soldiers and Nazi administrators, etc.)
 Important subjects included German, History,
Biology and Physical Education
 National Socialist Teachers’ League: 97% of
teachers were members by 1937
 Academic standards dropped and some youths
were denied an education
Youth Movements in Nazi Germany:
 Nazi youth movements introduced from 1920s
 1933: Other youth movements banned
 1936: Membership to Nazi youth movements
made compulsory
 Main Purpose was to create young, fit,
disciplined & loyal Nazis
 Boys (Hitler Youth) should be fit for war
 Girls (League of German Maidens) should be fit
for work in the home
 Did provide many activities for poorer youth
Before the War Years
Nazi policies affected different
aspects of German society in
different ways. These included...
During the War Years (1939–1945)
Rebel Groups:

From the late 1930s, the Edelweiss
Pirates and the Swing Youth rebelled
against Nazi youth movements and
formed their own. The Swing Youth
danced to Western music, whilst the
Edelweiss Pirates attacked Hitler
Youth.

Some of these youth continued to rebel even
after the collapse of Nazi rule.
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Role of Youth Movements During the War:
 Hitler Youth activities were increasingly
geared towards war effort
 Boys prepared for military work
 Children collected harvests, delivered post
and helped with the evacuation of
children
 Recruitment age to Armed Forces was
lowered and some formed anti-tank and
air defence units, built anti-tank ditches
and fought in the Battle for Berlin
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4.2 How successful were the Nazis in influencing young people?

LEARNING OBJECTIVES –
YOU WILL NEED TO:
SPECIFICATION FOCUS
 Explain why Hitler and the Nazis placed
so much emphasis on education
 Understand the importance of youth to
the Nazi state and the role of Nazi youth
movements before and during the war
 Demonstrate the significance of
alternative youth movements – such as
the ‘Edelweiss Pirates’ and the ‘Swing
Youth’ – in challenging the Nazi regime

 The appeal of Nazism to youth; the
role of youth in National Socialism
 Youth movements in Nazi
Germany, changing character of
Hitler Youth after 1939
 Education in German schools and
universities as an instrument of
propaganda
 The extent and nature of youth
resistance, Swing Youth, Edelweiss
Pirates, the White Rose Group
KEY TERMS
Lebensraum – The idea of gaining extra living space for the large German population had been
popular since before WW1. Hitler used the slogan to argue for the need for German expansion into
countries in the east (i.e. Poland and the Ukraine).
National Socialist Teachers’ League (NSLB) – A state-controlled Nazi Party organisation that
controlled all aspects of teaching.
Hitler Youth (HJ) – Nazi youth movement for boys between the ages of 14–18. State-controlled with
compulsory membership from 1936 onwards, it became an effective tool for churning out soldiers
and loyal Nazis.
League of German Maidens (BDM) – Nazi youth movement for girls between the ages of 14–18.
Also state-controlled with compulsory membership from 1936 onwards, it taught Nazi ideas whilst
preparing girls for domestic duties in the home and motherhood.
Battle for Berlin – The final European battle of WW2 and Nazi Germany’s last stand experienced
fierce fighting. With Soviet Russian armies attacking from the east and the Allies from the west,
most of the once great city was reduced to rubble.
The ‘Edelweiss Pirates’ and ‘Swing Youth’ – Some young Germans joined groups which rebelled
against increasing Nazi influence and control of youth. Whilst some simply wanted to enjoy being
teenagers and not young soldiers or Nazis, others became politicised.
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
KEY QUESTION ONE
Describe the role of education and Nazi youth movements in the years 1933 to
1945.
Education in German Schools and Universities as an Instrument of Propaganda
Prior to the Nazi regime, Germany had one of the most respected education systems in the world.
Teachers and lecturers had been highly trained, the curriculum had been wide ranging and educational
institutions had been well managed. However, whilst education under the Nazis continued to maintain
high levels of discipline, the quality of education dropped. This was because the Nazis were more
interested in influencing and controlling the young to suit Nazi social policy. As a result, lessons were
biased (geared completely towards what the Nazis thought was important), whilst a minority of youth
were denied any education at all from the mid-1930s.
Hitler understood that youth were vital to maintaining Nazi values in a future Nazi Germany. This was
because, although he was Führer/dictator of a one-party state by 1934, many adults did not trust the
Nazi Party. He could control adults through the one-party system, applying strict laws and punishments
and through the use of propaganda. However, he argued that German youth could be easily
indoctrinated and would then be unquestioning supporters of Nazism when they became adults. In
short, young people were viewed as the future of Nazism.
From an early age and continuing throughout school, education had to suit Nazi ideology; Nazi ideas of
race and the need for war were key aspects of this. Subjects such as German, History, Biology and
Physical Education were seen as the most important subjects and could be used to spread very biased
Nazi messages. For example, school books and lessons included:
•
German – this encouraged a sense of national identity with a Nazi message, by focusing on writings
about the Hitler Youth and German war heroes
•
Mathematics – this included mathematical problems about warfare
•
History – lessons focused on the unfairness of the Treaty of Versailles, whilst presenting a positive
and biased view of German history
•
Biology/Race Studies and Eugenics – this taught Nazi ideas about the ‘racial purity’ of ‘Aryans’,
presenting a picture to German youth that ethnic minorities (in particular Jews and gypsies) were
inferior
•
Geography – this taught the need for lebensraum (additional German living space)
•
Physical Education – this became a key aspect of education and trained boys to be physically fit for
possible future roles in the army, whilst girls were trained to be healthy mothers
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The Ministry of Education, under the
leadership of Bernhard Rust, controlled what
FOR YOUR INFORMATION
was taught in schools and what textbooks
Always think of examples of how Nazi education
could be used by teachers. The same applied to
policies were used to support their ideas about
college and university education as well. Antirace, anti-Semitism, the role of women and
Semitism was a key feature across the school
preparing the country for war.
curriculum, whilst Jewish teachers lost their
When answering questions about Nazi control of
jobs. The curriculum also stressed the need for
education, remember to think about how the
girls to be taught about the importance of
Ministry for Education controlled what was
home life and being good mothers. Religious
taught, as well as how teachers themselves
Studies was one school subject that the Nazis
were controlled.
did not think was important. Youth were
encouraged to learn about Nazi heroes and
martyrs rather than religious ones, whilst Hitler had set himself up as a kind of God. Special leadership
schools were also set up for pupils who ‘excelled’ in the Nazi education. Whilst some specialised in
sports and became breeding grounds for future officers and the SS, others trained pupils to be loyal and
unquestioning Nazi Party officials and administrators. There are many examples of German youths,
influenced by Nazi educational policies and youth movements, actually turning against their parents
(especially if their parents were not keen supporters of Nazism).
Teachers were encouraged to join the National Socialist Teacher’s league (NSLB). 97% of teachers were
members by 1937. Some were also Nazi Party members. Many teachers were keen supporters of Nazi
practices in the early years of Hitler’s power. However, this often turned to resentment in later years as
Nazis increasingly controlled what was taught, as well as the activities of Nazi youth movements.
As with schools, university education had
been recognised as one of the best in the
FOR YOUR INFORMATION
world before the Nazi Party came to power in
Turning German youth into active supporters of
1933. However, although they had been proud
the Nazi Party played a key role in German
of high educational standards, excellent
education.
teaching and freedom of what they taught,
universities tended to be nationalistic. Many
However, Hitler’s personal interest in youth
professors had supported Germany’s
education also reflected his distrust of teachers,
involvement in the First World War, were
lecturers and intellectuals. Whilst he had not
angered by Germany’s defeat and did not
completed his own school education, as a young
support the Weimar Republic. On gaining
man he had also been turned down as an art
power, Hitler and the Nazi Party gained the
student by the Academy of Fine Arts in Vienna.
support of many university professors and
lecturers. This support contributed to
universities continuing the kind of education practised in schools, i.e. pro-Nazi ideas. Many leading
professors and lecturers resigned and left Germany, benefiting academic institutions in other countries.
Others were sacked. These included Jews and others Nazis believed to be ‘non-Aryan’, and those with
anti-Nazi views. New vacancies were often filled with less experienced or capable Nazi supporters.
Whilst Hitler had succeeded in turning universities into Nazi-supporting education institutes, standards
had slipped.
The Role and Effectiveness of Youth Movements – Preparation for War and Charity Work
Outside of school, children were encouraged and increasingly expected to join Nazi youth movements.
Nazi youth movements had existed from the early 1920s and were becoming popular with many
children before Hitler came to power. However, by 1933, youth movements for other political parties
were stopped. Membership to Nazi youth movements became compulsory from 1936.
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The main purposes were to create young Nazis that were fit,
disciplined and loyal to Nazism. Boys were to be fit for war and
girls for work in the home. For many children it gave them access to
leisure activities such as camping and hiking. Nazi youth
movements were also involved in various forms of charity work in
the community. However, much of this work involved campaigning
for the Nazi Party. There is also evidence that in some instances it
was used by the Nazi Party to encourage children to inform on both
parents and teachers. Nazi youth movements also instilled an
unquestioning admiration and respect for Hitler and Nazism over
their own families.
This propaganda poster
promoting the Hitler Youth
shows a boy considered a ‘pure
German’ idolising Hitler
Nazi youth movements were divided up as follows:
Youth Movement
Membership Age
German Young People
(DJ) – Boys
10–14
This provided initial training to prepare young boys for
the Hitler Youth
Hitler Youth (HJ) –
Boys
14–18
From approximately 100,000 members in the early 1930s
to over seven million in the late 1930s
League of Young Girls
(JM)
10–14
This provided initial training to prepare young girls for
the League of German Maidens
League of German
Maidens (BDM) – Girls
14–18
By the late 1930s there were over two million members
17–21
Special training was provided for some young women
before motherhood. Intended to promote the Nazi ideal of
the ‘Aryan’ or ‘Master Race’, emphasis was placed on
physical and spiritual grace.
Faith and Beauty
Membership Details
The Hitler Youth flag
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
KEY PERSON: BALDUR VON SCHIRACH (1907–1974)
Schirach joined the Nazi Party in 1925 and took leadership
roles in Nazi youth movements. Noticed by Hitler for his
organisation skills, he was promoted to Youth Leader of the
German Reich when Hitler became Chancellor in 1933.
Increasing youth membership numbers throughout the
1930s and in wartime Germany, he entered Hitler’s inner
circle. Responsible for the evacuation of children from
German cities in the war, he also oversaw the deportation of
Jews from Vienna (Austria). Schirach was found guilty of
crimes against humanity at the Nuremberg Trials and served
20 years in prison.
Schirach (second row, second from
right) with other Nazi leaders at the
Nuremberg Trials of 1945–1946
The Role and Effectiveness of Youth Movements – Military Roles in the War Years
During the war the activities of the Hitler Youth were increasingly geared towards helping with the war
effort. Boys were increasingly prepared for military work, and children were used for work such as
collecting harvests, delivering post and helping with the evacuation of children from cities. The age of
recruitment to the armed forces became lowered as the tide of war changed. Older members of the Hitler
Youth were enlisted into the army in the last years of the war. In the very last stages of war, members of
youth movements formed anti-tank and air defence units, and built anti-tank ditches. Hitler Youth even
fought in the Battle for Berlin. Accounts report that they fought bravely. Only a few survived.
?
a.
KEY QUESTION ONE – ACTIVITIES
Read through the section and underline key points and words.
Education
b. Do you agree or disagree with the following statement? Give a reason why.
Standards of state education in Nazi Germany were higher than previously.
c.
Give two reasons why Hitler considered German youths to be more important to the future of Nazi Germany.
d.
Choose any three from the list of subjects below and explain how the Nazi Party used these subjects to
indoctrinate German youth.
Physical Education | Mathematics | History | Biology/Race Studies and Eugenics | Geography | German
e.
Why do you think Religious Education was not considered important to the Nazis?
f.
What was the purpose of Special Leadership Schools?
g.
After only four years in power, 97% of teachers were members of the National Socialist Teachers’ League
(NSLB). Why was this important to the Nazi Party?
h.
To what extent do you think that Hitler’s own educational experiences as a young man determined the way
education was organised in Nazi Germany?
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Youth Movements
Because almost all Germany’s youths were members of Nazi youth movements meant that they were keen
supporters of the Nazi Party.
j.
What key youth movement policies happened between 1933 and 1936?
k.
Name the Nazi youth movements for boys and girls of ages 14–18 and describe the purposes of each.
l.
What was the purpose of the ‘Faith and Beauty’ youth movement?
m. In what ways did the role and purpose of the Hitler Youth change during the Second World War?
n.
Why did the Nazi Party rely so heavily on the contributions of German youths during the Second World War?
o.
Does the fact that children had to join the youth groups mean that they were all keen supporters of Nazi
ideas? Give a reason for your answer.
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
KEY QUESTION TWO
How successful were groups like the ‘Edelweiss Pirates’ and the ‘Swing Youth’ in
challenging the Nazi regime?
The Extent and Nature of Youth Resistance
As discussed elsewhere in this resource, there was little open opposition to Nazi rule within Germany.
Notable exceptions used various methods and included:
• The ‘July Bomb Plotters’ – attempted regime change by attempting to assassinate Hitler
• Religious opposition – attempts to destabilise Nazism on religious and moral grounds
• The ‘White Rose Group’ – anti-Nazi pamphleteering on political grounds by university students
These forms of opposition are discussed elsewhere throughout this resource (this group is another
example of youth resistance; see page 58 for more information).
There was not much youth opposition to Nazi rule until the late 1930s. However, as membership to Nazi
youth movements became compulsory and pro-Nazi activities increasingly took over their lives, some
youth rebelled. Resentment increased as many leaders of Nazi youth movements joined the armed
forces and went to war leaving youth to be ordered around by other youth.
Two groups who rebelled were the ‘Edelweiss Pirates’ and the ‘Swing Youth’.
Name of Youth
Rebels
Description
Nazi Authorities’ Responses
Edelweiss
Pirates
These were a loose network of mainly workingclass youth from around Germany who set up
alternative youth activities to the Hitler Youth.
Many undertook similar activities to the Hitler
Youth (hiking, camping) from the late 1930s
onwards and even got in to fights with them.
Boys could befriend girls (this wasn’t allowed in
the Nazi youth movements). Although most
members were not explicitly political and were
involved mainly with teenage activities, some
posted leaflets and sheltered deserters from the
German Army. Others were simply youths who
were living on the edge of society and who
would have rebelled under any circumstances.
As numbers of ‘Edelweiss Pirates’
swelled, the authorities became
increasingly worried about their
influence on German youth. Their
actions were criminalised.
Members were often imprisoned
or beaten, their heads shaved and
some were sent to concentration
camps to be ‘re-educated’. Some
members who became involved in
direct action against the Nazi
regime were executed in Cologne,
Germany in 1944.
Swing Youth
Mainly from middle-class backgrounds, ‘swing
youth’ (also known as ‘swing kids’) gathered to
listen and dance to jazz and dance music in the
1930s (music the Nazis considered degenerate).
Although they tended to mock Nazi salutes,
most were not political. Many were simply
playing out teenage desires, rejecting Nazi
propaganda and the increasing militarism and
control of Nazi youth movements.
The authorities tended to punish
‘Swing Youth’ who were not
considered pure Germans first
(i.e. ethnic minorities). By the
early 1940s, leaders were
increasingly arrested for
organising events. Punishments
were similar to those of the
‘Edelweiss Pirates’.
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FOR YOUR INFORMATION
As with any youth in any country and at any time, German youth who rebelled against Nazi
education and Nazi youth movements represented a natural trend to disobey authority. This
refusal to conform and desire to challenge authority exists everywhere amongst some youth.
Rebellious acts usually took the form of passive resistance; avoiding physical education and
military-type activities (much in the same way that some pupils try to avoid Physical Education
lessons today) or doing as little work as possible.
Although controlling the rebellious youth caused problems for Nazi authorities, many youths
continued to cause problems for the Soviet and Allied authorities in Germany after the war. This
shows that whilst some rebellious youths were anti-Nazi and might have supported Western or
communist ideas, others simply disliked authority and politics.
?
KEY QUESTION TWO– ACTIVITIES
a.
Read through the section and underline key points and words.
b.
Why do you think some German youths rebelled against Nazi youth movements?
c.
Copy and complete the table below.
Name of Youth Rebels
Description (include five key points)
Nazi Authorities’ Responses
Edelweiss Pirates
Swing Youth
d.
Why do you think the Nazi Party feared alternative youth movements?
e.
Did alternative/anti-Nazi youth movements stop after the fall of Nazism in 1945?
f.
Which statement do you most agree with?
 The fact that some young people rebelled shows that they disliked the Nazi regime.
 The fact that some young people rebelled shows that they did not necessarily dislike the Nazi regime but
did not like to be forced to join Nazi youth movements either.

The fact that some young people rebelled says less about their attitudes to Nazism and Nazi youth
movements and more about teenagers’ natural questioning of authority in general.
g.
Give a reason for your choice.
Well done! Now you have all the information you need to answer the Key Question. You could
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4.3 How important in Germany were Nazis’ ideas on race?

LEARNING OBJECTIVES –
YOU WILL NEED TO:
SPECIFICATION FOCUS
 Understand the importance that
Hitler placed on beliefs in ‘race’ and
‘Aryan supremacy’
 Describe the treatment of Jews and
other minority groups in Nazi
Germany
 Explain that the persecution of Jews
and other minority groups increased
gradually between 1933 and 1939
 Explain the ways in which the
treatment of Jews changed between
1939 and 1945

 Nazi ideas: the belief in Aryan
supremacy and the master race
 Racism in the Nazi state, the treatment
of minority groups in society
 The persecution of the Jews and the
Final Solution (1933–1945)
 The creation of Greater Germany and
eastern expansion (1935–1945); the
impact of war on Nazi policy towards
and treatment of Jews and minorities
 Reactions to these developments from
different individuals and groups,
Jewish resistance, Warsaw ghetto
KEY TERMS
Social Darwinism – Naturalist Darwin’s nineteenth-century theory that evolution of species
occurred and that all life forms struggled for existence. This theory was often misused for political
and social purposes, justifying nation states and arguing that some groups of people were superior
(better suited to life on earth) than others.
Holocaust – The name given to Hitler’s attempts to exterminate all European Jews. In total,
approximately six million Jews and many others were killed in this genocide.
Anti-Semitism – Strong anti-Jewish feelings and actions. Existing before Hitler and the Nazis, his
racist beliefs and actions took anti-Semitism to the extreme.
The Nuremberg Laws (1935) – These citizenship and race laws were part of Hitler’s anti-Semitic
plan to restrict Jews in most walks of life.
Kristallnacht (1938) – ‘Crystal Night’ or the ‘Night of the Broken Glass’ on 9th November was when
systematic attacks were made on synagogues and thousands of Jewish businesses.
Reich Ghettos – Areas within cities in Nazi-occupied Europe where Jews were moved to. The
standard of living was extremely poor in the heavily policed ghettos.
Wannsee Conference – A meeting between high-ranking Nazis held in a suburb of Berlin on the 20th
January 1942 to decide the fate of Jews in Nazi-occupied areas. The outcome of this was the ‘Final
Solution’.
Nuremberg Trials – Allied war crimes trials held in the German city of Nuremberg between 1945
and 1946. Twenty-two leading Nazis were tried. Leaders of other groups accused of contributing to
the Nazi regime were tried in the following years (such as judges, doctors and members of the
Einsatzgruppen).
The ‘Final Solution’ (from 1942) – The intended extermination of all European Jews by the Nazi
regime was agreed at the Wannsee Conference in January 1942. Approximately six million Jews
were killed throughout Nazi-occupied countries.
Guerrilla Warfare – This is a form of warfare where a small group (usually not regular soldiers)
fights against a larger force (usually a regular army). The former make use of their superior mobility
due to their size to carry out hit-and-run attacks.
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
KEY QUESTION ONE
Describe the Nazi Party’s treatment of Jews in the years 1933 to 1939.
Nazi Ideas: The Belief in Aryan Supremacy and the Master Race
FOR YOUR INFORMATION
Remember not to ‘clump together’ the Holocaust as if it occurred very quickly. The
persecution of Jews by the Nazis was a process that developed over time and which
increased gradually over more than a decade.
Incorrect Statement: The Nazis came to power in 1933, decided the ‘final solution’ of ‘the
Jewish problem’ and then systematically killed six million Jews in the Holocaust.
Correct Statement: The Nazis came to power in 1933 and over the next 12 years persecuted
firstly the Jews in Germany, then Jews throughout Nazi-occupied Europe. This persecution
occurred gradually: from stereotyping and the restriction of certain rights, to confiscation of
property and belongings and the removal Jews to ghettoes and concentration camps. By the
early 1940s, the ‘final solution’ to ‘the Jewish problem’ had been agreed and the systematic
and wide-scale extermination of approximately six million Jews took place.
By the time of the Nazi rise to power, there were approximately half a
million German Jews. This was about one percent of the total German
population. Anti-Semitism already existed in Germany and other
European countries before Nazism. Many Germans interpreted ‘Social
Darwinism’ to mean that it was natural for struggles to occur between
different groups of humans. They argued that those who could adapt the
best (i.e. the strongest, fittest and cleverest) would rightfully win the
struggle. The idea of a strong Germanic people, known as ‘Aryans’ (as
Jews in Nazi-occupied territories
opposed to other weaker groups) who could become a type of ‘master
were increasingly forced to wear
race’, was a view held by some Germans. Another view was that some
the Jewish ‘Star of David’. ‘Jude’ is
groups within German society were inferior (i.e. Jews, gypsies and other
German for Jew.
ethnic minorities). These and other views were used effectively as
German propaganda in the First World War. However, other groups from other countries held similar
ideas about the superiority of their own people over others. These included some people in Britain and
France, but could be found almost everywhere in the world in various forms.
Therefore, Hitler did not invent anti-Semitism, but merely brought together existing views already held
by a minority of Germans.
These claimed that:
• Strong and superior Germanic ‘master race’ of ‘Aryans’ existed and had a natural right to rule
• Other groups were weaker and inferior (i.e. Jews, gypsies) and should be removed from
Germanic society
However, what changed under Hitler and Nazi rule was the ferociousness and scale of violence of the
anti-Semitic campaign. From 1933 until the fall of the Nazi regime in 1945, the Nazi Party systematically
used every opportunity to increase the persecution of Jews and other minorities.
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From Stereotyping to Discrimination – The Treatment of Minority Groups between 1933 and 1939
The table below illustrates the three major stages and intensification of anti-Semitism in 1930s Germany
in the period from Hitler becoming Chancellor leading up to the outbreak of the Second World War.
Stage
One
Stage One: 1933–1935 (from Hitler’s Chancellorship and the securing of Nazi power to
before the Nuremberg Laws)
Date
Stage
Two
Event
1st
April
1933
Boycott of Jewish
shops, cafes and
businesses
April
1933
Law for the Reestablishment of
the Professional
Civil Service
May
1935
Jews forbidden to
join the German
Armed Forces
Significance and Effects
SA Stormtroopers stood outside Jewish business during the
one-day boycott, discouraging potential customers. Whilst
some ordinary Germans participated in the boycotts, many
others ignored it.
Non-Aryan civil servants (including Jews and other
minorities, but also political opponents) were sacked as
teachers, judges and professors. This later included doctors
and lawyers. However, there was some opposition from
President Hindenburg who insisted this should not include
Jews that had fought in the First World War.
Approximately 100,000 German Jews had been involved in
the First World War, many receiving awards for bravery.
This type of anti-Semitic policy therefore caused dismay for
many Jews who considered themselves to be proud and
patriotic Germans.
Stage Two: 1935–1938 (from the Nuremberg Laws leading up to Kristallnacht)
Date
Sept
1935
Event
Nuremberg
‘Race’ Laws (Law
for the Protection
of German Blood
and Honour and
Reich Citizenship
Law)
Significance and Effects
Announced at the Nazi Party annual rally at Nuremberg,
these race laws restricted German Jews in most walks of life.
They included:
• Depriving Jews of German citizenship
• Forbidding marriage or sexual relations between Jews
and non-Jews
• Banning Jews from professions such as teaching,
medicine and lawyers
As a result, half of all German Jews were unemployed by
1936.
This chart explaining the Nuremberg Laws shows the systematic
approach the Nazis used to single out and label Jews
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Stage
Two
Date
1936
Event
Significance and Effects
Anti-Semitic policies were covered up from the international
community by the Nazi Party. Hitler used the games as an
opportunity to show off the strength of the ‘master race’,
banning non-Aryans from competing in the German team.
However, German crowds cheered the black American athlete
Jesse Owens, who won four gold medals, including the 100
metre sprint.
Berlin Olympic
Games
Jesse Owens running to victory in the Berlin Olympics
Aug
1938
Sept
1938
Oct
1938
Stage
Three
Law regarding
names
‘Aryan’ doctors
could only treat
‘Aryan’ patients
All Jewish passports
had to be marked
with the letter ‘J’
German Jewish men had to add ‘Israel’ and women ‘Sara’ to
their names, thus singling them out for further persecution.
This made it very difficult for Jews and other minorities to
obtain qualified medical help, as Jewish and other minority
doctors had been banned previously.
This singled out German Jews further. It also created anxiety
by the few who travelled abroad and who wanted to return
that Nazis might refuse re-admittance.
Stage Three: 1938–1939 (from Kristallnacht leading up to the outbreak of the Second
World War)
Date
Event
Significance and Effects
Approximately 7,000 shops and businesses and up to 300
synagogues were badly damaged by anti-Semitic rioting. Over a
hundred Jews were murdered and a further 25,000 were sent to
concentration camps. The Jewish community had to pay for repairs.
9th to
10th
Nov
1938
Kristallnacht
(Crystal
Night / Night
of the Broken
Glass)
Kristallnacht is widely viewed as Nazi revenge for the shooting of a
German official by a Polish Jew in the Paris Embassy. Heydrich (as
leader of the Gestapo) had ordered the attacks, which involved both
Nazis and non-Nazis.
Many survivors of Kristallnacht claim that this single act confirmed
to them that German Jews were doomed.
A picture postcard of Nuremberg, Germany
in 1938. The synagogue in the background
was destroyed by the Nazis in 1938.
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Stage
Three
Date
Nov 1938
Jan 1939
Autumn
1939
Event
Jewish children
could only
attend Jewish
schools and Jews
not allowed to
use public
spaces
Jews forbidden
to own
businesses and
Jews were
encouraged to
emigrate abroad
Removal of
Jewish driving
licences, curfews
imposed and
radios
confiscated
Significance and Effects
Following Kristallnacht, other Jewish restrictions occurred,
including:
• Jewish children were expelled from other schools
• Jews not allowed to use public places such as parks,
swimming pools, cinemas or certain restaurants
Jewish unemployment rose again. Many Jews who
emigrated from Nazi Germany were forced to leave
property and savings behind. Many fled to Britain and the
USA. Approximately 500,000 Jews emigrated during 1930s.
At this time, Nazi Germany had invaded several European
territories and Britain had declared war. The Nazis argued
that Jews were more likely to work as anti-Nazi spies, which
became an excuse for these further restrictions.
Many of the policies outlined above affected other minority groups in Nazi Germany, such as gypsies
and the disabled. Although Hitler had a particular hatred of the Jews, Nazi ideas and policy about racial
purity affected all Germans (and later on those throughout Nazi occupied Europe) not considered
‘pure’ racially.
Policies included:
• Forced sterilisations to make women infertile
• Confiscation of property and assets
• Internment in concentration camps
• Mass killings in extermination camps
In addition, Nazis often used these minority groups for inhumane experiments. Additional information
on groups that were persecuted under the Nazi regime can be found throughout this resource.
Disabled German Jews interned in Buchenwald Concentration
Camp after Kristallnacht
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?
a.
KEY QUESTION ONE– ACTIVITIES
Read through the section and underline key points and words.
The Importance of Nazi Beliefs in Aryan Supremacy and the ‘Master Race’
b. Approximately how many German Jews were there when Hitler became Chancellor in 1933?
c.
Describe these views already held by some Germans before Hitler became Chancellor:
Social Darwinism | Anti-Semitism | Aryan Race | Master Race
d.
Explain Hitler’s views about race under the headings ‘superior’ and ‘inferior’.
The Treatment of Minority Groups between 1933 and 1939
e. What effect would each of the following six key Nazi actions have had on German Jews? Copy and complete
the table.
Date
Action against German Jews
April
1933
Boycott of Jewish shops, cafes and
businesses
April
1933
Law for the Re-establishment of the
Professional Civil Service
Sept
1935
Nuremberg ‘Race’ Laws (Law for the
Protection of German Blood and Honour
and Reich Citizenship Law)
Nov
1938
Kristallnacht (Crystal Night / Night of the
Broken Glass)
Nov
1938
Jewish children could only attend Jewish
schools and Jews were not allowed to use
public spaces
Jan
1939
Jews forbidden to own businesses and
Jews encouraged to emigrate abroad
Effect on German Jews
f.
German Jews who survived the Nazi regime often claim that ‘Kristallnacht’ marked a turning point in their
persecution. Why do you think this was?
g.
What other groups suffered increasing persecution in Nazi Germany?
h.
List four actions taken by the Nazi regime against minorities (a fifth has been completed for you).
Forced sterilisations to make women infertile
i.
What do you think Hitler’s intention was in persecuting minority groups such as the Jews between 1933
and 1939?
j.
Describe the Nazis ‘T-4’ programme.
k.
Approximately how many people were exterminated this way by 1944?
Well done! Now you have all the information you need to answer the Key Question. You could
use the answers you gave above to help, and then try it again without your answers to help you.
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
KEY QUESTION TWO
How did the Nazi Party’s treatment of Jews change from 1939 to 1945?
The Persecution of the Jews and the Final Solution

KEY PERSON: ADOLF EICHMANN (1906–1962)
After taking on a number of jobs as a young man, Eichmann joined the Nazi Party in 1932 (just prior
to Hitler’s appointment as Chancellor). He worked in various roles in the Gestapo and SS, receiving
praise and promotions for his organisational skills and loyalty. Specialising in Jewish affairs from
1937 onwards, he attended the Wannsee Conference of 1942. Working closely with Heydrich and
Himmler, Eichmann was placed in charge of transporting Jews by train to concentration camps and
extermination camps in Poland. He was later responsible for sending Hungarian Jews to the camps.
Eichmann famously went against Himmler’s orders to stop killing Jews and to destroy Jewish
documents in 1945, as the Soviet (Russian) armies retook captured Nazi territories. Eichmann
escaped to South America following the war, where he lived in disguise until 1960. Discovered by
the Israeli Secret Police (MOSSAD), he was smuggled to Israel and found guilty of crimes against
humanity, crimes against the Jewish people and war crimes. Eichmann was executed in 1961 for
playing a key role in the extermination of six million Jews.
Before the outbreak of war, the Nazis had tried to rid
Germany of its Jewish population by making life unbearable
and encouraging emigration. They tried to encourage other
countries to take them as refugees, without much success.
They had even discussed a plan to forcibly move the Jews to
settle in Madagascar. The idea of creating a ‘super-ghetto’ on
the island of Madagascar in the Indian Ocean proved to be
logistically impossible in 1940 and the plan was then dropped.
Persecution against the Jews increased following the outbreak
of the Second World War in 1939.
Einsatzgruppen (Nazi Death Squad)
shootings of Ukrainian Jews
This was due to several factors:
• War allowed for more severe treatment of Jews as Germany did not have to be concerned about its
international relations with other countries.
• War increased the number of Jews under Nazi German control. The invasion of Poland in September
1939 brought another three million Jews under Nazi rule. This increased again when Germany
occupied parts of Western Europe and launched an invasion against the Soviet Union (Russia) to
the east.
• Technology such as Zyklon B meant that many people could be exterminated in a short space of time.
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The Nazis’ first moves to mass murder minorities had taken place with
Jewish patients in hospital through the euthanasia programme. Known as
T-4, it also included killing disabled children by starvation, lethal
injections or by gassing them in mobile vans. It has been estimated that by
1944, around 200,000 people had been murdered in this way. These
methods contributed to the Holocaust, because of the techniques and
staffing that had been developed by the Nazis. Mass murder was to take
on a huge scale in the Nazi persecution of the Jews and other minority
groups during the Second World War.
These empty gas canisters were discovered by
Allied forces in an extermination camp
The four stages below show the trend of increased persecution to extermination throughout the war years.
Stage One
Action
Taken
Description of Action
These were walled-off areas of towns and cities
which people could not leave. Many people
died from starvation and disease (such as
typhus) in the ghettos. Many others also died
from hard physical work in the nearby labour
camps.
Jews were
placed in
Jewish
Reservations
/ Reich
Ghettos.
The largest ghetto (1940–1943) was in Warsaw,
Poland. Many of the Jewish inhabitants had
been transported to camps such as Treblinka
Extermination Camp in 1942. The clearance of
the ghetto in early 1943 led to fierce fighting
between soldiers and Jewish resistance
fighters. After several months of fierce streetto-street fighting, crack combat troops
destroyed the ghetto and killed the remaining
inhabitants.
Walls like this were built to segregate the
heavily policed ghettos from other parts
of cities
The Lodz ghetto was the area of a Polish city
where Jews were brought in from Germany
and Austria. It later served as a staging post
before Jews were transported to the
extermination camps at Auschwitz and
Chelmno. The Lodz ghetto remained until the
summer of 1944 when the remaining 60,000
Jews were sent to Auschwitz.
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German soldiers clearing a ghetto
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Stage Two
Action Taken
Description of Action
In June 1941, the Nazi Party launched an invasion of
Soviet Russia (codenamed Operation Barbarossa).
Einsatzgruppen (highly mobile Special Task Forces)
travelled behind German armies to round up and kill
Jews and other groups. The numbers of Jews executed
The German invasion by the Einsatzgruppen can only be estimated, but is
of Soviet Russia
thought to be over two million. The forces were
leads to wide-scale
ordered to kill any
murder of
Jews captured in towns and villages. Other people
approximately two
were killed, including church leaders, university
million Jews.
lecturers, communists and gypsies.
However, the vast numbers of Jews in Germany and
the newly occupied territories in Europe and Russia
remained a problem for the Nazis. They decided to use
a more systematic and efficient method.
An Einsatzgruppen soldier
about to shoot a Jew in
Ukraine
Stage Three
Action Taken
Description of Action
In 1941, senior Nazi
leaders debated a
permanent and ‘final
solution’ to the
‘Jewish question’.
During the early years of the war, restrictions on German Jews still living in the
country increased. In 1941, German Jews had to wear a Jewish star. A wide
range of restrictions were put in place, including bans on using telephones, taxis,
hairdressers and libraries. Jews also had to hand in any typewriters or bicycles.
The first deportations of German Jews were to the ghetto in Lodz in1941.

KEY PERSON: RUDOLF HÖSS (1900–1947)
Höss became an underaged German soldier in the First World
War, was wounded in battle and received the Iron Cross for
bravery. A member of the Freikorps after the war and a
member of the Nazi Party, he was sentenced for his part in a
politically motivated murder. After his release in 1928, Höss
joined the SS. Working first at Dachau Concentration Camp in
1934 then Sachsenhausen in the late 1930s, he became the
dreaded commander of Auschwitz Concentration Camp from
1940. Once the ‘final solution’ to the ‘Jewish question’ had been
agreed at the Wannsee Conference in 1942, Auschwitz became
Rudolf Höss was hanged in 1947 for war
the main extermination camp. Höss was responsible for the
crimes committed at Auschwitz
building of the gas chambers and ovens and the subsequent
deaths of at least two million Jews during the following years. After being found guilty at the
Nuremberg Trials, Höss was sentenced to death in Poland and executed at Auschwitz in 1947. Höss
had claimed that he was an ordinary man who had fulfilled orders to the best of his ability.
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Stage Four
Action
Taken
The Final
Solution
Description of Action
In January 1942, Heydrich summoned senior
Nazis to a meeting at Wannsee to agree a
permanent solution to the ‘Jewish problem’.
The outcome was clear: the intention to kill
all Jews in Nazi-occupied Europe. The SS set
up five extermination camps in remote areas
of Poland. The camps at Belzec, Treblinka,
Chelmno, Sobibor and Auschwitz-Birkenau
were all linked to other parts of Nazioccupied Europe via train. This made
transportation of people to the camps easier.
By the summer of 1943, Jews from all over
The villa at Wannsee where the ‘Final Solution’
Nazi-occupied Europe were being
was discussed by leading Nazis in 1942
transported to the camps.
They were transported in goods wagons (sometimes lasting several days with little or no
food or water). Arriving in the camps, they were then taken to a large shower room, ordered
to undress and take a shower. They were sometimes given soap and towels. In reality, the
showers were giant gas chambers.
At Auschwitz-Birkenau, the prisoners attended a selection process. Medical staff divided
them in to two groups. Those that were fit were selected to work in Auschwitz I. Many
became slave labourers, such as in the factory making synthetic oil and rubber. Those that
were seen as unfit for work (the old, sick and young children) were taken to Auschwitz II
(Birkenau). Those that were imprisoned or killed at Auschwitz-Birkenau came from
countries including Poland, Germany, Belgium, France, Greece and Hungary. Russian and
Polish prisoners of war also died there.
By 1945, approximately six million Jews had been murdered in the extermination camps or
at the hands of the Einsatzgruppen. In addition, many communists, gypsies, homosexuals
and members of other religious groups were also murdered. Although numerically a much
smaller group, gypsies were also sent to concentration camps in 1939 before being sent to
Auschwitz in 1942, where there was a specific gypsy camp. Approximately 11,000 gypsies
were gassed there.
In November 1944, Himmler ordered the end of gassing of prisoners at Auschwitz and the
destruction of Auschwitz. The remaining prisoners were to be marched west away from the
advancing Soviet troops. However, killings of Jews and other prisoners continued. By the
end of the war, approximately two thirds of European Jews had been exterminated.
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
KEY PERSON: DR JOSEF MENGELE – THE ‘ANGEL OF DEATH’ (1911–1979)
Mengele studied philosophy and trained as a doctor. Believing that careful breeding of Germans
would create the perfect ‘master race’, he met and became obsessed with Hitler’s similar vision in
the late 1920s. Joining the Nazi Party and enlisting in the Waffen SS in the late 1930s, he first served
as a medical officer, then as doctor at Auschwitz. He oversaw the selection process, deciding on
which Jews could work and which would die. Mengele and other camp doctors used some
prisoners (especially twins) for cruel experiments, intending to turn his vision of a master race into
a reality. Escaping to South America after the war, he evaded capture. Some reports suggest that he
died in 1979, after having been on the run for 34 years.
Reactions in Germany to these Developments from Different Individuals and Groups
There has been much debate amongst
historians as to whether or not the
FOR YOUR INFORMATION
majority of people in German society
There is much debate amongst historians on the
were responsible for the persecution and
origins and implementation of the Holocaust. Some
extermination of Jews and other minority
historians argue that the book Mein Kampf is proof that
groups. There is no easy answer to
Hitler had intended to exterminate the Jews from the
this question.
outset. Other historians see the Holocaust as a direct
result of the war. The Second World War definitely
The issue of responsibility becomes even
did increase the speed at which extermination took
more complicated when considering that
place as it closed off other solutions to the ‘Jewish
many more Jews and minority groups
question’, such as the Madagascar Plan. Also, the Nazi
were persecuted in many countries across
conquest of Eastern Europe meant that there were now
Nazi-occupied Europe. For example,
millions more Jews under Nazi control.
many Polish and Russian Jews were
exterminated whilst their countries were
under Nazi rule. Also, the wide-scale persecution and extermination of these people occurred during a
brutal world war which resulted in the suffering of many people on all sides of the conflict and spread
across many countries worldwide. Some people who witnessed these events, and others who
participated in them, suggested that they had happened amidst the ‘fog of war’. Amongst these
testimonies were many German soldiers. Some who were involved (including
concentration/extermination camp guards and members of
the Einsatzgruppen) claimed that they were simply following
orders. However, murder is murder even in wartime.
An overwhelming majority of people living in Nazi
Germany were far removed from the events of the
Holocaust itself. Most of these Germans claimed that they
did not know what was happening. It is important to
remember that the wide-scale extermination occurred in
countries to the east (e.g. Poland and Russia). However,
almost all German Jews who remained in Germany at the
outset of the Second World War were eventually
transported to the ‘killing fields’ in the east. For this reason,
some historians claim that most people living in Nazi
Germany would have had some idea about what
was happening.
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A British bulldozer pushing bodies in to a mass
grave after the liberation of Bergen-Belsen
Concentration Camp in 1945
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In recent years, research into the Holocaust has identified countless examples of bravery and personal
sacrifice by Germans in helping Jews and members of other minority groups to escape persecution.
Some sheltered those on the run from Nazis at great personal risk to themselves and their families.
Others helped them to escape to neutral countries. Similar acts of bravery and self-sacrifice occurred
throughout Nazi-occupied Europe. A famous example is that of Anne Frank’s family, but there are many
others. To date, there have been over 20,000 verified accounts of non-Jewish people putting their lives at
risk to help Jews escape. The actual number is probably far greater. Some other historians have argued
that many Germans were too scared to help, as they themselves were living under a dictatorship.
Resistance from the Jews themselves was not uncommon; it was just not very effective as they could not
mount any military opposition. The active attempts they did make were usually isolated and as at the
Warsaw ghetto (see page 101) were eventually crushed by the Nazis. Their lack of equipment was
usually their downfall. Other forms of resistance were on a smaller scale; groups of partisans would
engage in guerrilla warfare against the Nazis, for instance sabotage and ambushes; there was also
passive resistance, for instance assisting Allied intelligence.
FOR YOUR INFORMATION
Although not much effective opposition by Germans to the
deportation of German Jews existed, one case stands out. In
1943, approximately 1,800 German Jewish men who were
married to non-Jewish German women were arrested. They
were to be deported to the camps. However, their wives and
relatives mounted a week-long protest in a bitterly cold Berlin,
under threats of being shot. The Nazis finally conceded and
released the men, most of whom survived the war. That
unarmed women managed to successfully overturn Nazi
A column commemorates the
Party policy using non-violent means was nothing short of
achievements of the protestors
miraculous. This has led many people to question what would
have happened if more Germans had protested over more Nazi policies.
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?
KEY QUESTION TWO – ACTIVITIES
a.
Read through the section and underline key points and words.
b.
What three methods did the Nazis attempt to use to get rid of German Jews before the outbreak of the
Second World War?

Encouraging German Jewish Emigration

Drawing up plans to create a Jewish ghetto on Madagascar

Exterminating Jews in extermination camps

Offering German Jews large payments to resettle abroad

Encouraging other countries to take German Jewish refugees

Members of the Nazi Party taking German Jews to other countries and leaving them there
c.
List three factors that contributed to increased persecution of Jews after the outbreak of war.
d.
Briefly describe the four stages of persecution of German Jews and others throughout Nazi-occupied Europe:
•
Stage One (approximately 1939–1943)
•
Stage Two (1941 onwards)
•
Stage Three (1941)
•
Stage Four (1942 onwards)
e.
Describe what ‘Reich Ghettoes’ were and what purpose they served.
f.
Describe the main forms of Jewish resistance.
f.
How did the Einsatzgruppen branch of the SS contribute to the persecution of Jews and other minority groups?
g.
What do you think is meant by the Nazis’ argument that they needed a more systematic and efficient
method to exterminate the Jews?
h.
What was significant about the Wannsee Conference, 1942?
i.
Why do you think Himmler ordered executions to stop in Auschwitz in late 1944?
j.
Choose one of the Nazis below and outline their involvement in the Holocaust:

Adolf Eichmann

Rudolf Höss

Josef Mengele
k.
In what ways did people in Germany and Nazi-occupied Europe contribute to helping minority groups escape
persecution?
l.
Why might it have been difficult for many people to resist the persecution of minorities throughout Nazioccupied Europe?
m. Why is an understanding of the opposition protest against Jews being deported to the camps in 1943 Berlin
important to historians?
n.
Which one of the following statements do you most agree with? Explain why you chose this statement,
giving at least three examples.

European Jews were systematically persecuted by the Nazis from 1933 to 1945.

German Jews were systematically persecuted by the Nazis from 1939 to 1945.

Jews were systematically persecuted by the Nazis, firstly in Germany between 1933 and 1939, then
throughout all of Nazi-occupied Europe during the Second World War.
o.
What do you think is meant when historians refer to the Holocaust as ‘The Final Solution’?
Well done! Now you have all the information you need to answer the Key Question. You could
use the answers you gave above to help, and then try it again without your answers to help you.
AQA A Unit 2D: Germany 19191945 Definitive e-textbook
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SUMMARY – HOW IMPORTANT WERE NAZIS’ IDEAS ON RACE
IN GERMANY?
Some Existing Views Before Nazism:
 Nazi Rise to Power (1933): German Jews and other ethnic groups (e.g. gypsies) were a minority.
 Anti-Semitism existed before Nazism.
 ‘Social Darwinism’: many misinterpreted to justify rightful struggle for strongest, fittest and cleverest.
 Some viewed ‘Aryans’ as superior ‘master race’ and ethnic minorities as weaker ‘inferior races’.
How Nazism Developed These Views:
Therefore Hitler did not invent anti-Semitism, but combined some existing views claiming that:
 Strong and superior Germanic ‘master race’ of ‘Aryans’ existed and had a natural right to rule.
 Other groups were weaker and inferior (i.e. Jews, gypsies) and should be removed from Germanic
society.
From 1933 until 1945, the Nazi Party systematically used every opportunity to
increase the persecution of Jews and other minorities.
1933–1935
 Boycott of Jewish shops,
cafes and businesses
 Law for the Reestablishment of the
Professional Civil Service
(many Jews sacked)
 Jews forbidden to join the
German Armed Forces
1935–1938
 Nuremberg ‘Race’ Laws
 Law regarding names
(German Jews had to include
Jewish names)
 ‘Aryan’ doctors could only
treat ‘Aryan’ patients
 All Jewish passports had to
be marked with the letter ‘J’
1938–1939
 Kristallnacht (Night of Broken
Glass)
 Further restrictions included:
Jews removed from nonJewish schools and Jews
forbidden to own businesses,
use public spaces, hold driving
licences or own radios
 Jews encouraged to emigrate
abroad
From Restrictions and Persecution to Extermination
From 1940
 Jewish Ghettos
created (e.g.
Warsaw): walled-off
areas of towns and
cities.
 Many died from
starvation and
disease or from hard
physical work in
labour camps.
From 1941
 Einsatzgruppen killed
many Jews and other
minorities following
the German invasion
of Russia (Operation
Barbarossa).
 Restrictions on
German Jews
increased.
From 1945
 The ‘Final Solution’ to the ‘Jewish
Problem’ agreed at Wannsee, the Nazi
intention to exterminate all Jews in Nazioccupied territories – the Holocaust was
under way.
 Extensive train networks transported
people to extermination camps, where
most were worked or starved to death or
executed in gas chambers. Countless
others died also.
Most Germans had little, if any, involvement in the Holocaust. Some risked their lives to help minorities.
By 1945, the failed Nazi regime had exterminated six million Jews (approximately three quarters of
European Jewry) and many other minorities.
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Section 5: Culture and Propaganda
5.1 How did the Nazis change the cultural climate of Weimar Germany?


LEARNING OBJECTIVES –
YOU WILL NEED TO:
SPECIFICATION FOCUS
 Understand the key features of
‘Weimar culture’ between 1919
and 1933
 Explain why the effective and
systematic use of Nazi propaganda
was so important to Hitler and
the Nazi Party
 Describe the cult of the Führer /
describe the key features of
Hitler’s role as Chancellor and
then Führer
 The cultural climate of Weimar Germany
as represented in entertainment and the
arts, 1919–1933
 Reactions and responses to ‘Weimar
culture’
 The effects of the Nazi regime on the
cultural climate of Germany, 1933–1945
 The role and success of Nazi propaganda in
sport, leisure, the media, entertainment
and the arts
 The cult of the Führer
KEY TERMS
Nazi Press/Media – The printed press were newspapers and magazines controlled by the Nazi Party
only reporting on issues they believed to be important. The media (including newspapers, radio and
film) were all forms of Nazi communication with the masses.
Censorship – By controlling the media, the Nazis gave or refused permission for works to be published.
They also used their own editors to change works so that they appeared more pro-Nazi.
Propaganda – The deliberate spread of ideas and information to influence peoples’ beliefs and way of
life. Under Joseph Goebbels, the Nazi Party used propaganda very effectively; first to win the
democratic support needed to win seats in the Reichstag, then to control all walks of life in Nazi
Germany.
‘Big Lie’ – Goebbels understood that by constantly telling huge lies, many people in a dictatorship will
accept them as true.
‘Total War’ – When a war is fought with the use of all available resources (both material and human).
Nazi invasions included terror tactics, such as the targeting of civilians, whilst the Second World War in
general is often referred to as a ‘total war’.
Cult of Personality – When many people in society unquestioningly accept a person as their leader.
Dictators encourage this with use of propaganda, although cults of personality also exist around leaders
and celebrities in democratic countries as well.
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
KEY QUESTION ONE
What role did Nazi propaganda play in changing the culture of the ‘Golden Era’
and promoting the Nazi state?
The Cultural Climate of Weimar Germany as Represented in Entertainment and the Arts, 1919–1933
The early years of the Weimar Republic (approximately
1919–1923) had experienced many political and economic
problems. Political problems had included the Spartacist
Uprising, the Kapp Putsch, the invasion and occupation
of the Ruhr and Hitler’s Munich Beer Hall Putsch.
Although they had failed, they showed the weaknesses of
the new constitution. Likewise, economic problems had
started with the harsh conditions imposed on Germany
by the Treaty of Versailles of 1919 and continued with the
hyperinflation that crippled Germany’s economy in 1923.
Many Germans put their troubles aside during the
‘Roaring Twenties’
These had limited cultural movements, such as the arts
and entertainment in the early years.
However, Germany became more politically and economically stable in the following years (especially
from 1923/24 to 1929). During this period problems still existed, including high unemployment and high
taxes. However, although many Germans remained poor throughout the 1920s, standards of living rose
for many people. The period is often referred to as the ‘Roaring Twenties’ and as the ‘Golden Era’ or the
‘Jazz Age’. Now conditions had stabilised, having fun and ‘letting one’s hair down’ was the first thing
on their minds. These times were best represented in the new look architectural projects led by the
‘Bauhaus’ group, in cinemas across the country (as Germany was developing a film industry), in theatre,
music, fashion and literature. The now infamous cabaret style of musical theatre played to packed
audiences in Berlin. Many Germans and other people worldwide flocked to cities like Berlin to have fun
and experience cultural highlights. In fact, Berlin became famous worldwide for its flourishing arts,
fashion and culture scene.
Reactions and Responses to ‘Weimar Culture’
The popular image of Germany during the ‘Roaring Twenties’ suggests that everyone became involved
in it. However, this was far from the case. Away from the large towns and cities, where the action took
place, life remained much the same as it had always been. Many Germans also reacted against the
movement and the people who were involved in it. This led to many calling the ‘Roaring Twenties’
degenerate (worsened/declined).
Reasons for this included:
 Many older people believed that Germans should live more traditionally.
 Others were concerned that too many foreign influences were gripping Germany (e.g. music, films,
literature and clothes were imported from the USA) and that their cherished German culture would
be lost forever.
 There were serious concerns that many young people involved in the ‘Golden Era’ were living
dangerously ‘close to the edge’, with rises in excessive drinking, drug taking and prostitution.
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The Effects of the Nazi Regime on the Cultural Climate of Germany, 1933–1945
One man who believed that German people, society and culture had become degenerate was Adolf
Hitler. He believed that Germany had been great before the Weimar Republic and that Germans should
return to more traditional ways of living. Once in power, he passed laws to ensure this would happen. It
could be argued that the Nazi youth movements, Nazi propaganda in education and the banning or
censoring of many arts-based products (including films, music, literature, etc.) were in part a reaction
against the ‘Roaring Twenties’.
The Restriction of Civil Liberties – Through the Press and Censorship
Hitler and Goebbels had always considered the press in particular and the media in general to be a vital
weapon in securing popular support. In the 1920s, there had been many press reports about the Nazi
Party, some positive but many negative. Although the Nazi Party had limited influence over the
reporting of some of their activities and ideas whilst still an opposition party, they wanted nothing less
than total control of what was printed. Now was their chance.
By the mid-1930s they had effectively transformed the Weimar Republic in to a Nazi dictatorship by:
• Using Article 48 to eliminate political opposition and dismantle the democratic process
• Building concentration camps to ‘re-educate’ opponents and get rid of those they didn’t consider
pure Germans
• Unleashing the ruthlessly efficient secret police of the SS and Gestapo
• Building up the armed forces
And by:
• Taking control of the press and censoring the flow of information
• Developing a highly effective propaganda machine to win the hearts and minds of Germans
In 1933, Goebbels became head of the new Reich Ministry of Popular Enlightenment and Propaganda.
This was divided into much smaller sections for newspapers, radio, theatre, music and film. These were
all brought under direct government control, which in turn aimed to control all creative output in
Nazi Germany.
...promoting the Nazi Party
and the Third Reich.
...censoring or banning
works they considered
dangerous.
From the outset,
this vast Nazi
propaganda
machine served the
purposes of:
...denouncing all opposition
and those considered to not
be pure Germans.
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...creating a positive
impression of a unified
Germany under Nazi rule.
...promoting military
expansion into German
occupied areas (from the
mid-1930s onwards) and
the war effort (from 1939
onwards).
© ZigZag Education, 2015
Existing artistic works (such as plays, music and literature) considered by the Nazis to be dangerous and
‘un-German’ were banned. Work by Jewish writers, composers and painters was forbidden. Thousands
of books were banned and their writers and publishers were refused publication rights. In May 1933,
there was a mass burning of books that either did not agree with Nazi ideas or were considered
subversive. Even famous historical novels that the Nazis feared would turn people off the Nazi regime
were burned. This became known as the ‘Burning of the Books’ (also known as ‘Auto-da-Fe’). Several
thousand novelists, playwrights and poets left Germany in the following years. Albert Einstein’s
scientific books were banned (simply because he was a German Jewish intellectual) and under fear of
arrest and even assassination, he emigrated.
The Nazi Party also promoted physical education and sports, as they believed that healthy people would
lead to a healthy country and an obedient people. It also ensured a large stock of future soldiers who
would be fit and disciplined, and future healthy mothers. Sports competitions provided the opportunity
for the Nazis to show off ‘Aryan’ talents. The highlight of this sports campaign was the 1936 Berlin
Olympics. Leni Riefenstahl filmed the events (called the ‘Olympia’). Her other work under Nazi rule is
discussed below. Germany won the most medals.
The Restriction of Civil Liberties – The Role of Goebbels
Goebbels remained a loyal and trusted supporter of Hitler and a close personal friend until their suicides
at the end of the war. His strategy to expand the Nazi propaganda machine had much success. He
continued to organise huge rallies and demonstrations across the length and breadth of Germany. Hitler
campaigned tirelessly across Germany travelling by aeroplane, whilst Goebbels skilfully sent pro-Nazi
messages to Germans using every means available, including newsreels, radio and the press. As
propaganda drastically increased Nazi support from ordinary Germans, leading industrialists came out
in support for Hitler’s determination for a rearmament programme (vital as they controlled the factories
that were to produce weapons for the expanding army). The military aggression of the Nazi war
machine was encouraged by Goebbels, as was the idea that ‘total war’ was necessary for Germany to
win the Second World War.
The ‘Burning of the Books’ ceremonies in 1933 and the removing of the rights of many intellectuals was
Goebbels’ idea. He was also a key player in the gradual and systematic persecution of ethnic groups and
in particular Jews (known as the Jewish question) over the following 12 years. He was involved in the
anti-Jewish ‘Nuremburg Laws’ of 1935, ‘Kristallnacht’ in 1938 (discussed elsewhere in this resource) and
the ‘Final Solution’. Goebbels’ ‘big lie’ propaganda methods were used at every opportunity to convince
ordinary Germans that every Nazi action was necessary for the health of the nation.
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The Purpose and Effectiveness of Propaganda
The Use of Media, such as Films, Posters and Rallies
Children’s books contained anti-Semitic cartoons, such as
pictures of Jewish moneylenders. A vicious anti-Jewish
newspaper called Der Stürmer (The Stormer) was published
from the early 1920s until 1945. Goebbels encouraged the
production and cheap supply of radios in order to broadcast
Nazi messages to as wide an audience as possible. By 1939,
two out of every three German households owned a radio.
This was the highest amount in the world. Radios were also
set up in factories, cafes, restaurants and on the streets to
broadcast Nazi ideas and propaganda. Days for public
holidays and celebrations were held on occasions such as:
Date
30th Jan
24th Feb
20th April
The Nazi propaganda machine produced many
posters idolising Hitler and the Nazi Party. This one
from the late 1930s reads: ‘Give me four years
time’.
9th November
Day of Importance
The anniversary of Hitler becoming
Chancellor (in 1933)
The anniversary of the founding of the
Nazi Party (in 1920)
Hitler’s birthday (born in 1889)
Munich Beer Hall Putsch Remembrance
Day (in 1923)
Mass rallies were filmed, carefully edited and broadcast to large
cinema audiences. Other films glorified German history, focusing
on the Teutonic Knights (medieval crusaders) and Frederick the
Great (an eighteenth-century Prussian king who oversaw successful
military campaigns against neighbouring countries). In doing so,
these films convinced many ordinary Germans that they and the
Nazis were natural descendants of a long-held tradition.
FOR YOUR INFORMATION
However, it is important to remember that the German people
were not just fed an endless chain of Nazi propaganda films
and messages. Goebbels and Hitler realised that effective
propaganda had to be subtle otherwise its message would
backfire. After all, they also needed to win the hearts and
minds of Germans. Much of the media output in Nazi
Germany focused on light-hearted humour or the day-to-day
lives of ordinary Germans, albeit with a pro-Nazi slant.
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This cover from a 1934 edition of Der
Stürmer is demonising Jews.
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
KEY PERSON: LENI RIEFENSTAHL (1902–2003)
Riefenstahl was a German actress, dancer, photographer and filmmaker. Winning acclaim for the beautiful imagery of her films in the
early 1930s, she wrote, directed and produced films for the Nazi
Party during their reign. She is best remembered for her glorification
of the Nuremburg Nazi Party rally in her 1934 documentary film
‘Triumph of the Will’. In one scene, Hitler’s plane is seen descending
from the sky by enthusiastic supporters. A brilliant and evocative
piece of film-making in its own right, the propaganda message was
clear; that Hitler was the saviour of Germans. She also filmed the
1936 Berlin Olympics, again promoting a pro-Nazi view of the events. Hitler and Goebbels both
valued the propaganda content of her films, whilst film historians consider her to be one of the
most important female film-makers of her generation. In later years, Riefenstahl denied she had
supported the Nazi Party, claiming instead that she was naïve to their horrors and had only
wanted to make beautiful films.
?
KEY QUESTION ONE– ACTIVITIES
a.
Read through the section and underline key points and words.
b.
What problems had the Weimar Republic faced until and including 1923?
c.
Why did many Germans flock to cities like Berlin in the latter half of the 1920s?
d.
What were some of the names this period was known as?
e.
Give three reasons why some Germans thought that this period was bad for Germany.
f.
Which group of Germans did Nazi propaganda spread particularly negative images of?
g.
Why was the production and cheap supply of radios for so many German homes very important to
Goebbels?
h.
The following dates became public holidays or celebrations in Nazi Germany. What did each date celebrate?
• 30th January
• 24th February
• 20th April
• 9th November
i.
How were films used as propaganda tools in Nazi Germany?
j.
What role did Leni Riefenstahl play in promoting the Nazis through propaganda?
k.
Write two sentences outlining why you think propaganda was so important to the Nazi regime?
Well done! Now you have all the information you need to answer the Key Question. You could
use the answers you gave above to help, and then try it again without your answers to help you.
AQA A Unit 2D: Germany 19191945 Definitive e-textbook
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
KEY QUESTION TWO
Describe Hitler’s role as head of the Nazi Party, as Chancellor and as Führer.
The Nature of Hitler’s Role as Führer
From the 2nd August 1934, Hitler had positioned himself as the
one and only leader of Germany. As Führer, he had
successfully taken on the roles of President, Chancellor and
the Head of the Armed Forces all in one. His dreams had
come true and his moment had come. He had successfully
used the democratic system for over a decade to dismantle the
very same system that had put him in power. As President,
Hitler oversaw all political appointments. As Chancellor, he
ran the one-party Nazi government. As head of the armed
forces, all military personnel were essentially working for him
rather than for Germany. Every member of the military would
now have to swear an oath to Hitler. The ‘top-down’
hierarchical approach to running countries was not unusual
and remains today across the world. However, as Hitler
controlled all aspects of German politics and the military, it
left little – if any – room for others to question the
effectiveness or fairness of his policies over the next 11 years.
Hitler addressing politicians in the Reichstag
Hitler’s early ideas, outlined in Mein Kampf and developed throughout the following decade, could
now be put into practice:
• That the Weimar Republic had been a weak form of government that had ruined Germany.
• The harsh conditions of the Treaty of Versailles had crippled Germany financially and militarily.
• Successive coalition governments had not been powerful or unified enough to make important
decisions.
• That German people (Volk) were superior to other people and that they deserved to make Germany
strong again. This, of course, excluded many who were not considered Germans and those who
were physically or mentally weaker than others.
• That a strong government (the Nazis) and a strong leader (himself) would lead Germans to realise
their potential and lead them in creating a stronger country (financially, militarily, culturally
and socially).
As an opposition leader, Hitler had already proved himself in many ways. He was strong, resilient to
attacks from opposition and was prepared to see through short-term and long-term ideas and policies.
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Once Hitler had appointed himself as Führer, he ran Nazi Germany using these methods:
• The emergency powers President Hindenburg had granted to his government between 1933 and 1934
(Article 48, the Enabling Act, etc.) were to remain throughout the entire rule of the Nazis. Hitler used
these to ensure that all opposition to the Nazis and their dictatorial style of government would be
reduced, if not eliminated. Trade unions were also banned. Germany simply became a police state.
Countless people were beaten up, imprisoned, tortured, disappeared or were executed.
• All aspects of German life (i.e. the arts, religion, law, etc.) were to be subservient to the Nazis and to
Hitler. These were expected to follow the ‘party line’ at all times. German regions came under the
direct control of Nazi governors.
• Goebbels vast propaganda machine set to work glorifying Hitler (as politician, as soldier, as man
from humble background made good; even as the ‘father’ of all Germans). All Germans were
expected to greet officials and important people with phrases such as ‘Heil Hitler’ (hail Hitler) and
‘Sieg heil’ (hail victory). Civilians were also encouraged to use Nazi salutes. This arguably led to an
unquestioning acceptance of Hitler as rightful leader of Germany and built a ‘cult of personality’
around him.
• Hitler’s ‘cult of personality’ was also self-made. His tireless campaigning and powerful speeches
arguing that Germany would be a strong country appealed to many Germans after the political and
economic problems experienced in recent years. He claimed that the ‘Third Reich’ (following the
German Empire and the Weimar Republic) would last a thousand years.
• Hitler’s private police force and unofficial army, the SA, had served the Nazi Party well until 1934.
However, Hitler realised they were becoming too powerful for even the Nazis to control completely.
Many were simply thugs and criminals. By dismantling the SA and handing over special powers to
the SS (originally Hitler’s personal guard from 1925 and growing from strength to strength by 1934),
Hitler now had a loyal, effective and ruthless political police force. The Gestapo became the secret
police, working alongside the SS.
• Hitler delegated the running of Germany to his faithful party members (Goebbels, Göring and
Himmler, etc.). Each created and had control of his own office of government, so long as he followed
Hitler’s broad guidelines.
• Hitler had promised German rearmament many years before. This he did, first secretly. By the mid1930s onwards, he built up a vast army supported by military technology (this was against the terms
of the Treaty of Versailles).
Hitler created a cult of personality
around himself and the Nazi Party
AQA A Unit 2D: Germany 19191945 Definitive e-textbook
However, even with all aspects of the state machine
at his fingertips, Hitler never gained the full support
of all Germans. Opposition to the Nazi Party in
general and Hitler in particular never completely
ceased throughout the following 12 years. It took
many forms and came from all walks of life (this will
be discussed in detail throughout this resource). Also,
some historians claim that Hitler’s lifestyle and
personality made it difficult for Nazis to make
important decisions once in power. Meetings usually
had to be scheduled for afternoons (as he was a late
riser), whilst he was frequently away from Berlin and
his ministers (often visiting his Bavarian retreat).
Hitler became far more involved in foreign policy
and rearmament than in the daily running of the
country. He was also often short tempered, making
delivering bad news a difficult task.
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© ZigZag Education, 2015
?
KEY QUESTION TWO– ACTIVITIES
a.
Read through the section and underline key points and words.
b.
As Führer, Hitler had combined several roles previously shared out amongst different people. Describe the
powers he had as:
President
Chancellor
Head of the Armed Forces
c.
Below are some of the main methods Hitler used to control Germany as Führer. Choose three and explain
how he used them to his and the Nazi Party’s advantage.
Emergency Powers | Rearmament | Propaganda | Controlling all aspects of German life
Cult of Personality | Delegating Nazi Party Members | SA/SS|
d.
Although Hitler was Führer of a Nazi one-party state, did he ever gain complete control of Germany? Give a
reason for your answer.
e.
Can you think of two reasons why some members of Hitler’s own Nazi government found it difficult to work
with him?
Well done! Now you have all the information you need to answer the Key Question. You could
use the answers you gave above to help, and then try it again without your answers to help you.
AQA A Unit 2D: Germany 19191945 Definitive e-textbook
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© ZigZag Education, 2015
SUMMARY – HOW DID THE NAZIS CHANGE THE CULTURAL
CLIMATE OF WEIMAR GERMANY?
The Cultural Climate of Weimar Germany as Represented in Entertainment and
the Arts, 1919–1933:

Problems in the Weimar Republic had limited culture in the early years.

From 1923 onwards the German economic and political situation improved.

The flowering of the arts and culture was known as the ‘Roaring Twenties’.
The Nazi
Party
effectively
used
propaganda
to provide
Germans
with their
version of
culture
The Nazi Party had effectively used propaganda to increase their vote in the years
to 1933

Nazi Party members were trained as skilful speakers.

Hitler campaigned tirelessly across Germany at huge rallies.

Goebbels became a highly effective election campaign manager.

Pro-Nazi publicity appeared in many newspapers.

Many industrialists supported Hitler and his views on rearmament.
Once in Power, the Nazi Party effectively used propaganda to establish their own
version of German culture:

From 1933 Goebbels ran the highly effective Propaganda Ministry

All media outlets (i.e. newspapers, radio, theatre, music and film) came under
Nazi control, reaching out to all Germans

Racist and anti-Semitic messages were sent out to pure, ‘Aryan’ Germans

Mass rallies were filmed and radios transmitted Nazi messages to families

The message was clear: Hitler and the Nazis were the only way forward for
Germans and Germany
This led to the cult of the Führer
Hitler’s Role – Strengths:

Hitler’s had used his early ideas from Mein Kampf as and when it suited the Nazi Party.

He displayed leadership, decision-making and oratory (making speeches) skills.

Before the Wall Street Crash of 1929 many didn’t listen to Hitler’s views that the Weimar Republic
was a weak form of government and the Treaty of Versailles had ruined Germany.

After the Wall Street Crash these same arguments won Hitler many more votes between 1932 and
1933 as Germany suffered from the Great Depression.

Hitler had successfully used the democratic process for over a decade to dismantle it.
Hitler’s Role – Weaknesses:

Hitler never gained the full support of all Germans and opposition never completely ceased.

Hitler’s lifestyle and personality made it difficult for important decisions to be made by Nazi leaders
(he was a late riser and was often away from Berlin).

He was more involved in foreign policy and rearmament than in domestic affairs in Germany. He was
also often short-tempered, making delivering bad news a difficult task.
AQA A Unit 2D: Germany 19191945 Definitive e-textbook
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© ZigZag Education, 2015